Social Life Of Maghrib Countries

Maghrib Social Life

The Impact of Colonialism and Orientalism on the Social Life of Maghrib Countries between the two World (1∗) Wars.

By

Dr. Mazin S. Motabbagani Department of Orientalism, Faculty of Da’wa Islamic Studies Department- Faculty of Education King Saud University-Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

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This paper was presented at the 35 International Congress of Asian and North African Studies,Budapest, Hungary 7-12 July 1997.

Maghrib Social Life

Introduction The three main Maghrib Countries Tunis Algeria and Morocco suffered from French occupation, and were influenced by colonization politically, economically, and socially. An intimate cooperation between colonization and orientalism was so apparent in the study of the Islamic Political Movements undertaken previously (1). It was clear, in that study, that colonization hindered the programs of these movements and often waged open war against any Islamic activity. It was evident that Orientalism was not merely an academic or intellectual endeavor; it was rather a part of the colonial establishment.

It was very difficult to

distinguish between Orientalists and colonial administrators. This situation was not clear to many Muslim Scholars who were not familiar with the history of colonization (* ). However, the Orientalists who were not attached directly to the colonial administration were of much benefit to the colonialists. Their studies were utilized in expanding the understanding of the colonized peoples (indigenes). To this effect, Muhammad Arkoun said: “the use of these studies by the colonial administration was known and popular particularly in Algeria.”(2) This paper will focus its attention on the cooperation between Orientalism and Colonization in influencing the social life in the Maghrib countries taking into consideration that not all social changes can be attributed solely to Orientalism or colonization. Many Maghribis bear their own share of the responsibility in effecting these changes. This paper will be divided into four parts: First: The attempts to demolish the social fabric. 2

Maghrib Social Life

Second: The economical situation and its effects on the social life. Third: Ethics and the social behavior. Fourth: The case of Women.

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Maghrib Social Life

First: The Attempts to demolish the Social Fabric One of the main principals of colonialism is “Divide and Rule.” This principal was applied successfully in the following forms: Firstly: Once the French power established their occupation, they issued many decrees to break up what was known to be the “shared Property”. The first decree was issued on July 26, 1873 (1/6/1290H) limiting these properties (3). Before this decree the French Minister of war had issued a decree stating: “the expenditures and income of all religious organizations are to be part of the colonial budget” (4). However the remaining holdings of land started to be taken by the French colons when the Algerians were not able to pay the unbearable taxes imposed by the French authorities, and also due the continuous confiscation which normally followed any outburst of the Algerians against the injustices of the occupation (5).

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Maghrib Social Life

Though these actions taken by the French authorities may seem to be economical, they have led to great social results. The tribe that held a common ownership, and then they were deprived of this ownership because they were not able to reach an agreement on the way to divide this ownership they had either to leave that land or sell it after the breakage of the relations, which the French desired. Secondly, these tribes that lost the ownership of their land moved to live in the cities. They did not live inside these cities; they rather lived in the outskirts of these cities in tin houses, which were not even suitable for animals. These houses were deprived of the basic standards of hygienic conditions) 6). This is supported by quotations cited by an Algerian from a French book titled: Will Algeria become French. Stating: “we must confiscate gradually without mercy all their farms and pasture and we must impose on them heavy taxes to make it impossible for them to sustain life. Then they either revolt or join the French army to defend France” (7). One of the worst features of the immigration into the cities is the spread of unemployment among the Maghribis which led the Algerian Newspaper ‘Al-Najah’ to write: “If you passed through our lanes and cafes you would find most of us occupied by chit-chat, and gambling and drinking of alcohol”.(8)

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Maghrib Social Life

Secondly: the French authorities used the Orientalists’ studies as another method to destroy the unity of the unity of the social fabric. This is namely the issue of Berber and Arabs. The Colonial scholars and the Orintalists started writing about the differences between the Arabs and Berber. They claimed that the Berber were converted to Islam after great resistance. They also claimed that the Berber resented Islam in the same way they resented Phoenician, paganism, Roman, Jewish and Christian worship (9). Even when the Orientalists admit that, the Berber had become Muslims they raised doubts about their sincerity. They added that the Berber Islam had always been influenced by their own special situations (10). Andre Dirlik clearly stated “in the Maghrib, it is not the Berber who had been Islamized as much as Islam that had become berberized (11). The Algerians as well as other Maghribis were aware of this, as one Algerian author wrote: “The French policy had planned another approach that they believed to be successful in their game and that was to spread differences amongst the elements of the Algerian society. They tried to convince the Berber that they descend from European descendants, and that they have their own language that they should not give up and Berber should be prevented from learning Arabic(12). Another example of the awareness of the Algerians can be found in the article published by ‘al-Maidan’ criticizing another Algerian paper for advocating the French incited propaganda that the Arabs and Berber are “two distinct nations because each nation had its own customs, creed, language and nationality”(13).

