Major Of Foundations Of Curriculum

Major of Foundations of Curriculum Chapter 2

Four Major Foundations for Curriculum Planning Philosophical II. Psychological III. Historical IV. Sociological I.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Philosophical Foundations Drawn upon to develop a framework of values and beliefs related to goals, the selection and use knowledge and means and methods and other dimensions of education.  Provides educators, especially curriculum workers, with a framework or frameworks for organizing schools and classrooms. 

Philosophical Foundations 

It helps us to handle our own personal system of beliefs and values, that is, the way and manner that we perceive the world around us and how we actually define what is important us.

Philosophy and Curriculum 

Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision making and is the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum.

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Philosophy helps us answer general questions such as: ◦ “What are schools for?” ◦ “What subjects are of value?” ◦ “How should students learn the content?”

Four Philosophies that have influenced curriculum development:  Perennialism  Essentialism  Progressivism

 Reconstructionism

Perennialism Perennial means “everlasting” like a perennial flower that blooms year after a year.  The oldest and most conservative educational philosophy has its roots in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle.  Two modern day proponents of perennialism are Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler.  Perennialists believed that humans are rational and the aim of education is “to improve man as man”. 

Perennialism According to Martin and Loomis (2007), perennialism focuses on the universal truth, and considers that these truths are always valid.  This philosophy assumes the curriculum as content or the subject matter, and curriculum das planned activities based upon fundamental social values, norms and practices. 

The Perennialist Curriculum The study of philosophy is a crucial part of the perennialist curriculum.  At a much later time, Mortimer Adler (1982) in his book the Paideia Proposal, recommended a single elementary and secondary curriculum for all students.  Perrenialists were not keen on allowing students to take electives (except second language) such as vocational and lifeadjustment subjects. 

The Perennialist Curriculum The perennialists criticized the vast amount of disjointed factual information that educators have required students to absorb.  Since enormous amount of scientific knowledge has been produced, teaching should focus on the processes by which scientific truths have been discovered.  At the secondary and university level, perennialists were against reliance on textbooks and lectures in communicating ideas. 

The Perennialist Curriculum Universities should not only prepare students for specific careers but to pursue knowledge for its own sake.  School should teach religious values or ethics. 

Essentialism  

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Comes from the word “essential” which means the main things or the basics. An educational philosophy was originally popularized in the 1930’s by William Bagley and later in the 1950s by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Rickover. Grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues that schools should not try to radically reshape society. Martin and Loomis (2007) state that essentialism focuses on teaching of the essential component of academic and moral knowledge.

Essentialist Curriculum The basics of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language and literature.  Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading and measurement.  Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast learners.  It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year and more challenging textbooks. 

Essentialist Curriculum Teaching is teacher-centered and teachers decide what is most important for students to learn with little emphasis on student interests because it will divert time and attention from learning academic subjects.  In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be “culturally literate”, that is, to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas and institutions that have shaped society. 

Essentialist Curriculum Discipline is necessary for systematic learing in a school situation.  Teachers need to be mature and welleducated, know their subjects well and able to transmit their knowledge to students. 

Progressivism A philosophical belief that argues that education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other people. (Martin and Loomis, 2007)  The person most responsible for progressivism was John Dewey (18591952). According to him, the role of education is to transmit society’s identity by preparing young people for adult life. 

Progressivism Progressive curriculum focuses on the freedom of students to develop naturally, students’ interest as the center point of teaching, teacher’s role as a facilitator (not a dictator of tasks), multi-dimensional development of a child, and school community cooperation.  Determined by the teachers and students based upon mutual agreement and understanding (Martin and Loomis, 2007). 

Progressive Curriculum Progressivists emphasize the study of the natural and social sciences.  Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students towards higher order thinking and knowledge construction.  Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view. 

Progressive Curriculum Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time but should introduce lessons that combine several different subjects.  Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognizes accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural background or gender.  By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. 

Progressive Curriculum Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time but should introduce lessons that combine several different subjects.  Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognizes accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural background or gender.  By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. 

Reconstructionism A philosophy uniquely popular in the U.S. during the 1930s through the 1960s. It was largely the brainchild of Theodore Brameld from Columbia Teachers College.  A philosophy that believes in the rebuilding of social and cultural infrastructures.  George Counts (1932) who in a speech titled Dare the School Build a New Social Order suggested that schools become the agent of social change and social reform. 

Reconstructionism 

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Focuses on social ills and intends to change the social structures in order to mitigate contemporary social problems. This curriculum should focus on social problems that hunger, violence, terrorism, racism, sexism, environmental degradation, weapons of mass destruction, suppressions, oppression and many more depending upon complexities of students cognitive, social and affective domains of learning. This philosophy considers curriculum as an agenda for social reconstruction.

Reconstructionist Curriculum It was not enough for students to just analyze, interpret and evaluate social problems.  The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well as social service.  There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race, gender and socioeconomic status. 

Reconstructionist Curriculum The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in society.  Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal and internationalism.  In general, the curriculum emphasized the social sciences (such as history, political science, economics, sociology, religions, ethics, poetry, and philosophy), rather than the sciences. 

