The Art Of Ancient India_9

UNDIR lHE PaLA AND SENAKrNGS 401

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r8.r6. Buddha.FrorDN.iandr, Bih.r, Irdia. p.la period. Ca. carly-to-rnidnirrth ccrrrury-Merirl. H:23.J cm. IndianML$eum,Calcutta.

rll.r7. Buddha. Froru Kurkih:rr.,Bihrr, India. p.h period.Cr- late nirrth c:rr1yterlthccnrury.Mcral with silveriul:r,v.H:33 crn. Patn,rMuscurr),rafila.

Thc rvidespread usc of rneral may havc been putially due to thc rich ore dcpositsthroughout Magadha that had madc the region rvealthy cvcn in early historic times. No netal coins of the Pala kings have been found, however, suggestilg that meta] tvas tcserved for certain purposes only. Two sites at \vhich nLlDterous mctal inages havc bcen recovcred are Nalanda ancl Kurkihar, both in Magadha. lly ancl large, the Nalanda inages predate thc Krrkihar exarDplcs,and in gcncral they arc nuch sin.rpler, smaller,ancl lesscomplex iconographically.A typical Nalanda bronzc of xbout rhc early to rniddlc ninth ccntury shows the lucldha seatecl upon a lotus throne, his hatds rn dharnacakra nwdra (Fig. 18.16).The incidcnt may be idcntificd as Sakyamuni's first scr.mon by thc trvo deer flankins tl.rervheel. Thc routd pnblnnaa/a/,2servcsas both halo and body aura as typical

of examples of this date. In latcr in.rages,however, cspecially thosc from Kurkihar, the halo and body aura are often distinct. The umbrella over thc head of the Buddha is also typical of these images. In style, thc majority of Nalanda bronzcs shorv a relationship to Gupta-p,-riod sculpturcs, especiaily visiblc in the fcatrircs of thc face, the rarhcr boyisir proportions of rhe body, and rhe rreatmcnt of the robcs. This image is inscribccl on the bxck, as xre mxny othcrs lrom Nelanda, Most often, thcse inscriptions givc the BLrddhist creed, r,vhich acts as a vivificatiot praycr lbr thc image. Fron a siightly latcr datc, the larc ninth or carly tclth century, a figurc of a Bucldha in bhinisparla nurdratls<'tscatedon a lotus throne, from Kurkihdr (Fig. tS.r7), shor,vsa number of stylistic aclyancementswhen corr-rparedto the prcaching Buddha from Nalanda. The

402

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

r8.r8. Sarvavid Vairocana.From NelaDda,Bihar, Indir. Pala period. Ca. eleventh century. Metal with gildine.H: ca.3ocrl- NarionalMuscuur,New Delhi.

r8.r9. Buddha. FrorD Kurkiber, Bihir, Illdia. Pila pcriod. rgth year of reign of Visrahapela(II!. Ca. third quarter elevcrlth ccrltury. Metal with silver in]ay, H: t rz cr1r,P;rtnaMuseum,PalDa

residual Gupta features sccn in thc Nelanda bronze are uow nearly lost. The Kurkihar figurc is more elongated and its torso is in the form of a gonukha (cow's heacl),a metrphorical convention prescribedin the iconographic texts in use at tbe time that becarnea typical feature of the matrue Pala style. The simple, round halo and canopy seen in the Nalanda example has given way to a scparatedhalo and thronc back, each of which is claboratcd with forrns serying both decorativc and iconographic purposes.A ktrttimukh4at thc top appcarsto spew the leaves of the bodhi tree and the rod above originally held the unbrella. Only a fcw mctal images from Nilandt are known from the late Pala period, although the

decrcascin apparentnumbcrs in no way signifies a cleclinein quality of production. This is seen in a depiction of Sarvavid Vairocana as the Adi-Buddha from Nalanda dating from about thc clcvcnthccntury (Fig. r8.r8). Thc figure is gildcd according to a conmon practicc of the timc, but thc pedcstalhas bcen lcft plain, clcarly detoting the goldet radianccofthe n.rainfigure. In this {brm, the Adi-Buddha embodies still anothcr xspcct of thc sotcriological conccpt of Mahayana l3uddhin. His four faccs rcpresent both his omniprcsence and his univcrsality and yet, con.rbined as drey are iuto a single head, personify the rnclilTerentiatedstate of all duality, that is, tl.re true knowledge of lunyaft. Thc botlhyanginttdra, tt which the index finger

Plare l:1ir re cenaua Clcrel Puch:

UNDERTHT PAIA AND SINA KINGS 4OJ of the left hand is enclosedby the five fingers of the right hand, signifiesthe r.mion of thc live knowledges of the jina Buddhas into the single enlightenment. In this case, thc njrc emerging at the top as though it was an extension of thc left forefinger reemphasizesthe syrnbolisn.r. Thrce almost idcntical standing Buddha images found in the Kurkihar hoard are dated in the reign of Vigrahapala, presumably Vigrahapala III, the Pdla king who rulcd around the middlc of the eleventh century,r0 and thus these images hclp to pinpoint certain stylistic developments of thc later Pala period. The example choscn (Fig. r8.r9), while slightly more elongated in the body trcatment tl.ranthe other two, shows the clegance and tcchnical perfection achieved by the Magadha craftsmen. Over a meter in height, the inage shows the Brrddha surrounded by a prabhana4lalarhat was cast separately.Various aspectsof the Buddha's body are stylizcd and are meant to suggcst visual metaphors with othcr forns, Thc torso, (cow's for cxan-rplc,is conccived as a gorrrtrk,lra head) and thc nose, whcn vicwed fiom the side, resemblesa parrot's beak. Such analogies are known in Indic art from earlier periocls,but to a grerter or le.serextertt in are emphasizc,L diferent sylistic idioms. The use of such forn.rs in the eastem idiorns n.ray indicatc e grou'ing intellectualization of thc art as iconographic thcory became incrcasingly well dcfincd. Onc of the finest cxarnplesof sculpturc lrom the Kurkihrr hoard, indeed pcrhaps fiom rll of Pela art, is a gilt bronzcimage of Lokar-tlu, a form of Avalokitcivara, lrom about the trvelfth cennrry (Pl. z7). Thc fcatures of his facc are sharper and nore stylizcd, and tire posture o[ his body is luorc anguJar, compared with earliercxamples.In spiteof en unduletingglacc and rhythm to thc irnage, thcre is a qtality of stificss that l.ras entcred the sculptural mode that is easily secn itr colnparison rvith carlier works, for the rather naturalistic rendering of thc facial features has bccn rcplaced rvith slick, stylizcd forr.r'is. Nalanda and Kurkihar represcntonly two o[ the many importalrt metal workshops of thc Pala-Senaperiods. Severai othcr sites havc yielded works that gcnerally lollowed the nain

trends of the Pala-Sena pcriods in ten:rs of incrcasing elaboration and othcr features, but each is also charactcrizedby certain individual stylistic traits. These separateschools are extremely important to study, espccially whcn looking for Indic sourcesfor Tibetan, Ncpali, SoutheastAsian, or other art traditions, for in many casesrit can bc seentlut the ties to thcsc other regiols wcre not merely gcncral but wcrc associatedwith particular sites.1l Metal images, of course, arc gencrally more ersily transportablc than stone sculptures, sincc they arc usually smaller, and thcrefore the metal pieces may havc played a major rolc in the dissenination of Indic styles to othcr parts of Asia. A striking stylistic contrast, for example, may bc seenby cotlparing the gilded Krrrkihrr..,,/ Lokanatha (Pl. z7) to a reprcsentation of thc' Bodhisattva Maitreya founcl at the viliage, of Fatehpur, l.rardly twcr1ty kilometers fron $urkiher (Fig. r8.zo). Probably also dating /ron.r the twelfth centrlry, as suggestedby thc /rgular and acccntuatcdposture, stylized facialy'eatures, complcxity of the lotus base,and othi:r details, t h i s w o r k i ' r ' o r r b l cl o r t h e J r i g Jpr l , r l o r n rr r p o n which thc lotus pedestal rcsts. Although a sin-rilar platform occurs in another sclrlpture folr.rcl :rt Fatehpur, it is unlikc any thxt have becn noted on othcr imaqcs from Bihar or Bengal. Upon closc cxanination, thc mauner o[ executing thc piccc fron.r Fatchpur difers greatly fior.r.Lthc Kirrkihar Lokar.rarhaitr spitc of thcir siraring gencral featuresof thc tu'clfthccntury Mxllaclhan style. Thc lotuscs hcld by Lokanatha, for cxample, arc lt-mch morc thrccdimcnsionally conccived th:rn thc rathcr flat llowcrs fl:rnking Maitrcya. Thc coilecl locks of thc coifurcs of the tr,vo bodhisattl,xs arc also created in a diferent n-rantrcr,thottgh rn terrns ofheiglrt and shapc,both fall rvithin thc stylistic paranlctcrsof the pcriod. Othcr aspcctsof the work, such as the lotuscs of the pcdcstals,the .jervclry,facialfcrtures,and draperycan also be subjccted to snch scrutiuy, with the result that i t b c c o n t c .t v i , l e t t t t l t : r r f l r c t w o P i ( ( c \ w c r e distinct proclucts of related but nonetl'relcss craft tradirions. Jhervari ancl othcr sitcs in the Chittagong

1.