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Maghrib Social Life

The political aims of the French to attain full control of the Maghribi societies were supported by other means such as the support given to the missionary activities among the Berber. This was directed towards isolating the Berber from Islam and Arabic. A Catholic journal wrote: “The Berber are close to the Bible and the Biblical proverbs are similar to those of the Berber…why shouldn’t the Bible be the center of communication between the French and the Berber spirit?”(14). The French missionaries admitted that the French politics were directed toward devising a policy not only to divide the Arabs and the Berber, but it intended to incite hostility between them (15). The missionaries made use of the elementary, secondary and teachers’ schools established by the French government. The choice of the Berber districts was no accidental, it was because these areas- in their views- were less affected by Islamic culture which was introduced in these areas by the religious organizations(16). One of the most famous laws enforced by the French authorities was the so-called Le Dhahir berbere in 1348H (1936.) which stated that the Berber have their own judicial law based on their traditions. The people of Maghrib understood the aims of such law and protested against it. However, the consequences of this law were very deep due to the publicity that accompanied it. This was apparent in the book written by Husain el-Ahmaq

‫حسممين الحمممق‬titled Algerian letters. In which he

showed his pride in the Berber who gave birth to great men such as Ugurtha, Masinia and St. Agustine. He announced in this book that St. Agustine was closer to him than Sidi Ugbah. He also regret that he had become a Muslim.He claimed with much persistence that the future of France and Algeria will only be decided by the Berber (17).

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Maghrib Social Life

Thirdly : Colonialism and Orientalism found a sector of the Maghribi society that could serve their purpose in destroying the fabric of the society and these were the mystic groups to the degree that an Egyptian scholar of mysticism wrote commending the efforts of the Orientalists in focusing their attention on this field(18). To show their real interest in Mysticism detailed studies were undertaken about these groups. One of these studies stated that there had been more than 500 zawia having more than three hundred thousand followers in Tunis. These studies claimed that Mysticism was still in existence and it had its followers among the upper classes and the Palace (19). According to Ashshihab Journal, these studies were not limited to Tunis; the Encyclopedia of Islam mentioned that in Algeria there had been more than twenty-three mystic groups with followers ranging from 189000 to 295000 following 57 sheikhs and 600 Muqhdam holding 949 zawia. Their annual income was more than seven million French Franks. The article of the Encyclopedia claimed that Mysticism was more influential among the Berber, because the influence of the religious leaders and teachers and judges was limited (20). The Administration utilized the results of these studies by approaching the heads of these mystic groups and granted them religious and administrative positions in addition to other advantages. An Algerian journalist wrote about these acts of the French government “help the Sofis in their ignorance and mischief.” He added that any one requesting a permission to establish a Zawia is granted immediately, while establishing a school is always hindered” (21).

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Maghrib Social Life

Second The Economical Situation and its Social Affects. The Muslim society derives its strength from the Islamic Sharia (Jurisprudence) which is represented in a set of behaviors, values and worship and what springs from them in terms of political and social systems. Therefore, the adherence to the divine order gives the society its sovereignty and not the economy (22). However, the societies that are not guided by the divine order must deviate from the straight path. It was mentioned previously how the French authorities have issued many policies that affected the economy of the Maghrib countries such as confiscating the land, prohibiting shared ownership …etc. Many social diseases have spread in these countries such as unemployment. There were other reasons for social diseases to spread among the Maghrib countries. One of these reasons are the famines that happened among the natives of these countries. A famine took place between the years of 1338-1339H (1920-1921G) The French authorities in Algeria tried to cover the news from spreading to the French Authorities in Paris, if it were not for the Newspapers. The number of the victims reached up to a million Algerian (23). The economic situation was so obvious that even the French officials talked about it in many sources. Mirante one of the French grand governors of Algeria wrote that more than half a million Algerians were supported by State subsidized charitable organizations(24). This situation proved to be socially disastrous. Algerians have become thrifty and selfish and lacked the sense of hospitality and kindness. The wealthy -according to Ibn Badis- depended on the superficial feelings and real and true feelings were almost extinct (25).

