Week 9 The Complex Sentence

E_English Grammar Course Unit 8 The Complex Sentence

Issues 1.

Subordination

2.

Classifications of subordinate clauses

3.

Subordinators

4.

Nominal clauses

5.

Adverbial clauses

6.

Comparative and Comment clauses

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1 Subordination Subordination

- Non-symmetrical relation held between two clauses: one clause is a constituent/ part of the other

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1 Subordination Subordination

one clause is relation held -i.e. Non-symmetrical -between Non-symmetrical relation, two clauses: one clause is constituent/ part part of of the the other other aa constituent/

1 2 21 [I like John [because John likes me] ] 1 1 [superordinate/ independent/ main clause ] 2 2 [subordinate/ dependent clause]

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1 Subordination Subordination

Hierarchy of clauses

XYZ( I think [ that you can do it { if you try} ] ) S V O A X = subordinate to Y Y = subordinate to X Y & Z = dependent clause X = independent clause

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Classifications of subordinate clauses Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type

By functional type

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Classifications of subordinate clauses By structural type

Finite clause Nonfinite clause Verbless clause

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Classifications of subordinate clauses By structural type

Finite clause Nonfinite clause

- contains a subject and a predicate - verb phrase having tense, person & number concord, Verbless clause& mood

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Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type

Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to

-ing participle

Infinitive without to

-ed participle

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Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type

Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to

Without S: With S:

-ing participle

Infinitive without to -ed participle The best thing would be to tell everybody. The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.

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Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type

Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to

Without S: With S:

-ing participle

Infinitive without -ed the participle Leaving the room,tohe tripped over mat. Her aunt having left the room, I declared my passionate love for Celia..

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Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type

Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to

-ing participle

Infinitive without to

-ed participle

Without S: With S:

All I did was hit him on the head. Rather than John do it, I’d prefer to give the job to Mary.

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Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type

Finite clause Nonfinite clause

Without S: With S:

Infinitive with to

-ing participle

Infinitive without to

-ed participle

Covered in snow, he looked like a snowman. We left the room and went home, the job finished.

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Classifications of subordinate clauses By structural type

Finite clause Nonfinite clause Verbless clause

1. Ellipsis of the verb ‘be’ - Dozens of people died in the accident, many of them children. - Whether right or wrong, he always dominates the arguments.

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Classifications of subordinate clauses By structural type

Finite clause Nonfinite clause Verbless clause

2. Reduction of non-finite clauses - Too nervous to reply, he stared at the book in front of him and dared not look up.

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Classifications of subordinate clauses By function

Nominal clause Adverbial clause Comparative clause Comment clause

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Subordinators Subordinating conjunctions

Simple subordinators Compound subordinators

Correlative subordinators

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Subordinators Subordinating conjunctions

Simple subordinators after, though,subordinators although, as, Compound because, before, if, once since, that, until, when where, while, etc. Correlative subordinators

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Subordinators Subordinating conjunctions

Simple subordinators Compound subordinators

- ending with ‘that’: in that, so that, such that … - ending with optional ‘that’:Correlative now (that), subordinators provided (that), supposing (that), seeing (that)… - ending with ‘as’: so far as, as long as, so as (to do sth)… - ending with ‘than’: sooner than, rather than… - others: as if, as though, in case

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Subordinators Subordinating conjunctions

Simple subordinators Compound subordinators

Correlative subordinators if… then, although… yet, as… as, so… as, so… that no sooner… than, more/ less… than, the… the, whether… or

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Subordinators Other indicators of subordination

Wh-element initial markers Subject-operator inversion No marker

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Subordinators Other indicators of subordination

Wh-element initial markers Subject-operator inversion

I don’t know who knocked at the door last night. No marker

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Subordinators Other indicators of subordination

Wh-element initial markers Subject-operator inversion

No marker Had it not been for your help, I would have died.

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Subordinators Other indicators of subordination

Wh-element initial markers Subject-operator inversion No marker

1. nominal clause e.g. I suppose (that) you’re right. 2. comment clause e.g. You’re right, I suppose.