404

LATLI. NORTHERN SCFIOOLS

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Bihar' Mritrcya.F onl Fatehpur, r8.2o-Roalhisattvr India. Pala pcriod Ca. twclfdr ccDturyMetal H: : . 8 . r . . .B o d l rr ^ . , \ rM r r s c , r rt s' ^ dt a t ' ,

o f B r r r q l , d c Jlrr . ' v cy i c l d c d r r r u r l b c ro f cli'tricL r r r c r , l i r l r q c , t l t ' r d r f l c r c o n ' i d 'r ' b l 1 f r o r r r .ont"r't,poraneous Pieces lrorn othcr ,o.tgJ-rly ':tn.l Bcnial sites. A particularly fine Bihir lis right cxample shows n"ddlt" seated,with "respect this in hlndln lthintisyaria rwrdra, wluclt thc for i, t.r".alv an unusuJ configuration rlating Prob:rbly zr) Pala-Seraperiods(Fig rS fr,rrrr a.or',ridthe rer-rthccntury' tirc imagc shows au r sicncier figurc rvith pronincnt nipplcs' l.Lis garment' eruphasizc.lline for the rvaistbandof u".y cliapl.nnousgxrnent $'ith alnost "tj " no p1.",, n, folds Wl.Lilcthc facial .ro ",,tplt^ri, r"l"t"d to typcs founc'lat Ntlandl f""t.,r.-'r r""t-rr (Fis. 18.16).there is al attenuationant'lrcfine,,r"rrt tlL^t h"d been lacking in othcr stylcs' Much of thc sarrc range of iconograp\ scen in Butldhist stone picccsof tlLePala-Scnaperiods is fo .l nr metel imagcs, although stnce tncral p i e c c sr r r u s th l r c b c et r r r e l t e dd o r i r t a t t i r t r c ' ' thc i",tr,ru".l bv firc, or sinply carriecl rlvay' as evidence as full not providc do ,"ut"irrirtg oncs

period' r8.zr. Buddha- FrornJhcrvari' Brneladcsh Ptia Museurn' lndian crl Il: Metrl. J IJ Ca. rcnth ceirtury Calcutta.

the stonc pieccs of religious dcveloPnents' A slnall inraqc of Salnvara of about the elcventh nd at P-thargbata in castern Biher century clelnonstratesthe prescnceof aclvancedTantric iconosraphy ir.L mctal in.Lages(Fig r8 zz) Saruvirl.' is' another oue of thc Heruka deitics xn emanation of Aksob}rya' Adorncd and is "lso rvith a sarland of skulls ancl standing in ahdfua por,,t.","lta tranPlcs on Bhairava end Kalaratri and holds a variety of attributcs in his many hancls. includins the sevcred heacl of Brahma (Brahn.ra Aapala), the uajra, and g/ranta in his t."o cross"ih"n,1t syr.nbolicof the Pcrnunence and transicncc of the universc rcsPcctively, and thc eleplant skin in his two rlPpcrhands'synrbolic ol the overcominqofhindrances' Another snall metal iruagc, fron Kurkihar' , n d u , , l ' , p t d . ' r i t t gf r o r l t r h c e l c v e n r lcl e l t u r y ' ' l o k i t c i v' r ' ' ' \ o r r : H . , )r g r r r' , .I f , " . . " L . " " f A v "' t' ofrctt 1Fi3. r8.:j). H 'yagriv.-rHor'c-nccL) ,".ion.ir"J b1 ." ho,tcJrc,d orn'mcnt in Ii' hcadl{ress.His corpulcnt body, serpent orna-

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UNDTR'fHE PATA AND SENAXINGS 405

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I8.22. Satllvlra. Fronr Pirharqhatlr, Bihar, India. Pala period. Ca. clevenrh ccDrurv. Mctai. FI: r5.1 cnr. Lldian Muscurn, Calcutta.

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ments, dishcvclcdl.rair,end bulgine eycsarc rJl charactcristic of his fierce naturc ancl xrc not stylistically clctclnined. This sculptule rvas probabiy part of a largc group of irnagcsthat togcther constitutcd a colnp1cx iconoeraphic . t . r f c r r c nsru c l l r . t l r r t o f r ' r K i ' . . ' r i , . r n{.v' . r lokiteivara fiom Nalande (Fiu. r8.5) in rvhich Hayagriva also appears.Tl.roush isolatccl li-orrr i n o r . g r n . c' l o r i e x f .l l r c i r r r . g ,r . . . r r r . p o r t l n l rcmindcr of the interrclatioushipsbet\lccn imlgcs that werc crcxtccl sep:rratclybut rrsccl togcfhcr to colDnllrnicatca reliqiousntcssaqc. Although ncarly all tJresculpturcssurviving lrolL thc Pala-Sctaperiod are rnedcof stoncor mctal, it is likely that woocl l'as the nlost popular sculptLrralnedium of thc day. Not only rvcre various types of srlitablchardrvoods rcaclill'aylilxl]6;.t tlie region,espcciallvtscngal, but rvoocl rves especiallv appropriatc for thc intricatedctail of thc P:r1e-Scna srylcs. Among thc fcrv renrainingrvood pieceslroru Pela-Senatines is a rcprcscrltxtiorl of e scatcd

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boclhisattva from Vikramapura in J3anglaclesh (Fig. rll.za). The conrplexity of its lotus basc and thc thrcc-climensioual dctail of the pcrals suggcsta clarein the late Pala pedocl,pcrhaps t h . . l c v . r r t h , c n r r ) . I n L o n r r . , rt o \ l n r ) ci r n ages, rvhich arc invariably crcrted out of a single piece of stone, rvoocicn sclrlptlires rvcrc apparcntly jointel '"vhcn neccssary.T[e lcgs of this firure, for cxernplc,rverc cleerly addcd on to tjlc ilain piccc of woocl by means of mortice and tcnon joints. The iarge size of thc image end thc fact rhet it wxs jointcd suqgcststhat artists wcrc not liDitcd to using lvoocl for minor in-ilges.Suchcervingsarea bold rcmindcr of tl-refact thet as rvc trxcc South Asie's arristic hcritase tlrrouqh surviving u'orks, primarily thosc madc of cncluringlnaterials,we arc probably vicrving only a srr.railfiecrion of thc total output of Inclic arrists,u'hosc principal meclia nust havc been rvood. tcrra cotta, and othcr fragile matcrials.Thc popularity of rvood rvas not a phenomenonlimited to Bihrr and Bengal,

NoRTHERNscEooLS 406 trtir.,t

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UNDIR THE PAIA AND SENAITINGS

4'7 figures are shown with their faccs rn a threc_ quarter vrew. except repre5cnrJtions of .c.rted Buddhos.wlLich mry bc rhown full [acc. Arr cycs.depictcdby r ery ffowirrg, :lflr.* "i ,ih. ex.rggerAted lrncs.i: a preludeto thc ex.rggerrted eye treatment to bc found in later schools of Indic painting.

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the palette.is confined primarily to unmixed mrnerrt colors rcd, yelJow. blue, , .including green. black, and uhjre. presrrm:rbly. Om nani padue hu*, tlrc Buddhist mafltuaris associatcd w r t h t l l e s cs, i x c o l o r s r 3a n d a p p o r e n t l y color pray\ a symbollcrole,assuggcsreJ by rhe v.rriorrs colors used to represent the skin tones. Most