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Maghrib Social Life

These harsh situations have lead to the dependence on loans with usury A French Orientalist wrote: “the farmer did not borrow money to enjoy it, but in most cases, he rather borrowed the money in order to sustain life. In other words not to die” (26).

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Maghrib Social Life

Third Ethics and Social Behavior There are many elements that had influenced the change in the social behavior, and also affected the social values in the Maghrib societies and these are: First: The occupation authorities’ fight against Islam and particularly the fight against education as one of the most important features. The French authorities have confiscated the properties of the Islamic Wagf, which provided the financial support for education and provided the facilities. Therefore, the number of Muslim students diminished. The French authorities used all means to create obstacles for the Arabic and Islamic teaching to the degree of interfering in their curriculum. Second: The colonial authorities had supported the teaching of French Language and assimilation through the spreading of French values and ethics. Though this was not available to all natives, the French tried to create an elite among the native that adopted The colonial language and values and became totally separated from its own language and values. Third: A great number of French nationals have transferred to live in the occupied countries- who were known by the name colon- had great impact on the social life of the Maghrib countries. As for the first element, the bond between Islam and the ethical values is well known. From the early days of Islam, it was ethics along with the worship of Allah that Islam called for. When Jaafar ibn Abi Talib replied to the Ethiopian ruler about the main features of Islam, he said that ethics is one of the basic tenets of Islam. The Prophet’s manners were those of the Quran as Aisha described him. Therefore, lack of Islamic education deprives the natives from this great source for their ethics and values. 11

Maghrib Social Life

As for the second element which was the encouragement of adopting the French values, customs and social behavior, the colonial administration had spent great deal of efforts to extract a group of the natives to adopt French values and ethics. An Algerian scholar illustrated this situation by describing an example of the students of French schools by saying: “He was French in every aspect; in his mentality, manners, moral practice, and customs. Even in the colloquial language he spoke, he did not keep his prayers, did not fast the month of Ramadan, did not abstain from what is inhibited by religion, he did not believe that Quran was a revealed book, he thought it is the words of the Prophet (27). Edward Said in his known book Orientalism stated that the French authorities - as well as other colonial powers- were always keen to form an elite group whom they fed with the colonial concepts and principals before entrusting them with the leading positions in their countries(28). French colonists claimed that they were going to bring the Maghrib countries into the western civilization, but what have they attained of this allegation? Algeria had become a big farm for wine grapes and” alcohol flow into rivers …the government granted permits for bars more than they permit the establishment of a school" (29). The distribution of alcoholic drinks was helped by the Jewish community in the Maghrib particularly in Algeria according to an Algerian newspaper that said" :In Algeria the Jews alone were responsible for destroying our unity and robbing our living through the sale of liquor". (30)

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Maghrib Social Life

If we go along the colonial allegation that France intended to modernize the Maghrib countries, we must ask, what were their means to do so? A French writer answers this question by saying that the shortest way to accomplish this was through spreading terror, we could fight the Africans by iron and fire, and we could spark animosity between the people of the mount and the desert. We could infect them with alcohol and the spreading of corruption and spreading divisions and anarchy “(31). The mystic groups were another evidence of the French promotion of change in the social behavior. These groups used to obtain the best brands of French liquor. The liquor was offered to the government official, and the very important visitors who were usually foreigners. A newspaper wrote in 1923: “Some heads of mystic groups were hypocrites, they were so pious in the presence of their followers, but once they arrive the capital they behaved so badly" (32).