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Nominal clauses

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Nominal Clauses Finite

Non-finite that clause

to-infinitive nominal clause

wh-interrogative clause

nominal –ing clause

Yes - No interrogative clause

bare infinitive

Nominal relative clause

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Nominal clauses

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Finite Nominal Clauses that clause

- S: That you were wrong is undeniable. - Od: I knew that I was wrong. wh-interrogative clause - Cs: The problem is that he refuses to speak in court. Yes - No interrogative clause - Appositive: The fact that he hates English makes it hard for him to study it. - Cadj: I’m sure that things will improve. Nominal relative clause

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Nominal clauses

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Finite Nominal Clauses that clause

wh-interrogative clause Yes - No interrogative clause Nominal relative clause

- Function as S, Od, Cs, Ap, Cadj, & Cprep (They haven’t decided on who wins the cup.) - Leave a gap of unknown information

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Nominal clauses

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Finite Nominal Clauses that clause wh-interrogative clause Yes - No interrogative clause Nominal relative clause

- Is formed with if/ whether e.g. Do you know if/ whether the teacher has come yet?

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Nominal clauses

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Finite Nominal Clauses - S: What he is pursuing is fame. - Od: I want to see whoever in charge of this department. - Oi: She gave whoever came into the store wh-interrogative clause a handful of sweets. - Cs: University is where you train for your Yes - No interrogative clause future career. - Co: You can call me whatever you like. - Ap: Tell me your nickname, that is, the Nominal relative clause way your friends often call you. - Cprep: Vote for whichever candidate you like. that clause

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Nominal clauses

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Non-finite nominal clauses to-infinitive nominal clause - S: To become an MC has always nominal –ing clause bare infinitive

been my dream. - Od: John wanted her to open the door. - Cs: My wish is to stay here one more week. - Ap: His ambition to be a famous writer was fulfilled. - Cadj: I’m glad to help you.

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Nominal clauses

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Non-finite nominal clauses to-infinitive nominal clause - Function as S, Od, Cs, Ap, Cprep, nominal –ing clause bare infinitive

& Cadj - Genitive case in formal style e.g. I’m surprised at his making that mistake. - Objective or common case: e.g. I’m surprised at him making that mistake.

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Nominal clauses

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Non-finite nominal clauses to-infinitive nominal clause - ‘to’ is optional in case of ‘do’ proform. E.g. All I did was (to) turn off the gas.

nominal –ing clause bare infinitive

- bare infinitive is obligatory when the infinitive clause is initial E.g. Turn off the gas was all I did.

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Adverbial clauses Time

Purpose

Place

Result

Condition & concession

Manner & Comparison

Reason or cause

Proportion & Preference

Circumstance

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Adverbial clauses Time

Purpose

Place

Result

- after, before, until, since, when + finite clause Condition & concession & Comparison - after, before, since, until, when(ever), whileManner + V-ing - once, until, when(ever), while + V-ed Reason or cause Proportion - as soon as, once, when(ever), while + Verbless clause& Preference Circumstance

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Adverbial clauses Time

Purpose

Place

Result

Condition & concession Manner & Comparison - Introduced by ‘where’/ ‘wherever’ E.g.Reason When retire, I will travel wherever I like. or Icause Proportion & Preference Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but rubble. Circumstance

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Adverbial clauses

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Purpose

Place

Result

Condition & concession

Manner & Comparison

Reason or cause Proportion & Preference - Conditional clauses state the dependence of one circumstance on another. Circumstance - Introduced by if, unless, provided that, providing that… E.g. If you’re kind to her, she will do anything for you.

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Adverbial clauses Time

Purpose

Place

Result

Condition & concession

Manner & Comparison

Reason clauses or causeimply a contrast betweenProportion & Preference - Concessive two circumstances. - Introduced by though, although, while, whereas, even if Circumstance E.g. Although he isn’t good-looking, people are still attracted to him.

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Adverbial clauses

Clauses of condition or concession Alternative conditional-concessive clauses

Universal conditional-concessive clauses

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Adverbial clauses

Clauses of condition or concession

Alternative conditional-concessive clauses Combine conditional meaning with subjunctive meaning E.g. Whether they beat us or we beat them, we’ll celebrate tonight.

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Adverbial clauses

Clauses of condition or concession

Universal conditional-concessive clauses Indicate a free choice from among any number of conditions E.g. No matter how hard he tried, he could never summon enough courage to tell her the truth.