HrNpu Anr Althougb the firsr two hundrerl or so years of Pala-period art were dominar"a fy dJaiir, productions, Hindu ren-nins also extsr rn some quattiries from. that phaseand clcarly doninate r n f i r cl a s rr w o h u n d r c dy c a r so f t h e p a l a perio,l. ^s rn thc c,.\eol Buddhistarclrirecrurc from rlris region, little rcmains to reveal thc fi il ,"";. ;i H i r r d u a r c l r i t e c r r r rl a o lr m s i n u s eo v c r t h i s f o u r JrundrcdyearspaD.{or ir is m.rinlyrhc sculptrrre. t h J t h d v ec n d r r r e dS. o n r co F r h er u r v i v i n g trrild_

rhus irrrodrrced into thc rcgion.r, In contrast r o r h c r . , r l r c re l c g r n rB t r d , l l L i .srr y l e of the se_ v e n r n i r n d c r g l r r hr c n r r r r i e s( i - i g . r S . 4 ) . Hindu lmagcs tend ro shoy\ rrrher shorr. ,,tocky fig_ urcs.rlhough_somccxceprions kno*n'. ruih d sr h e r m a g eo f V i 5 n uJ : r o mA p s",. i d l r( f i g . r r . r o ) . ^ r e p r e s c n t u u oonf S u r y ; l r o m Lrklusar.ri, ,,1-o,,nrt ig. r8.:5). lor erample. nny bc d a t e dr o l l,r(cf / r r e c i g l r r h, " n r , , r y o n L h cb r r i so f c o m p a r r s o nw i r l r d : r r c du u r k s . H o w c v e r , ,Lg,l.,I,o,'gfdarrr.,gcd. rhc \rggesrrlrrr,n. "l""lJi rather slrorr proportioDsof rhe fig,,r" a r c n r t c c ( u r aslr y i e r i n p r r r i c r r l a rs h a r e d ,.cn, to nrLu o e n v ct r o n l n o r t l ) _ c c n t r j t l l n d ieaxr ar n t p l e s leatures with other northen schools, o f rl r c especialij, ,na post-Gupta pcriotls, not the that of Odssa. Most of the ,urrriviog elcgant lylta i.nrpl.'s iornrs,.ecq c r c o n r e m p o m r yB u d d h i s rs i t c s . " A j _ frour Fengal date from later than the "pala_S'cna 1 5 t r u c r l l a rn l a n yo f t l r c H i n d u i m a q e s p e r i o d .e s p e c i a l fl yr o r nr j r e . i x r e e n t h . . n , u r l :Dolrgtl.tt .,nJ trom ard Bcrrgaiof thc e.rrly prla period ,:.u \rnrcrurcs,displJy , ricl: v.rrieiy o[ are ot.lJrher tcsscr :iIi artistic merit than thcir Bui
408

LA'IEI NORTHTRN SCHOOTS

r8.2-j.Sriry]-From Lakhisarri,Bjhrr, India. pala pcrrcd. Ctr.l.rtccighth ccutur,v.Black stone.lt: 6r cnr. Prnlr MLrsculll,Prrrrll.

Bil.Llr, pcrhaps Rrjgir, also probably dxtins from thc late eighdr century (Fig. 18.26).The cletailing is rcmarkably precisc, as is eviclent in the treltnrcnt of thc f,rcial fcatures. coilTures, and othcr clenents. Yet the figurcs clo not rescnrble thosc depictecl in rrosr Buddlist imagesfrorn this rcgiou antl period in thcir body proportions but instcadrchte to rvh:rt appears to bc a Hindu tradition baseclon norrh-central Indieumoclcs. Au inporrant clementof thissculptrrc is the rorv of bcaclsarouncl tl-rc rirn of tire stclc, for tlis {iature occursrvirlcly in Bihar and Bengal s'orks of the cighdr and ninrh centuries. The subjcct of Una-Mrheivara r,vasespcciailv p o p L r l . r+ r r .cv.r,.l .ite. irr Bilr.,r,lrrrinqrlr, . " i I 1 t ' . 1 .pr e r i . , d l. l r r . . c r r l p r Lir.r, cl i , r r r ' c r i ui nc the trcrtment ofthe bascrvith its stylizcclcraggy nountain clcsignancl thc :rnirDatiolrof rhc tt,o aniuralrrrd,,d.rofthe trvo cleities,Sivr'sbLrliand LIm-'s lion. IJy ebout the ninth centurv. stylistic distinc-

r8.26.Urn.-Mahc(vrra. Posibiyfrorn Rajgir,Bih:r, hdir. ttla pcriod.Cr. htc eishrh .enturv.Btack store.II: 52.6crl. Asutosh Museum, Cajcutra Univer_ srrv,

tions bct$-ccn Buddhist and Flindu art scen.rro have clisappeared.This frned style rs secn rn a r c D r c . ( n r . r t i oorf C . r n c . , r. r o r n N r r r y i r n p u r .r n Bengladcsh,clatcclin thc lourth year of thc rcign of Mahipala (l) rvho mled in the latc reuth and carly eievcnthccnturies(Fig. r8.27).16 The detailing of the lotus pcclcstal,the foliatc motiG, the gerland. and the flan.rc edsc of the stcle are virtuallv ideirtical to thcseelenlentsin a numbcr of both BLrclclhistantl Hindu works lound in Bihar ancll3engalprcsLrmably of rhe sarucdate. Visnu is by far the most coumon subjcct in thc Hindu art of Bihar and Bcnqal durirg the latc'rPala,rndScnaperiodswhen Buddhisn hacl bcen largcly supersccled rn rhc region. Vcry oftcn, the spccific for-m shorvn is Trivikrana, one of thc tlventy-foLrr icons of Visnu (rvhich should l1ot bc conflisedrvith Visnu's cl*'arf iucarnation, Trivikranra).Orrc exaruplcof Visnu Trivikrama N:rs forlrlcl ar Balurghr, Wcst Bengal (Fig. r8.:8). Trivikr:rnr:r is idcntified by drc po-

UNDXR THE PAIA AND SENA KINGS

4d9

:. . Black : L Di\ cr-

ieeDIto i'en in a ::rc reign :nrh and :: detailr:rfs. the ;::le are ramber ::nd i[ : : date. :l'r'ct in ::f tne :.::: had - -;^. t:1eof : r:_-OUld -.'-"tLon, -,: .

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(Fig.

13-27urr.rcia.frorn Narayaqpur.Brrrgladcstr. pala pc_ rrod.four(h ) eJrnIr cign of MahrpalJ{ l). Ca. hre rcnrh (cntury. tleck (to c. H: rJJ c ,. I)rccaMuscurrr, Dacca,

sition of the four attributes held in his hands: the gala appean in rlre upper righr lrand: rhc p.a.tnta,!t1 rhe lowcr righr: rhe rnlra is hcld in

r8.28. Visnu Trivikrarra. Fronr Balurghit, Wesr Bcngal-India.Palapcriod.Ca. irvclfth ccitury. Black stone. H: r33.ucrn.Indi:nMuseum, Calcutta.

and SDrya,and some ofothcr Hindu gods, many highly,unusuaw l orks wcre p.odri"d .lu,ini the Pala 5ena periods. One sr.], e*"-the upper left hand; and the ja;frla (now largely _arrd b9 uniquc within the entire span of !l: T"y damaged), in the lower left. The emphasis" oir Hindu art for it shows a figure of a fo,.rrl"rmed thc Trivikrama icon in relation to Bengaii goddess either arising out of a liiga V a i 5 q a v i s mh a s y e r t o b c e x p i o r . d , b l r u n _ .apparently o r . r a n d i n gb e h i n d i r ( f i g . i s . : 9 ) . F o r r n d ' r r has srgnificance.In rJLissculpture. K a g a j i p a d a . 1"rb,,:dJf rne hlgtrly omarc rrearmenr of rhe jewelry. . V i k r d n r r p u r a .i r i . , p r o b a b l y a product of the twclfth ccntury, judging fiom co5tume.rnd sLrbsidiary elcmcnrsof th. br.[_ the ornatenessand dctails of the'carving. The slab typical of rwrlhh-cenrury works is presenr. figure holds r rosrry in her uppcr righr h"and.a rndicatingit" probablc darc of manufcture. As book rn her rrppcr lc[c. and rhe remrining ruo in orher lare Pala-or Sena-period sculprures. rhe handsare olaced in a variation of dhyanaiwdra. centrJl llgure is virtually rcmoved fronr the Although the name ofthis goddessis still subject bacl-.lab and srJndsalmost as a separarefigure t o q u c s t i o n . rsTh ci s p r o b a b l ya l o r n r o f p . r v a t r , placed in front of it. a n d r l r c o v c r a l l l l l c m c m u s t c e r r r i n l yb c t l r e Along with the many rcpresentationsof Visnu unity of the litga with the fernale principle.

410

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

r8.29. Hirdu goddess.Frorl Vikramapura, Baugladesh. Pala perjod. Ca. trvclfth ccntury. Black stone. H: r4i cm. DaccaMuseurn,Dacca.

r8.3o.Ardhanari6vara. FromPurapam, Bangiadesh. Prla period. Ca. lare eleventhcarly twelfrh ce[tury. Blackstone.H: 106.8cm.VarendraResearch Museum, Rajshahi.

r 8 . 3r . S Banglad stone.H

In this rcspect, it is similar to a depiction of Ardhanariivara, found in the vicinity of Dacca at Purapara and of approximately the late eleventh or early twelfth century (Fig. r8.3o). There is, perhaps,no more graphic description in all of South Asian art of the androgynous Siva combined with Parvati, as seen no; o y in the presenceof the female breast and male phallus, but also in the two halves of the headdress,Siva'sdivided third eye, and the distinctive treatment of the two halves of the lower garnent.

The I odginar Natara1 his bull the eler illustra andas armed ]ooks u consort at tlrc c her nal

UNDIR THT PALA AND SINA KINGS

41]

l

Natareja. Frorn palgiri, Conrilla districr, :8.3I: liv.a Bangladesh.Pala period. Ca. elevenrh century. Black stone.H: Ijo,8 cnr. Dacca Museum, Dacca.