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Maghrib Social Life

The French colons and Europeans settlers in the Maghrib were full of all kind of corrupted behavior. They transferred with them their ways of life whereby no Maghribi city was without a bar, prostitution houses and cabarets. Here is a dialogue between a missionary and a native of Maghrib. The missionary man was propagating Christianity, the native said:” Are these bars, gambling halls, and prostitution houses representatives of European Christianity. The missionary said: No. Then the native said: “Go back to your country reform your societies and then come back to us “(33). This is further explained by Muhammed Bairum El-Tunisi quoting a Frenchman saying: "We have gone beyond our limits; our morals have become corrupt and we corrupted the others …the Frenchman added that once we deprived the Algerians of political freedom we gave them full freedom in personal freedom. They became so corrupt to the degree that marriage could take place between any two without looking into their religious background. Some Muslim women ran away to marry Frenchmen or to live with them without marriage" (34).

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Maghrib Social Life

Fourth The Issue of Women The issue of women has occupied a big space in the colonial and oriental thinking. At the time the colonial administration was keen in spreading ignorance among men, it was more so among women. This was apparent in the writings of some Algerian writers promoting the idea that women have long been deprived of education. Ben Badis wrote saying:” Is learning a clear spring for men and the opposite for women?”(35). Does it have different influences on men and women? Another scholar wrote: “The adherence of women by religion is the basis for preserving religion and morals and weakness in these springs from lack of good rearing in the homes because of the ignorance of the mothers” (36). The cooperation between colonialism and orientalism was apparent in keeping women away from education. They held that an educated woman or mother is a prerequisite for development. Moreover, to keep Maghribi women ignorant young men were encouraged to marry French women, which will result in raising the children to be influenced by French values and morals. Some trends appeared in the French colonies in North Africa promoting that Muslim women should be given western and French education. The editor of a French speaking newspaper called for educating the Algerian women in French. The Algerian journal, which quoted this, commented that any education of Muslim women if it was in a foreign tongue would lead her astray away from the straight path. Then the journal added: where is the money to educate boys let alone girls? (37)

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Maghrib Social Life

The importance of the issue of women was apparent in many different ways in the writings of colonialists and orientalists. One of them is to direct their criticism against Islam and its dealing with Islam. Here the Orientalists used their students to spread their views. One of those students was al-Tahir al- Haddad (38). Once his book Our Woman in front of Shariea and Society was published, it was applauded by the colonists as well as by the orientalists and the missionaries. A French official report praised the book saying, "it contained modern ideas and it started a special feeling among the Muslim youth."(39) Why had the Orientalist and Colonialists praised the book? Can it be other than because the book claimed that the Islamic Jurisprudence has left the door open for innovations and new ideas as the life of the Prophet was not long enough- in his view-to cater for everything(40). The same official report welcomed the issuance of a new magazine called ‘assufur ‘ ‫ السممفور‬which advocated abolishing the veil and the expansion of the legal rights of women. The report also praised the actions of the new Turkish government in giving the women greater humanistic freedom(41). It is worth noticing that the French documents did not neglect the reactions to this trend by mentioning the writing of Al-Bashir AlIbrahimi without giving the exact reference (42). However, the Algerian Islamic reform media mentioned that though al- Haddad was a graduate of Al-Zaitouna University, there must have been an outside influence, which the writer did not want to mention openly. However, the only copy that reached the southern areas of Algeria were received by the missionary group called the White Fathers (43).

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Maghrib Social Life

The Influence of the western societies was apparent in the types of social behavior adopted by the Muslim women. The Muslim women started to be more active outside their homes. Women started to go to dancing parties and dance publicly. The French newspapers applauded such women and believed that such action could mean a revolution in the behavior of Muslim women. It added that, the French nation gives the woman a great role in the society while the Muslim woman is the opposite in the Muslim family. As for the veil the French paper mentioned that it was an old habit and it has become a religious rite (44). To alter the social behavior there were some ingenious thoughts that colonialism along with Orientalism worked together to put them into practice. One of these thoughts is to invite groups of Actors and dancers and singers from the neighboring countries to play or sing in the different countries of North Africa. One of these groups is the Fatima Rushdi group that came to the Maghrib countries to act such plays as Coleopteran, Layla’s madman and Alabbasa the sister of Haron AlRashid. The group was given official reception by the dignitaries of the Algerian society (45). Before the group commenced their program, a party was thrown in their honor where speeches were given to welcome them. However, an Islamic voice was heard in this gathering and that was of the editor in chief of the Mirsad

newspaper. He criticized the

actor Fatimah for unveiling her face and for choosing such plays that are not authentic historically and even distorts the Islamic history. Fatimah replied that she was veiled in her manners and virtues even though her face was unveiled. She did not reply the other part of the question (46). Is there any more derision of virtue and ethics than this when a woman violates all standards of Islamic conduct by traveling from country to country and acts love stories …etc. 17