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Adverbial clauses

- introduced by because, since, as Time Purpose - I didn’t lend him the book because I needed it for my assignment. (adjunct) Result Place - They’ve lit a fire, because I can see smoke rising. (disjunct of reason) Condition & concession Manner & Comparison Reason or cause Circumstance

Proportion & Preference

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Adverbial clauses

Time Purpose - express a fulfilled condition/ a relation between a premise Place (in the subordinate clause) and the conclusion (in theResult main clause) - introduced by because, since, as, & seeing that Condition & concession Manner & enjoy Comparison E.g. Seeing that the weather has improved, we shall our game. = The weather having improved, we shall enjoy our game. Reason or cause Proportion & Preference Circumstance

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Adverbial clauses Time

Purpose

Place Result - are adjuncts & by concession -Condition introduced (in order) (for N) to, so as to,Manner so that & Comparison E.g. I tiptoed into the room so as not to wake the baby up. Reason or cause Proportion Preference He tried to improve his English so that he could & study abroad. - has ‘putative’ meaning (modal auxiliaries are used) Circumstance

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Adverbial clauses Time

Purpose

Place

Result

concession Manner & Comparison -Condition are more & factual than putative  may contain an ordinary verb form without a modal auxiliary Reason or cause Proportion & Preference - introduced by so that/so (informal) E.g. We planted many shrubs, so (that) the garden looked beautiful. Circumstance

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Adverbial clauses Time

Purpose

Place

Result

Condition & concession

Manner & Comparison

Reason or cause Proportion & Preference Clauses of manner – (exactly) as, (just) as (Just)Circumstance as a moth is attracted by a light, (so) he was fascinated by her.

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Adverbial clauses Time

Purpose

Place

Result

Condition & concession

Manner & Comparison

Reason or cause Clauses of comparison – as if, as though Proportion & Preference He looks as if he is going to faint. Circumstance He treated me as though I were a child (unreal)

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Adverbial clauses

Clauses of proportion express a ‘proportionality’ orPurpose equivalence Time of tendency between two circumstances Place Result E.g. As he grew older, (so) his enthusiasm for the cause decreased. Condition & Comparison The more & heconcession went deeper into the forest, theManner more scared he felt. Reason or cause Circumstance

Proportion & Preference

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Adverbial clauses

Time Clauses of preference are introduced by rather than/Purpose sooner than E.g. Rather than go there by air, I’d take the train. Place Result Rather than sitting here complaining, we should act. Rather than a new shirt, he bought a dictionary. Condition & concession Manner & Comparison Reason or cause Circumstance

Proportion & Preference

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Comparative & comment clauses

Comp-element

S: More people eat at KFC than any other fastfood restaurant. Cs: I’m healthier than most people of my age. Od: She eats much more than me. Oi: Santa has brought more children joy than anybody else. A: She works harder than my brother.

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Comparative & comment clauses Ellipsis in Comparative Clause

1. Optional ellipsis James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed the cake. James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed it. James enjoyed the cake more than Susan did. James enjoyed the cake more than Susan. 2. Obligatory ellipsis (of object) - James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed. + James know more about the theatre than Susan knows.

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Comparative & comment clauses

Ambiguity

through ellipsis He loves the dog more than his wife. with ‘too’ & ‘enough’ He’s too ill to move.

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Comparative & comment clauses

Comment Clauses

Features Forms

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Comparative & comment clauses

Comment Clauses

Features

Forms - can be either disjuncts or conjuncts - may occur initially, finally, or medially - have a separate tone unit E.g. The Smiths, as you probably know, have been our neighbor for twenty years.

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Comparative & comment clauses

Comment Clauses

Features Forms

(1) Like a main clause At that time, I believe, he didn’t understand a thing.

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Comparative & comment clauses

Comment Clauses

Features Forms

(2) Like an adverbial clause (with as) I’m a perfectionist, as you may know.

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Comparative & comment clauses

Comment Clauses

Features Forms

(3) Like a nominal relative clause as conjunct What is more, we lost all our hope and courage.

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Comparative & comment clauses

Comment Clauses

Features Forms

(4) To-infinitive clause as style disjunct To be honest with you, I didn’t understand a thing he said.

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Comparative & comment clauses

Comment Clauses

Features Forms

(5) –ing clause as style disjunct I’m concerned, speaking as a linguist, about the language of the young people today.

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Comparative & comment clauses

Comment Clauses

Features Forms

(6) –ed clause as style disjunct Stated bluntly, he had no chance of winning.

That’s the end of unit 8.