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rti.32. Bal3rarna. From Kurkihar, Bihar, India. pala pcriod, uinth ycar of rcign of Dcvaprla. Ca. second q u : r r t ( r , ) r i r t r . t n r u r yM. e r " l . H : 30.: .r,.. paru,r Muscum.Prnra.

The Pela-Senaart schoolsofBcngal apparently or as.formal as nrany image. frorn rhj. date, originated a uniqueformat for images oi Siva as therc ls ltrtlc qucrrionrhrt it belongsro (he l.rrc Nahreja in which Siva dancesatop the back of Pala.periodbecauscof rhe fugh herddres.vorn his bull vahana,Nandi. One example of about by sLva. rhe poinred .relc rop. and rhe rccen_ thc elcvenrlrcentury fronr palgiri.in Banglrdesh. tuated postures of the attendant goddesses. rrrustrares the rype (fig. r 8.3r). Witlr lihga etecr Meidl imrges were prodtrccdin tf,e service o[ , and a subline expression on his face, iire ten_ rhc Hrndu rcligion. r:, rhey had becn for the armed god perfonns his dance while Nandi Buddhi'rs in Bihar and Bengal.alrhougJra less looks up at his lord. Siva is accompaniedby his comptete plcture cmerges for them because consorts,Parvati, who standson her Iion uahana nrany Hindu irrr;geshave bccn foLrndo. eirhcr at dlc right of the.composition, and Gariga,atop tsota(edplecesor in muclr smaller hoard.. An her makaraat the left. Although not as elaborate image of Balarama, who is often considered to

4t2

LA'IER NOITHERN

5CHOOLS

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r'___ skill c arnlc( but h hood Alt Bihar meta Becl

Thc Vislrthxt t dcclir isitn enthr grcrr

r3.J3. Visnu Trivikrrnra. Froru \rikr.rnu!um, B,rnghdesh.Pala pcri,rcl-Cr. t\\ellih cclnrr,r'.Sillcr. Hrcx.:j cnr. IndianMuseurt, CrlcLrttr.

UNDIR THE PATAAND SENAXINGS

be the seventhincarnation of Visnu and the elder brorher of Krsna.is datcd by inscriprionto the ycar 9 ot rlrc reign o[Dcvapala. rhc tlrird pala king, who ruled in the firsi half of the ninth century (Fig. 18.32). It was found at Kurkihar, and, ]ike the morc nunerous Buddhist metai pie_ces fron that site, reveals a high degrce of skill on the part of its naker. Balarama is four_ armed and holds attributesassociatedwith Vis1lu, but he.is rccognizcdby the characreristic naga hood that appearsbehind his head. Although most of the netal imagcs found in Bihar and.Bengalare bronze.works in precious rnetalssuchas_goldand silver were alsoproduced. Because of their intrinsic value, these imagcs

4'lji are_les likely to survive the centuries, since a finder might convert the mehl conrena to a medium of exchange rather than preserve the

Hoyevel a splendid silvcrsculp_

1".r.rj 1T"g". ture o1 Visqu, as Trivikrama attended by his consorts laksmi and Sarasvati, managerl to survive and was found ar Vikramapur; (Fig. r,8.33).,Thezuperb cr.rftsrnanship -"y indi."i. tnat only rjrc bcslanisrswere usedwhen precioLls materials were involved, which -ould b" expected, since the patron who could afford silver could also afford the best artists. The rmage probably dates from the twelfth century, as indicated-by the ornate costuming and the treatment of the ilame rim of the prabiaman/ala.

Coxcrusror,,r The very existcnce of images like the silver Vislu conrradicrsrhe oftcn iepeated staremen[ thaLby rhe rwclfrh century,rhe;e wasan arhsttc dcclincin rhe P6le-Senakingdoms, for nowhere ls rr nlore clearthat both patronsand artisrswere cnrhrrsiasrically producing religious imagesof great beauty a[ that time. The suddencessation of patronageand the effect on the artistic tradi_

tiol undoubtedly arose due to a number of political and social factors. including bur not ilrru,redto the_rncrea5ingMuslim control. lt is cvldenr rhrt rhe tradition was halredat a high point. and it.can only be speculared as to wh"at rurtner devrlopmcnrs might have occurred if rt had not been interrupted.

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C H A P T E RN I N E T E E N

Orissaand Related Regions

.E

The art and architecture of Orissa forms a distinct unit, having a continuous development and numerous well-preserved examples ai well as canons,texts, and a specific terminology that distinguish this tradition from thosc oi other regionsofSouth Asia. This easternIndian region, important since Maurya times and A(6ka,s battle of Kalinga, especiallygaincd prominence rn rhe posr-Guptr pcriods when inrporranr temple compiexes of the northern styl", the so-called_,nagara type. dcvclopcd ar ieligiou. . c e n t c r sI. t ) e i t l r d yo t t i r cr e g i o no v e ra p e r i o do f rbo t sevenhundredyeJrsprovidesa Inlcroco\_ nric. view of a single area of the complcx Indic civilization. Although the Orissan dev.lop-ent, are distinctive and form a unit by themselves,

tics with other regional dcvelopment,,are also strong, especially at the outset when Orissa's relations to the stylcs of the Early Western Calukyasand rhe rrr of Srrpura(Sirpur)rnd _ro parts ot Andhra Prade:h are mosr evidenr. Although the posr-Gupta stylcs of Orissa arc trequently said to havc arisen suddenly since xlmost no art remains are known between the time of Kharavela and thc later dcvelopnents, the.laterart may have had its roots in an eplrem_ eral art tradition. Also, the art ofncighboring or other inlluential regions may hold ilues to"the origin of this idiom and should bc examined in order to more fully undcrstand thc Orissan developments.

S n i r u n a ( S r n l u n )A N D R a J r M : M A D H y A p n , r . p r s n flthough properly speaking,the ancient city of Sripura (modern Sirpur) does not lie within the boundariesof modern Orissa state, thc relation_

ship of its history and art to rhar of Orissa is clear. Sirpur, in the Chllattisgarh region (ancient Daksina Kosala)r of Madhya pradei-h,lies aiong 415

4I6

LATERNORTI.ITRNSCHOOIS

:t_i:

r9.r. Lakgma4aternple fronr south. Sirpur, Madhya Pradesh,India. P54duvari61period. Ca. larc sixdr-carl]' seventhcentury. Brick.

.::-:: : -:.'-:-; : thc banks of the Mahanadi River, which linked it to somc of the main art centersof Orissa, including Bhubane6vara. The importancc of Sirpur from the sixth through the tenth ccnturies is secn in thc archa6ological remains, largely unexcavated,that extend for sevcrai kilomctcrs around the modern villagc. During thc first half of the sixth century, its rulers includcd thc kings of Sarabhapura,but no remains in Sirpur or the ancient Daksina Kosala region in general can definitely be associatcdwith that dynastic patronage. Frorn the second half of the sixth century llntil the mid-seventh century, the Panduvarhiis (also called the Somavarh$is)of Daksiga Kosala had thcir capital at Srrpura.The n.rajority of ren.rains at Sirpur, which consist

of both Buddhist and Hindu naterials, belong ( o t h c p c r i o d o f P d n d u v a r h ri ru l c The most rvell-preservedten.rpleat the site is the east-facing Lakpmana temple (Fig. r9.r) built in the latc sixth or early seventhcentury by Vesala, the mother of MahesivaguptaBalarjuna (ca. 595-65o), the rnost important and last panduvaril6i king.2 Dcdicated to Vi;4u, this brick temple stands on a large stone plat{brm accessibleby stepsat both thc north and south endsofthe easternside.Stoncis alsousedin the doorfiame, and the pillars and pilasters of the na4/apa. Thc tcnple consistsof a shrine and the ma4lapa that lies before it. This pillared hall,3. now ahnost conpletely in ruins, cxtended axially to the shrine, and its roof, now lost, was

i'. :: a:_ i _ tn:!r ::

i :-.- : -.eci c---:is c'r::: dif,c:.-:on e;;l-bear:.:thc b:rr the r.::l large s:c panels notit , reclinins The fiq nithuna

O . R I S S AA N D N E L A T T D R T G I O N S 4I7

: : : i r c s i t ei s -:1. r9.r) -- --:'ntuly by :: ])ara!una :.: :nd last -.'i:nu. this -::l:rt{brn1 : :rd south ::;d in the .,::is of thc .-:.' and the : :rcd ha1l,3 r. c'\tended ' ' . I o s t ,w a s

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r9.2. South lvall, Laksmanatcnple, dcrail ofbrickwork. Sirpur, Madhya Pradcsh, Indi:r. Panduvafi6i pcdod. Ca. late sixrh cariy scvetlth century.

r9.3. Doorway ro shrinc, Laksmana tenplc. Sirpur, Madhya Pradesh,India. Pardr:varh(i period. Ca. late sixth-carly severlthccntury.

originally uphcld by stone pill:rrs errangcd in rows. Of specialintercst is thc shapeirrd forn ofthe lilehara, fot its curvilincar sbape, almosr cylindrical in form, has a rathcr low, somelvhat heavy appearancc sin.rilar to examplcs of thc typical early Orissan style. The clcar divisiou into horizontal stories (6lr.rrrls)found in Orissa is also present, as is the division into vcrtical scctions.The exterior of the likhara and shrine is cxtensively dccorated with candralalasand diFerent typcs of nouldings. Thrce niches, one on each of the sidesand thc rear of the shrinc, bear false windorv motift, skillfully executed in the brick medium (Fig. r9.z). The sanctun of the templc, now ernpty, is cntcrcd through a large stone doorway (Fig. r9.3) dccoratcd with panels of nitluxas, t1k;adetatas, and foliate rnotifs and bearing a representation of Visnu reclining on S"r^ iror, ,i. ."o,", of thc lintel. The figures, as seen in a representation of a nithuxa (Frg. r9.4), are rather full-lleshed,grace-

templc. Sirpur, Madhya Pradesh, India. Penduvarhlr period. Ca. late sixtlt carly scventhccntruy.