Maghrib Social Life

One of the forms of social changes is the importance given in the media to the news of the dancers, singers, actors and hailing on them the titles of fame and greatness. An Algerian newspaper wrote:” We would like in this search to draw the attention of our readers to the path that led our outstanding actors to their present status. We shall start with the sparkling star Badia Masabni who was not satisfied with her fame as an actress but extended her fame to singing and dancing and she moved to something which Egypt did not know before which was the high class singing halls( cabaret) which Badiea excelled in" (47).(italics are mine) Under the colonial administration the exchange of dances and singers was permissible, and encouraged, while intellectual exchange was hindered and all kinds of obstacles were erected (48). Another example was that some wealthy Algerians have invited a Jewish dancer to Algeria where parties were held honoring her, and she was allowed to enter the Algerian homes and mix with the women. Not only that, she was invited to come the year after even though some Algerians have criticized her behavior and the extravaganza of the wealthy Algerians, who would be reluctant to give any money to charitable causes(49). Another means to influence the social behavior in terms of the position of the woman was hosting international conferences about women in Algeria. One of these conferences was the 1350H (1932) international congress on women and was attended by representatives from France, Spain, Italy and Greece. The theme of the conference was the situation of women in these countries, and the position of the Algerian women. This last issue may have been the most discussed issue even in the absence of the concerned (50).

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Maghrib Social Life

The conference suggested forming a committee to study the situations of the Algerian woman. The Committee found that Islam calls for educating the women according to evidence of the Islamic texts. The committee saw that development of Algerian women can not be attained except through education. Moreover, the final recommendations of the conference contained the following: 1- Transcribing the Islamic Figh. 2 - Age of marriage for Algerian girls should not be less than 15. 3- Observing the Islamic conditions in marriage. (51) No doubt that holding such conference in one of the Maghrib countries had its significance even though Muslim women were not present; except for a letter sent to the conferring women by a wife of a Muslim judge requesting the conference to encourage the French government to open more schools for the natives of the Maghrib countries. The letter even called that girls education should be compulsory. Some questions may be raised here: Why did the conference paid so much attention to the case of the Muslim women. Had the European women met their Muslim counterparts? Why did they choose Casintina

‫ قسنطينة‬to be the site for their conference? Did this choice have any thing to do with the position of this city as the place where the Islamic reform started in modern times? However, the Swedish representative decided to stay longer in Algeria to promote unveiling the women and to promote girls education even though her colleagues tried to convince her that the veil did not prevent from education and it is difficult to overcome the veil now.

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Maghrib Social Life

To be objective one must also mention that there were some voices calling for adhering to Islamic doctrine. We do not mean here the Islamic scholars whose duty is to do so, but we mean some French Orientalists. On February 25th, 1932 ( Shawwal 18th 1350H) a French Oreintalist gave a lecture in which he portrayed the position of women in Turkey and how her situation deteriorated after the abolition of Caliphate. He said that he was shocked by the upheaval that happened in Turkish society because of rejecting the veil, and encouragement of unveiling. He was also shocked by this rejection of Islam; this religion which was the source of their great strength. He went on to mention the Turkish revolution as Masonic plan executed by individuals who were raised according to Masonic principals, which are against the Islamic faith. He added that Islam had never been the enemy of development and decadence as its enemies claim. And at the end of his lecture he advised those promoting reform to benefit from the lesson of Turkey and to be merciful to women and leave her abiding by the customs and traditions of Islam, and to fear Allah in her virtue and honor(52). The issue of women is such a vital issue; it took longer discussion than other issues. However Muslim have deviated much from the true understanding of Islam and the real position of woman needs much attention by Muslim scholars. The basic principles of the position of women is set by the revelation that came from The All- knowing, Allunderstanding and it should be studied in light of the Muslim experience during the days of the Prophet ( PBUH).