Perennialism. The essential principles of education are timeless and recurrent. Knowledge that has endured through time and space should constitute the foundation of education. Based on the philosophy of perennialism, since the distinguishing characteristics of humans is the ability to reason, education should focus on developing rationality. Proponent

Robert M. Hutchins

Aims of Education

Develop power of thought and internalize truths that are universal and constant. Develop learners into rational and intuitive beings.

Curriculum

Subject-centered. Great ideas or universal principles.

Methods of Teaching Methods of disciplining the mind through reading and discussion.

Role of Teachers

Known masters of the disciplines. Disciplines students intellectually through a study of literature.

Role of School

Produces individuals to become intellectually elite.

Essentialism. The basic idea is that there are certain essentials that all men ought to know. Individuals should be able to distinguish between the essentials and the non-essential in one’s existence. Educational aims are directed to more distant goals, not to the needs and requirements of the here and now world. Proponent

William C. Bagley

Aims of Education

Develop individuals to perform justly, skillfully and magnanimously. Promote the intellectual growth of the individual learners.

Curriculum

Emphasis on the essential skills (3R’s) and essential subjects (English, Science, History, Math and Foreign Languages)

Methods of Teaching Deductive method. Recitation, assignments or homework, etc. Role of Teachers

Provides stimulating activities for learning. Prepares well-organized lessons. Master of his/her discipline.

Role of School

Ensures mastery of essential skills. Prepares students for real life situations.

Progressivism. This philosophy believes that improvement and reform in the human condition are both possible and desirable. It emphasizes that human beings are capable of improving and perfecting their environment. Proponent

John Dewey and Johann Heirich Pestalozzi

Aims of Education

Provide the students the necessary skills to be able to interact with their ever changing environment. Develop the whole person who will become a responsible member of the society.

Curriculum

Activity and experience-centered. Child-centered. Emphasizes on life experiences.

Methods of Teaching Problem solving/reflective strategies. Cooperative learning strategies Socialized groups and situations, etc. Role of Teachers

Serves as facilitators, advisers, guides, counselors, group leaders consultants

Role of School

Set up a democratic classroom environment. Provide atmosphere for group thinking.

Reconstructionism. This philosophy emphasizes that man, to a significant degree, plans and controls his society, that in a democratic society this should be done in the public interest, and that the school has a significant part to play in the process. Proponent

George S. Count

Aims of Education

Improve and reconstruct society Develop awareness of societal needs and problems. Educate for change and social reform

Curriculum

National/international/global issues. Societal needs and problems. Social change.

Methods of Teaching

Problem solving method Democratic discussion Brainstorming Conceptual approach

Role of Teachers

Agent of change and reform Lead the young in designing programs for social, educational, political and economic change. Encourage students to solve problems Encourage community-based projects

Role of School

To adapt approaches that seek a variety of methods to make education more responsive to human/social needs Primary agent of social change Venue for airing opinions/ideas

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Psychological Foundations Contains ideas about child growth, development and learning on which the program may be based.  Psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche, which means soul. It is a discipline devoted to the study of behavior, mind and thought.  It provides the basis for understanding how students learn and understand a body of knowledge. 

Psychological Foundations 

Ralph Tyler, a well-known scholar in curriculum development proposed in the 1960s that anything that is to be taught in the classroom should be subjected to a psychology ”screen” to establish whether they are congruent with how humans learn.

Cognitivism - Wertheimer - Kohler - Miller - Craik - Tulving - Ausubel

Behaviorism - Pavlov - Skinner - Thorndike - Bandura

CURRICULUM

Constructivism - Bruner - Piaget - Vygotsky - vonGlaserfe

Humanism - Maslow - Rogers - Combs

Behaviorism 

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.

Ian Pavlov (1849 – 1936)

Ian Pavlov (1849 – 1936) Introduced the theory of classical conditioning through a series of experiments with dogs.  He showed that an organism can associate a particular stimulus (S) with a particular response (R). (based on the Law of Association by Aristotle)  Learning is the result of an association formed between a stimulus and a response. 

Edward Thorndike (1874 – 1949)

Edward Thorndike (1874 – 1949) 

Proposed Three Laws which he called: 1. Law of Effect: If a response is followed by a pleasurable or rewarding experience, the response will be strengthened and become habitual 2. Law of Exercise: Connections between stimulus and response is strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. 3. Law of Readiness: Certain behaviors are more likely to be learned than others because the nervous system of the organism is ready to make the connection leading to a satisfying state of affairs.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1900 - 1980)

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1900 - 1980) 

Developed the theory of operant conditioning – the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcement or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again,

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning 

In Classical Conditioning, the organism is not able to change the environment. In Operant Conditioning, the organism has the choice to act or not to act because its response is determined by the stimulus or the food given.

Albert Bandura (1925 – Present)

Albert Bandura (1925 – Present) Developed the Social Learning Theory that emphasized the importance of observing and modelling the behaviors, attitudes and emotional reactions of others.  Learning would be slow process if people had to rely solely on their own efforts to do anything. Fortunately, a substantial amount of human behavior is learned by observing others. 

Behaviorism in the Classroom Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviors and learning.  When learning factual material provides immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult concepts.  Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts.  Break down complex task into smaller and manageable sub skills 

Behaviorism in the Classroom Sequence material to enhance understanding eg. teach simple concepts first before proceeding to more difficult and abstract concept.  Model the behavior students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations when necessary  Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behavior 

Behaviorism in the Classroom State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and students.  Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards will be given. 