LATBR NORTHERN SCHOOLS

.i

15

r9.5. Plan of "raastl*a" monastery.Sirpur, Madhya Pradesh,India. Ca. seventhcentury.

ful, and relaxed in their poses. Of particular note stylistically is the trearmenr of the halos with their detailed centersand pearl rims. Important Buddhist remains have also been found at Sirpur, including monasuc structures and metal and stone sculptures. One of the monasteries has been dubbed the " suastika" monasteryin modern times becauscthc arrangement of its cells and courtyard suggestthe form of a.suastilea (Fig. i9.j). If, indeed, this was the intenrionofits creators,suchusagcis rcminiscent ofthe practicein Andhra Pradesh,wherea srrasr*,r or cahta form was sometimes imbeddcd in the .rttpa structure. A large stone image of a seated Buddha in bhumispa a nuha (Fig. 19.6) was thc main object of devotion. An important featurc of this sculpture, and others discovered at the site, is the fact that it is made of several larse rectangularpicccsof stonein conrrastwirh thc more common monolithic form of large in.rages

in other regions of ancient India. This characteristicis also to be noted in Orissa, especially during the Bhauma period, in both Buddhist and Hindu contexts and probably re{lects a regional stylistic and technical preGrence. The figure of the Buddha derives fronl Gupta types although a greatcr abstractionhas occurred and thc torso and limbs appcar to be almost hollow tubcs rather than softly modeled fesh and bone. The Buddhist remains at Sirpur are usuallyattributed primarily to thc reign of Maha(ivagupta Balarjuna. However, while the munificence of this Saivite king toward Buddhism is clear fiom inscriptional evidence,he must have been only one ofthe inportant patrons ofthe religion in rhe region, as suggesredby an impres.ive group of metal imageslound at the site that probably date from the late seventhor cighth century and later.aMany ofthe piecesshow a remarkable afiiliation with the style prevalent at Nalanda

19.6.B.: Prade:ir.

ourlng

fact tha Mahaiir Maukha to the r vehicle { On th, ot ier5( This im: Asian m perfectic by an ar Sirpur, s hand.5Ir Asian ar name, r ara s blossom throne. I

ORISSAAND RITATED RTGIONS 419

19.6.Buddhaat "svastika"monastcry.Sirpur,Madhya Pradesh, India.Ca.seventh century.Stone.

I-:rs charL:-:Pecially :5r-toonlst ::dects a a : - - r C e. l n e

i:::a types :;-::le d and r -:: \ollow r ::i bone. : iji:ally

at-

1: ::r'agupta r :a;ence of c. :-. clear : :-:te been :,:::eligion :::::ressive - -- ., "."h::: ;entury :.-:arkable ::

\alanoa

during the seventh through ninth centuries (Fig. t8.t6). This visual tie is reinforced by the fact that Vasate,queen dowager and mother of Mahaiivagupta Balarjuna, was a daughter of a Maukhari ruler of Magadha who flourishedprior to the dse of thc Palas, suggesting a possible vehiclefor thc transmission oF sryle. On the basisofstyle, a very complicatedimage ofTara (Pl. 3o) is assignableto the cighth century. This image ranks among thc fincst of all South Asian metal pieces becauseof its intricacy and perfection ofdetail. Its similarity to signedworks by an artist named Kumeradeva, presumably of Sirpur, suggestthar it may be attributed to his hand.5 It is thus a very rare example of South Asian art that can be associatedwith an artist's name. Tdr- sits on the calyx of a fully opcned lotus blossom that itself rests upon a lion-supported throne. The central configuration is raised on a

dais before which there is an offering platform. The back of the lion throne is elaborately ornamented with conventionalized jewels, and its cross-bars support inages of Amitabha, Vajrapani/Mahasthamapr.pta, and Avalokiteivara. The sidesof the thronc back arc cnriched by the prescnceof uyalakas-'ferais attended by two female companions who are refections of other aspectsof hcrsclf; one, who is also called Tara, appears on hcr proper right while the other, Bhfkriti, stands to her left. The central fignre exhibi* abhayamudrawith her left hand and holds a fruit in the palm ofher right hand, which is in the uaruilagesture, thus bestowing the gift on thc bcholder. The sccondary figure of Tara displays uarcdamudrain her right hand and holds tbe stem of a fully opened lotus in her Ieft. Bhrkuti offers the devotccs a gem in her two lowered hands, wbich form a dor:ble varadanuha. Thc position of the central Tera, bctwcen Tere and Bh1kr1i, makcs her equal in importancc to KhasarpanaLoke6vara.Although she is the female reflection of AvalokiteSvarain all his forms, herc, shc directly supplants him. Further, seatedon the lion throne with her two attendants,she is identical to thc Buddha and is maniftstly prajfia, the knowlcdge inherent in Buddhahood. The .rttcndantscarry meanirgr parallcl to thosc of thc bodhisattvas,for Tara is karuqa (compassion)and Bh;kuti is prajia. In this icon, femalc synbolism reacbesone of its fullest expressions. Onc of the nlost interesting aspectsof this imagc is its completencssas a shrinc. Thc dcvotional group in front ofthe main image consists of two ra{.?.rstanding on lotuscsand a dcvotcc. Thc nagoshold bowls containing offcrings of swccts,and the devoteckneelsand holds his hands it afrjali nwdfi, thc gcsturc of devotion. Specifically, he may refer to thc donor of the image, but conceptually, his prescncein the sceneinsures pcrpctual adoration of the image. The offcring platforrn in front of the lion tluone holds a conch shell on the lcft, a covered dish containing swccts in the center, and an incense bumer on thc right. In Buddhist rituals, the conch is uscd to hold watcr for ablutions and ritual clcansing. The swccts containcd in the central dish would be madc from thc five

420

LATEI\ NORTHERN SCHOOTS

r9.7. Visru, at Rdjrva-locanatenlple. Rajin, Madhya Pradesh,India. Probably Nala period. Ca. early eighth ccntury. Stone.

r9.8. TrivikrarDa,at Rajiva-locanatemple. Rejim, Madhya Pradesh,India. ProbablyNala period. Ca. earll.eighrhccntffv. Stone.

suitable offerings: gr^in, ghee (clarified butter), sugar, honey, and rnilk or milk curds. Burning lncense ls a common practice in Buddhist and Hindu rituals alike and is also considered an appropriate offering. This complicated ir.nageprovides an outstanding example of the quality that was achieved during the later Mahayana phascsof Buddhist art in ancicnt India. It is possiblcthat this figure was not the culmination of the dcvelopments ofBuddhist art in Madhya Pradesh,but perhaps only illustrates a starting point. If Buddhism continued to be practiced in this rcgion rintil about the twelfth century, as it did in northeastem Irdia, it is likely that examples of thc last phasesof Indic Buddhism could bc found in the unexcavatedsite of Sirpur or elscwhere. At nearby Rajim, evidcnceofextensivc tenple building and sculptural traditions related to

others of ancient Dakgina Kosala may be found. The group of Vaig4avitc temples at the site, particularly thc R5jrva-locana, is still actively vcneratcd by large nun.rbersof pilgrims who visit anmrally. However, rhc temples themselves have bcen little studied, partly because they have experienccd nulDeroLts renovations and rcconstrrlctions throughout thcir history, thus makins it difficult to know thcir original forms or rhe form" ar any givcn sraec.In spitcof rhis. rlrc .rbundanr ..,rip,"urrl reJain. fiom Rajim testify to a high quality of rvorkmanship and a great pcriod of forescencc during the cariy eighth century. Following the demise of the Pa[duvarhiis, control of thc region was assumed by a little known fan.ily called the Nalas rvhosc solc inscriptional rccord in Daksina Kosala is an undated stone inscription found in the porch of the Rajiva-locana templc, which moy, ihe.e-