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Maghrib Social Life

This paper discussed four issues: each one deserves to be tackled in a separate paper. However, it was the aim of this paper to show that coordination existed between the colonial administration and Orientalism. The North African countries were influenced by the presence of the occupying forces of France and the settlers. They (The North Africans) did not only lose their political freedom, but also lost what is more important. That was the freedom to learn the Arabic Language and Islam. This had created a situation where the Muslims lost contact with their values and ethics. It is hoped that this paper will lead to further research on the sociological changes that took place in the Maghrib countries and how these societies can retain their identity and solve any social problems that were the result of Colonialism and Orientalism.

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‫‪Notes and Refrences‬‬ ‫مازن مطبقاني ‪ ".‬الحركة السلمية في المغرب العربي بين الستشراق والستعمار"‪ .‬في المغرب العربي بين الستعمار‬‫والستشراق ‪(.‬جدة ‪ :‬دار الريشة ‪1989‬م) ص ص ‪.28-15‬‬

‫‪- This was the case when I submitted my Ph.D. proposal to the faculty of Da’wa in 1987-1988..‬‬ ‫العربية والسلمية في أوروبا‪".‬في مجلة الصالة )الجزائر( مجلد ‪6‬عدد ‪ 4‬ربيع الول ‪1397‬هـ )أبريل‬

‫*‬

‫‪- 2‬محمد أركون‪".‬الدراسات‬ ‫‪1988‬م( ص ‪.98‬‬ ‫‪ - 3‬عبد الرحمن محمد الجيللي ‪ .‬تاريخ الجزائر العام ‪.‬ج‪ )4‬الجزائر‪ :‬ديوان المطبوعات الجامعية ‪ ،‬وبيروت‪ :‬دار الثقافة ‪(1982-1402‬‬ ‫ص‪. 299‬‬ ‫‪- 4‬المرجع نفسه ‪ ،‬ج‪ ، 3‬ص‪442‬نقلً عن ‪..Albert Deroulx. Les Edificed Religieux de L'Ancient Alger p 44-45 :‬‬ ‫‪- 5‬أبو القاسم سعد ال ‪ .‬الحركة الوطنية الجزائرية ‪.1930-1900‬ج‪ (3‬الجزائر‪ :‬الشركة الوطنية للنشر والتوزيع‪(1983 ،‬ص ‪.126-125‬‬ ‫‪- 6‬شارل أندري جوليان‪ .‬أفريقيا الشمالية تسير‪ .‬ترجمة المنجي سليم وآخرون )تونس‪ :‬الدار التونسية للنشر‪ ،1986 ،‬والجزائر‪ :‬الشركة‬ ‫الوطنية للنشر والتوزيع‪.1976 ،‬ط‪، 3‬ص ‪.77‬‬ ‫‪ - 7‬فرحات عبّاس‪ .‬ليل الستعمار‪ .‬المحمدية‪:‬دار فضالة‪ ،‬بدون تاريخ‪ ،‬ص ‪.74‬‬ ‫‪- 8‬عبد الحفيظ الهاشمي ‪" .‬كثرة الزدحام على مقاهينا دليل فشو البطالة‪ ".‬في النجاح‪ .‬عدد ‪ 85‬في ‪.26/2/1348‬‬ ‫‪- 9‬جوليان ‪ ،‬مرجع سابق ‪ ،‬ص ‪.22‬‬ ‫‪- 10‬لوثروب ستودارد ‪.‬حاضر العالم السلمي ‪ .‬ج‪ .2‬ترجمة عجاج نويهض‪ .‬بيروت ‪ :‬دار الفكر ‪،1394 ،‬ط‪،4‬ص ‪.180‬‬ ‫‪-Andre Dirlik. Abd al- Hamid ibn Badis )1889-1940(:Ideologist of Islamic Reformism and Leader of Algerian‬‬ ‫’‪Nationalism. Ph.D. Thesis. McGill University, Montreal ,March 1971.p 27 quoting A. Berque,L’epuration de l’Islam‬‬ ‫‪R.A. XCI,p.264.‬‬ ‫‪- 12‬عمار الطالبي‪.‬عبد الحميد بن باديس ‪ ،‬حياته وآثاره‪) .‬إعداد وتصنيف( الجزائر ‪ :‬الشركة الوطنية للتوزيع‪ ،1968 .‬ص ‪.54‬‬ ‫‪- 13‬الميدان ‪ .‬عدد ‪24 ، 2‬ربيع الثاني ‪4 ،1356‬يوليو ‪ 1937‬والصحيفة التي دعت إلى الفصل بين المتين ‪-‬بزعمها‪ -‬هي صحيفة صوت‬ ‫الهالي ‪..La Voix des Indigenes‬‬ ‫‪- 14‬الشريعة ‪،‬عدد ‪3‬في ‪ 8‬ربيع الول ‪31-1352‬يوليه ‪1933‬م نقلً عن مجلة المغرب الكاثوليكي‪.‬‬ ‫‪ - 15‬الشهاب‪ .‬ج‪4‬م ‪ ،11‬ربيع الخر ‪1354‬هـ) ‪3‬يوليه ‪1935‬م( عن مقال " العالم السلمي ‪-‬فرنسا وشمال أفريقيا" في مجلة لو موا‬ ‫الفرنسية ‪.Le Mois‬‬ ‫‪ - 16‬محمد بن المبارك ‪ ".‬سياسة التصنيع وتكوين المثقفين بالجزائر‪ ".‬في المجلة التاريخية المغربية ‪ ،‬عدد‪ ،27/28‬ديسمبر ‪1982‬نقلً‬ ‫عن ‪Jean Favret. " Le Traditional Lingua Par excess de Modernisme in Archives de Society de Sociology, Tom‬‬ ‫‪VIII,1967,pp.91-92‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪- Charles R. Ageron, Histoire de L’Algerie Contemporaraine. Tom II, Paris: Press Universataire , 1973, p.337.‬‬ ‫‪- 18‬الرشاد‪ .‬عدد ‪ 12 ،37‬صفر ‪ )1358‬أبريل ‪ (1938‬نقلً عن مجلة الثقافة المصرية ‪.‬د‪ .‬أبو العل عفيفي " التصوف وواجبنا أزاؤه‪".‬‬ ‫‪- 19‬جوليان ‪ ،‬مرجع سابق ص ‪.87‬‬ ‫‪- 20‬الشهاب‪ ،‬عدد ‪ 29 ، 10‬جمادى الخرة ‪1344‬هـ) ‪ 14‬يناير ‪(1926‬‬ ‫‪The second edition of the Encyclopedia mentioned that the numbers of the followers of mysticism was about 250000 to‬‬ ‫‪450000.‬‬ ‫‪- 21‬البرق‪.‬عدد ‪ 12‬في ‪ 19‬ذي القعدة ‪1354‬هـ‬ ‫‪- 22‬محمد علوان‪ .‬مفهوم إسلمي جديد لعلم الجتماع‪ .‬ج‪) .1‬جدة ‪:‬دار الشروق ‪(1984‬ص ‪.43‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪- Malcolm L. Richardson. French Algeria Between the Wars: Nationalism and Colonialism 1919-1939. Unpublished‬‬ ‫‪PH.D thesis, Duke University 1975, p.58.‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬