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,--:v bc found. s lr the site, 'ri1l actively ::. qrims who ., rhcmselves l:causc they _'.:rions and :-:\tory, thus ::::inal forras : :cire of this, ::om Rajim ::r'hip and a - - J.. ^".1-, ::rise of the ; 15assumed \alas whose : Kosalais an

fore..be.ascribedro rhe Nala period, around the elghth century. Thc Rajiva-locana remple has yielded a number of important sculptures.Images in the four. subsidiary shrines that were pirt of its possibleoriginal pafrcayatuflapl^r\ include representations of Vamana, Nrsirhha, Vi;r.ru (Fig. r9.7), and Trivikrama. Also, insertedin the com_ pound wall of the same temple, is a second, partially restoredfigure of Trivikrama (Fig. r9.8) that is unusual becauseofthe bent left leg. The images ar-eprobably works of the early iighth century, for stylistically, they reveal ties to Loth north and Early Western Calukya .Indian examplcs from around that datc. The Visnu image(Fig. r9.7) is unusualamong . the reFrescnlarions oFthis god from Sourh Asil for.it. shows him in mediiation, with his legs folded up in padmasana,instead of in his rnoie common srandingposc. and with two of his hands pleced in thc dhyana nudra, rai.rcr rhan holding tuo of his artribures.As in other imagcs from this site, thc forms of his body seemlo swell from within, and the transitions bctween the parts ofhis body are curved rather than an_ gular. There is a softnessand roundnessto his body thar is reminiscenrof Cupta and postGupra arr of nortl)crnrnd north_centralIndia,a relationship furthcr suggestcdby thc trcxtmcnt of Visnu's hair in long, luxuriant curls. The Trivikrama imagc(Fig. r9.8)hasa vitality , that is conveycd iargely through thc animated poscsof the naga devotcc and Trivikrama him_ self. Visual richncss is achicved through the

oRISSAAND RUAT;D REGTONS421 contrast between the smooth bodies and the crisply carved ornaments and garments. Like other north Indian sculpturesofthis approxrmate date, including other; from the site, the soft, feshy appearance of thc bodies suggests the Gupta heritage, as does the intricate iarving of Trivikrama's halo. Characteristic of what may be the Nala style, the sraooth body offic figurc is virtually unarticulated,and showsno empf,asis on transitions between parts or even the sculptural delineation of the various surfacesof the body. VisUal comparison\ rupporr the suggcsrron ^'... thet rhc afl rradroons_ ol Sirpur and Rajim are somehuw reJatedto the more extcnsivcar(istic school of adjacent Orissa. However, the historical relationshipsare lessclear. Cr,rnningham sLrggcsred tl)lr Maheiiv.rgupraBalirjuno. tl:e Iastking ofthc Panduvarhlidynrsry. wasidcnrical r.rirh Sivagrrpta.rhc fir,u prince of thc Somavarhirline in Ori.".r.oA lrhorrgh rlri.' assertion was subscquentlyrejected by Fleet and othen on palcographic grounds, sincc an inconsistencyrnd gap erisr: paleographically befwcen rhe docrrmenrso[ these kings. ir is possiblcthat therc is some relationship tetween the rwo dyncsrics.rWhile rhis connccrronls perhaps still somcwhat vaguc in historical terurs, its position in art history is more clcar. Therc is littlc question that rhe monumcnts of Sirpur and ncarby Rajim, as well as others in thcir vicinity, had some rclationship with the dcveioping forms of Orissanart and architcctruc.

H r u o u A n r A N D A R c H r r E c r u n eo r O n r s s a The history of Orissa begins to become clear in rhe secondquarter of rhe .ixrlr cenrury vihen a dyna.ty called rhe Sailodbhavascamc into prominence. In the early seventhcentury, Orissa is thought to have becomea sourceofcontention between three grerr rrval kings of northcrn l n d i a .S a s a n koaf B e n g r l . H a r s ao f K a n a u j , a n d Pulakelin II, thc Early tffcstem Caiukya. According to. tradition, iaianka, who was a devotee of Siva, built thc first Saivite tcmple in Orissa, at the site of Tribhuvancjvara

(Bhubaneivara),thus initiating a tradirion of temple building dedicated to the pe6upatasect. Indecd, a number of temples at Bhubane(vara are Pa(upata. Howcvcr, since almost nothing is known about architccturc undcr Saia;rka,the nature of his influence is not undcrstood. It can bc statcd, however, that, in addition to relationships to Sirpur and rclatcd rcmains, definite ties in form and stylc to thc art of the Early Wcstcrn Calukyas are found in early Orissan art anci architecture. (Again, since little

422

L|\IEIr7 NORTHERN SCHOOLS

r9.9. Paralurane(vara telllple ftonr south. Bhubanc(vaia, Oissa, lndia. Ca. sevcDthccnlury.

-g I

.i 1

2P

1o ?

19.ro. Plan of Pamiutmeavara India. Ca. sevcnth centurY

30 rlj

, tcmple.

Bhubane(vara,

Orissa'

ORISSAAND RELATEDREGTONS42ji

I I

is known of the art of Harsa'stime, his influence In Orissan architecturc, specific names are is also an unknown factor.) in Orissa Early given to every part of the temple. While this Western Calukya impact on the eastern also may be true of other regional styles in Deccan is verified by the establishmentof the India, in Orissa, it is especially fortunate that Eastern Celukya linc. Further, a lcgcnd in thc texts that define and describe these elements Elanrra (BhubancSvara)Pwalta tells ofa Calukya have been known for some tirne. In addition, king, who is referrcd to as a demon, coning the tempJe fornrs rs known from exisring into Orissa,8 although it is not known if the nonuments seem to closely follow the textual Calukyas actually gained control or how prccepts. (This is not always the case in other extensive that control might have ever been. parts of.rncient India: in fact. it remrinsa F{owever, evidence for an Early Western considerable problem for art historians to Calukya role in the formulation of Odssan art collate textual descriptions wirh actual archiis preservcd in the monuments then-rselvesas tectural remains throughout South Asia,) can be seenin a number of ways. The Orissan The Para6urerneivaratemple consistsof two relationshipsto neighboring or associatedregions parts, a mana and a, matl/apa preceding it. In in no way implies a lack of originality on the Orissa',a uimdnarscommonly calleda /eal, while part of the Orissan craftsmen; rather, undera ma4/apa rs called a jaganohan. The tetn dexl standing these ties serves to better place the can also bc used ro refer to the temple rs a Orissan developmenrsuirhin rhe mainstreanr whole. The shrine of the Para6urame$aratcmple of Indic art. and the other Orissan examples to be discussed The Sailodbhavas, who continued to rule here is of the rebha type, which is charactcrized until the second half of the eighth century, by the curvilinear shapeof the likharc. Often, the jagauohan ofan Orissantemple is in the form of probably initiated the building tradition that dominated Orissa for the next seven hundred a pi/ha, that is, a temple that hashorizontal platyears and that is best seenin the monuments at forms, or pidhas, fot the roof. The ry'euland Bhubaneivara. The best-preserved temple of jagatnohantypically consistoffour vertical units, this early phase,although not the earliesttemple starting fron1 the ground: the pura (platform), at the site, is the Paraiurameivara (Fig. i9.9). which is apparently absent in the case of the The deity of the temple is named in one of the Para6urdme(vara; the bala (waIl); the gapdi. inscriptions as PSreseivara,which is taken to be (trunk, that is, the curvilinear spire of the rckha a variation of the name Par56ara,an acarya of /erl or the pyranridal roof of rhejagamohar); and the Peiupata sect in whose name the llig4 of {inally, thc mastaka,or crowning elements(the "head," including the amalakdand kalala on the the temple would have been enshrined. A number of representationsof Lakuliia on the iikhara; the kalaia, or "pitcher," is missing here.) temple verify the Pa(upata dedication. Even At each of the four corners is a seriesof projecthough it is not tied to the Sailodbhavasby tions that demarcatethe form ofthe likhara into inscription, the temple was probably a product bhnnis (horizontal levels), with each ribbed disc of this period. Traditionally, the temple has (amalaka) distinguishing one bhnni. In this been dated to the eighth ccntury on the basis temple, there arc five bhamis in the likhara. of the paleography of its inscriptions as well The fifth bhami in this case is topped by a as the fornl and style of the structure itself, square element, the uedi or altar. As Orissan but recently, it has been suggestedthat it was architecture developed over the centuries,along constructed in the seventh ccntury, possibly with the texts themselves and the skills and even the first quarter of that century.e Indeed, knowledge ofthe artisans,theseGaturesbecame stylistically and historically, a seventh-century more elaborate and complicated, but essentially date seems reasonable, although perhaps not their classificationremained constant, the first quarter, and coincidcsw.ith the probable I-ike many Orissanremplcs.rhis monumenr associations of the building tradition with is surroundedby a compound wall that delineates related and contemporary styles.lo the sacredarea.In this case,the wall is rectangu-