-Dirlik. Op. cit., p 207 quoting J. Mirante in “ La France et les oeuvres …” p. 29. .247-241 ‫ ص‬،1930 ‫ مايو‬،‫هـ‬1348 ‫ذو الحجة‬، 6‫ م‬5‫ ج‬.‫الشهاب‬- 25 26 -Jaacque Berque .French North Africa between the Wars. Translated by Jean Stewart. New York: Fredrick A. Praeger, 1958, p. 235. .12 ‫دار الكتب الجزائرية)بدون تاريخ( ص‬: ‫ الجزائر‬. ‫ السلم في حاجة إلى دعاية وتبشير‬. ‫محمد السعيد الزاهري‬- 27 28 -Edward Said. Orientalism London and Henely: Routgldge & Kegan Paul Ltd.1978. p245. .116 ‫ص‬، ‫ مرجع سابق‬،‫عباس‬- 29 .1914 ‫يونيه‬14 ،1332 ‫ رجب‬20 ،3 ‫ عدد‬.‫ذو الفقار‬- 30 Jews have become full French citizens by the Crimo -Minister of Interior-decree in 1871. .1945 ‫خواطر عن الجزائر‬: ‫ نقلً عن بويشون‬73-72‫ ص‬، ‫ مرجع سابق‬، ‫عباس‬- 31 ، ‫نقلً عن جريدة القدام‬.1987 ،‫ الشركة الوطنية للنشر والتوزيع‬:‫ الجزائر‬.1930-1903 ‫ المقالة الصحفية الجزائرية‬. ‫ محمد ناصر‬- 32 .‫م‬1923 ‫ مارس‬23 ،123 ‫عدد‬ 33 -Wm. J. W. Roome.” The dead weight of Islam. “ in Moslem World. Vol. 5,1915,p.38. ‫ )مصورة عن‬115 ‫(ص‬1311 ، ‫دار صادر‬:‫)بيروت‬4 ‫ج‬، ‫ صفوة العتبار بمستودع المصار والقطار‬.‫محمد بيرم خامس التونسي‬- 34 24