424

NORTHTRNSCHOOLS LATER,

lar. Also, as is common in Orissa, the Para6urameivara temple faceswest, although the orientation is sliglrtly ofi^ axis. From the exterior, the two elements of the structure are balanced in size, but the plan (Fig. rg.ro) shows that the interior of the jagamohan is considerably larger than the shrine, a feature found frequently in Hindu temple architecture.Although the use of pillars is unusual in later Orissan architecture, there are six pillarsin rhejagarzolar,suggesting conceptual ties to Early Western Calukya architecture and to the Laksma4a temple at Sirpur. A somewhat awkward juncture exists between the jaganohan ar'd rekha deul of the temple. The fiont face of the rckha deul rs in fact finished and fully carved, but the joint berween the two structures obliterates this detailed work. Panigrahi suggests that this peculiar juncture, visible in other Orissan temples as well, is due to a construction method of burying the structure in earth as work progressedto the top, as a kind of scaffolding, so that the inclined plane created by the surface of the surrounding mound could be used to drag up the large blocks of stone.l1 Hence, the pillared hall and the shrine could not be built simultaneously, thus accounting for the discrepanciesin jointing the two parts. If such a process was used, and some authorities have questioned it, this earth-mound practice was probably directly tied to the process of tank excavation with the size of the tcmple tank being a product of the size of the temple, or rather, the sizeoithe rnound neededto construct the ternple. Stylistically, however, the two parts of this temple are ciosely related and probably rellcct a unified original plan and singie exccution, although posibly constructron progressedserially. The shape of the likhara typifies the form found throughout Orissan architecture, having a rather straight ascent and an inward curve up to tlre baseof the amalaka.Eventually,a taller, sornewhat more slender profile was achieved, and, due to thc increase of raf,4a elements, the form sonetimes appears almost circular. However, the basic profile remains virtually the same. T1re towcr hcrc is about thirtcen merer.in hciglrt.a lengrh equ:rling.rpproxirrate-

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r9.rr. Carved window on Paralurtmelvara temple. Bhul-raneirrra. Oris.a.India.Ca. serenthcentury.

ly three times the inside measurement of the ga hagTha.The exterior of the sides of the rel
sugges develop the orie of its conside Ptqnasa in deve somerv temple , that bo I ne lnt

virtuall. feature northen on the showinr tne

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the adr have be grid of favor o ls sugg bears ai

oRISSA AND RITATED RXGTONS 42J

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:emple.

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,--: rhe west i-. .:dmitted !:j!:geways, c:-.*'s (one r .:rd south e ',vest)and L-::ble roof. c: rr indows

r9.rz. Karttikeya, east dche, Para6urtmeivaratemple. Bhubaneivara, Orissa,lndia.C.r.sevcnLh cenlurv.

suggests a formative stage in thc architectural development, or that several modifications to the original schemeoccurred during the course of its building. The double-storied roof is considered to be a prelude to the horizontal pilhas or pl*fotms of the rcof of the jagamohan in developed Orissan architecture, but it is also somewhat sirnilar to the roof of the Lad Khan temple at Aihole (Fig. r5.zz), suggestingperhaps that both temples had a common prototype. The interior of the jaganohar is starkly simple, virtually devoid of sculpture, again a common feature of Odssan temDles, but not other northern srylesin general.The carved windows on the west, however, are remarkable works showing scenesof dancing and music making. The best preserved of these (Fig. r9.rr) reveals the animation and vitality of the {igures that have been cleverly posed to mask the rectilinear grid of the window. A stlong argument in favor of a seventh-century date for the temple is suggestedby the style of the carvings, which bears afflnities to that oi late sixth-century for

slightly later) carvings of the Early Westem Calukyas. In contrast to the plain interior of the temple, the exteriors of both the jagamohar ar'd rikha ry'eal are embellished with architectural ald decorative designs,arranged within strict horizontal and vertical divisions. Essentially, each portion of the temple profile, including the base, wall, superstructure, and crowning elements, with their numerous subdivisions, and many of the decorative motifs serve specific symbolic purposes in the overall scheme of the monument. Prominent motifs include the carfuaiala and the amalaka, the round-fluted crowning member of the likhan that also appearsat intervals at the comers of eachbhami of the iikhara- The large blocks of srone used in the construction of the building are clearly visible, especiallyoL the jagamohax,in spite of all of the surfaceelaboration, but in later temples, the joints will be obscured by the decoration. Compartmentsin the walls of thejaganohan are created by the use of decorated pilasters, within which are representations of various members of the Hindu pantheon. An interesting feature of the sculptural program of the temple is the placement of Ga4eh in the principal niche on rhe south sideof rhe iihhara, suggesring that the temple was circurnambulated in a counter-clockwise fashion. (His left-pointing trunk almost seemsto usher the devotee in this direction.) The niche on rhe east side of the iikhara holds an image of Karttikeya (Fig. r9.rz). In style, this figure strongly relates to a seventh-century representation of the same god from Mundeivari in Bihar (Fig. rr.7) in the flat, broad treatment of tbe body, though this Orissall exanple is more ornate. This reinforccs the suggcstion of a seventh-century date for this temple. Karttikeya is shown here in lalitasanaholding a jaAri (spear)in one hand and a citron in the other. }{is peacock uahand is shown in the act of killing a serpent.Kerttikeya's position in the rear ntche of the deul, a location generally reserved for a key icon of the temple, suggests his importance to the Paiupatas. A later stage in the development of Orissan architecture may be seen in the Mukte6vara

426

LA'IE]i NORTHERN SCHOOTS

form a.c.i of the ::: chitect -r is not irt. ereced : ceDrtlr\-tne q:!l{

rnPoF-all beaun- e posirion menr o: transitrci menrs c: ple still , the -la3;r mal h-a rn conrr' roof of .L.

r9.Il. Mukte(var.rrernplcfrorn sou(h$est'Bhubanci_ O.i'*, Indir. Pr;brbl) 50rrrrvarhiiperiod Ca' "r.", tenth centurY. quarter third

ro.r4. Plan of Mukte(vara remple Bhubanelvara' Orisi", India. Probably Sonavarhii pcriod Ca third quartcr tenth century.

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reaching agafr a phase o: a5 rn oc cornpler dme ile concePE 1I1e

locareo shrine,. others t the enu tordfia\I s'all re

ambuia I'all).' longer in the instead itself, l those r feature adds t< conceP and so a *idd of the

ORISSAAND REIATFD REGIONS 427

B:ubaneSvara, ..1. Ca. third

ternple at Bhubaneivara, frequently called the "gem" of Orissan architecture (Fig. r9.r3). In fo-rrnand sculpturalexcellence,this temple is one of the hishest achievementsof the Orissan archtect (iilpln). Although the date of the temple is not fixed by inscription, it is likely that it was erected around the third quarter of the tenth century, during the reign of Yayati I, one of the early rulcrs of the Somavaftii dynasty. The importance of this temple lies not only in its beaury and architectural perGction, but in its position as a kind of watershedin the develop-"ttt of Orissan architecture, marking the transitionbetweenthe"early" and"late" developments of the style.Like early structures,the temole still consists of two main p tts, the deul ^r\d ih" iogo.ohon (Fig. 19.ra), while later e*"mples may have as many as four separateunits. But, in contrast to the ParaSureme{varatemple, the roof of the jdganohan is fully developed into the pidha form. In size, the temple is small, height of only about ten meters, ,"""hiog " asain a feature often associatedwith tbe earlier phase of the building tradition, for in Orissa, is in other parts of India, the developments in complexity of iconography and structure over time inevitably led to bigger and more grandiose conceptrons. The Mukte6vara temple faces west and is located in a compound with a number of other shrines and temples. It is separated from the others brr a low compound wall. On the west, the entranceinto its iompound is marked by a tora4a(Frg. r9.r5) and on the east,the compound wall reachesjust to the edge of a sacred tar* (it is therefore impossible to completely circumambulate this temple outside of the temple wall). The compound wall (Fig. r9.r3) is no longer a simple rectangle, as had been the case in the Para6ureme5varatemple, but follows instead the shapeof the exterior of the builfing itself, having ratha-llke prcjeci'ons paralleling those of the temple, The tora4a, an :urlusual feature in extant temPles from Orissa, greatly adds to the unity and beauty of the overall conception. In appearance, the tora4a is heatry and solid, having two thick pillars separatedby a width only slightly greater than the diameter of the pillars. A thick arch built of separate

rg.!5. Tordta in fiont of Mukteivara telnple. Bhubane3vara,Orissa, India. Probably SomavafiSi period. Ca. third quarter tenth century.