.(‫مطبعة المقتطف‬ (‫م‬1925 ‫ أغسطس‬20 )‫هـ‬1344 ‫ محرم‬30 ، 8 ‫ عدد‬.‫المنتقد‬- 35 .‫م‬1935 ‫ نوفمبر‬،1354 ‫ شعبان‬،11 ‫ م‬8‫ ج‬،‫ الشهاب‬. ‫ ابن باديس‬- 36 .‫م‬1927 ‫يوليه‬7 ‫هـ‬1346 ‫محرم‬7 ،104 ‫عدد‬. ‫الشهاب‬- 37

-al- Haddad was born in 1899 in Tunis. Joined Al-Zaituna University in 1911,obtaind the diploma in 1920. He had written also about the labor and their movement. 39 - Rapport Sur La Situation Politique et Administrative des Indegene De La’Algerie Au 31Janvier 1931.(Agg 9H11) .22 ‫ ص‬،4‫ط‬،1984 ، ‫ الدار التونسية للنشر‬: ‫ تونس‬.‫ امرأتنا أمام الشريعة والمجتمع‬.‫الطاهر الحداد‬- 40 38

. ‫ التقرير الفرنسي نفسه‬- 41 -Al-Bashir Al-Ibrahimi( 1306-1385)( 1889-1965)was born in Awlad Sidi Ibrahim in the Eastern part of Algeria. First educated by his father and uncle. He moved to Hijaz with his family in 1911 where he continued his education. In 1916 he moved to Syria where he gave lessons at al-Amawi Mosque. He returned to Algeria in 1920. He started an educational campaign in coordination with Ibn Badis. In 1931 the Association of the Algerian Ulema was established and he was elected vice president. In 1940 he became the president of the Association until the break of the independence war. He returned to Algeria after independence and died in 1965. (1932 ‫هـ) أغسطس‬1351 ‫ ربيع الخر‬8 ‫ م‬8‫ ج‬.‫" في الشهاب‬.‫" الحِداد على امرأة الحدّاد‬. ‫محمد الصالح بن مراد‬- 43 .1927 ‫ مارس‬28 ،‫هـ‬1345 ‫رمضان‬24 ،4 ‫ عدد‬.‫ البرق‬- 44 .1350 ‫ ربيع الول‬،1932 ‫يونيو‬-‫ مايو‬،7 ‫ عدد‬.‫ التلميذ‬- 45 42

. ‫ المرجع نفسه‬- 46 .‫م‬1933 ‫هـ يناير وفبراير‬1351 ‫ رمضان وشوال‬4‫و‬3 ‫ العدد‬، ‫ التلميذ‬- 47

- The example for the obstacles put forth by the colonial authorities had been when the editor in chief of al-Islah Newspaper asked for permission to print it in Tunis it took him two years to obtain the permission. Other obstacles are in importing books and the different types of censorship imposed by the authorities. .‫م‬1927 ‫مارس‬28 ‫ هـ‬1345 ‫ رمضان‬24 ، 4 ‫ عدد‬.‫البرق‬- 49 .1349 ‫ ذو الحجة‬،1932 ‫ مارس و أبريل‬،6‫و‬5 ‫ عدد‬.‫التلميذ‬- 50 48

.‫ المرجع نفسه‬- 51 .1932 ‫ فبراير‬،‫هـ‬1349 ‫ ذو القعدة‬،4 ‫ عدد‬، ‫ التلميذ‬- 52 The lecturer is a Frenchman of Letters who was a Marine officer called Clude Fariet . He lived in the East , and is known for his love of Islam as the Journal pointed out.