pieces of stone that have been carefully fitted together bddges the space between the two uprights. This form, while shapedlike an arch, is not built at all along the principles of the true arch, but consists simply of overlapping layers of stone carved in a curved shape, The decoration of the toraqa includcs carved garlands adorning the sixteen-sided pillars, elaborate capitals, makara ends, and a pair of Grnale figures leaning against the arch form, as well as faces peering out of round niches along with floral and vine patterns. A very low plinth supports the temple but its function is perhaps more symbolic and psychological than physical as is the case in some other nagarustyles.(The compound wall, in fact, is also minimal, serving more as a demarcation and definition of a boundary than as a physical protection.) As seen from the plan (Fig. r9.r4), the jagamohax is essentially rectangular but has offset walls on both the interior and exterior, creating an approximately paicarathapIan, while the shrine is cubical inside

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LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

i

r9.r6. Irlterior of jdganahdtl lookiDg to\4'xrd shrine (cast), Muktc(vara tcnplc. Bhub:weivara' Orissa' lndia. Probabty Sorlravrrhii pcriod. Ca. llird quartcr

r9.r3. Blo ornancnt on ertcrior of.iilla|n, Mukteivare temple. Bhubane(vara,Orissr, India. Probably Souravarilii period. Ca. third quartcr tcrllh ccttur)'

r9.17. Cciling of jaganohdn, Muktcivara tcmple. Bhubate!vara, Orissa, India. Probably Somaverilii period. Ca. third quarter tendr century.

but has offset walls creating a Paicorathafo t on the exterior. Lavishly carvcd with increased numbers of architectural divisions and mouldings as well as sculpturcd figurcs, the extcriors of thcjagauohan and rekhadeul nark a dcparturc from the rclative sir.nplicity scen in the Para6urtmeivara temPle. An unusual feature for Orissan architecture is thc interior decoratiou of dte jagamohan,which, drough pillarless according to typical modcs, is here richly sculpted (Figs. 19.r6, r9.r7). The sl.rapeof the iikhara is similar to that of the Para6urSmeivaratemple but is slightly more elongated and slender. In spite ofthc fact that this tcnple is wcll preserved with most of its original sculptural decoration intact (except for the unfortunate absenceof the nichc iuragesof thc exterior), a full study of its iconography and iconographic program has ne,r". bc"., carried out. Howcver, one of its outstanding sculptural fcaturesis a highly claborate ornarnent called a bho, which appearslike a crest on the upper surfaceof the iikhata (Frg. ofan arch with a 19.r8).The rro, which consists a kirttirukha above flanked by pair of dwarfike

ORISSAAND RELATTD RIGIONS

429

a

if j'*

:.!ilple. Bhu?thii period.

vatha form h increased nd mouldte et
r9.r9. Rajarani temple from north Bhubane(vara,Orissa,India. Ca. rooo. r9.zo. Plan of Rejare4i cemple.Bhubaneivara, Orissa,Il1dia. Ca. rooo.

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430

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS

figures, is one of the typical elementsof Orissan temple decoration. Another important tcmple at Bhubanedvara is thc R.jar.fi (Fig. 19.r9). Dating from around A.D. rooo, its form shows a continuation of certain trends seen in earlier cxamples and also possessesa number of unusual features. This rather large ternple is typical in the relationship of its jaganohat to the sluinc area (Fig. r9.zo), in the usc ofthe pillas to form the superstrrlcturc of the jagamohan,and in the paicaratha plan of thejagamohan-However, tlli,.e lihhara has clusters of smaller likharas around the central core in contrast to the usual sirnple form found in Orissa. Instead, it resemblesthe common typc well developed in north-ccntral and western India at about the samedate. The complications of the rathds on the rekhar/erl almost give the

inpression that it is set at a diagonal to the jagatnohax,although this is not the case.Sculpturally, the cxterior of tbe jagamohanis qtite sirnple, a dominant Gature being the large colunrns encircled with sculpted naga figures fanling the entrance to the temple, a malc to the lelt and a fcmalc to drc right. In contrast, thc rekha deul is lavishly carved with sculptures that havc bccn rightly acclaimed as some of the {inest in all of Orissan art. In addition to wonderful vcgetative motifs, these include numerous figures of female beauties(Fig. i9.zr) and gods (Fig. 19.22).By this later date, figures havc become nrore acccntuated in pose, and more clongated. As in other approximately contempordneou\srylcs.the carving is ornate and therc is an emphasis on the treatment of surface detail in the jcwclry and costurne.

r9.:r. Sculpture of bcautilul ivonran oD Rejrrani tcr11p1c. Bhubanc6vara, Orissa, India. Ca, iooo.

19-22. Sculpturc of the god Varuna on R.jart4i tcrlplc. Bhubrnc(vara, Orisa, Lrdia. Ca. rooo-

oRrssAAND RTLATEDREGTONS4J1 :: -i

to thc

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The dorninating architectural feature of the Bhubane(varalandscapeis the Saivite Liirgaraja temple, its rectangularwalls enclosingnumerous temple5 21d shrines that surround the central four-part temple (Fig. 19.23). Mitra has called it a "pro_dqctofthe accumulatedand crystallized experienceof severalcenturies."1zIndeed, such a monunent is testimony to the collective skill of the Orissan architects. Supposedly begun at the instance of Saiairka, king of Bengal, in the early seventh century, the ternple bears no visible evidence to support this traditional account. Instead,the monument clearly belongs to the late phaseofbiissan architecture,having been btrilt in ar leasr two main stagcs.Thc rckha deul and jaganohan were probably constructed during Somavarhii rule around the middle of tbe eleventh century, as suggestedby

their relationship to the Brahmcivara temple of around ro6o, while two more additions, the bhogana4dapa (hall of offering$, at the eastern end of the sequence of four structures, and nagnou|h (hall of dance), between the 6iogama114apoand the jagamohon, were built approximately a century later (Figs. t9.23, tg.z4). The surrounding templesand shrinesin the cornpound, some attachcdto the main templc itselq wcrc built at diferent points in time and demonstrate the continually active religious role this temple has served in the history of Bhubanedvara. Sincc the temple is still in active worship today, it cannot be fully studied. Thus, a temple that is clearly one of the most important in the Orissan tradition is little understood by modem scholars. The main entrance to the hugc compound,

Orissa, r9.2J. Lingerajx tcnplc fron northcast. Bhubanc6vara,Orissa, India. Ca. mid-clfl'cnrh ccnr:ury, wirh additions in mid-trvclfih century.

432

LATEP.NORTHERN SCHOOLS

which mcasuresmore than rJo metersiIr length and about r4o in width, is on the east and there are two smaller gates on the north and south. However, thc odentation of the compound is slightly off of true north. The addition of the bhoganandapaand xatamandir to the two basic temple elements reflects the growing conrplexityin tlte riru:ri and rcligiouspractice.. From the plan, all four elements appear about equally balancedin terms of extemal size (Fig. 19.24) but the heights of the roofs form a series of increasing crescendoslrom the front e]ements to the peak of the iiftlzara, which reaches a height ofabout sixry meters.As may be notcd for numerous other art traditions, possibility and probability are inextricably linked, and what the rrchitccts had hoped they could achievebecamea reality only whcn tcchuological advanccmentsoccurred. Thus, the construcuon of tlre massive likhara of thc rekha deul was acconrplrshed b1 the rrseof severaiiuccer.ive ceilingscrcrting a numbcr ,,I vertically supcrimposed chambersin thc towcr itself, effectively stabilizing thc walls. In form and character,the rckha deul is not unlike earlier examples, the chief distinction being its impressive size. The form of the jagamohar, with in layered roof, also reflects the type seen at an earlier stage of architcctural devclopment. All elements of the temple are strictly organized according to vertical and horizontal divisions. Thus, in spite of an abundancc of sculpturcs on the exteior, the dominating effect is onc ofa highly ordcrcd architecturalforr:r. Sculptures and carved decorations lavishly adorn the exterior of dre tCmplc, inclirding reprcsentationsof beautiful women in a variety of poses,a cornnon inotif on Orissan tcmples. Onc sl.rows a wonan adjusting her garnent (Fig. 19.25) and id ren.rarkablenot only for the vitality of the deeply-carvedfigure but because of the intricate and delicate carving of her pedestal(not visible in thc photo). The angular posc and sharply defincd facial fcaturcs are typical characteristicsof carvings of this date. 3l 0 ?,!,:,9 15 From the time of Sa$irka's putativ€ inlluence on Odssa until the thirteenth century, Orissa 19.24.Plan of Lingartja templc. BhubaDeivara,O sa, was prinarily Saivitc (espcciallyPa6upatite)as India. Ca. mid-elevcnthccntury, rvith additionsin rliddelronstrated by the fact that most of the twelfth century.

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ORISSAAND RELATEDREGIONS 4.'J

B :-:! and r ::h and : ::-: com1. ,idition : :hc two :.: fractlces. ,.e". about )rm a serl€s iront ele:ich reaches rv be noted possibility inled, and :iey could chnological 'onsrructlon e deul was I succcssive ralry suPer. cffectively .]racter, the rrnplcs, the e size. The \'L-redroof, ier stage of ..nts of the ;ording to IS. ln SPlte :L- exteriol, ,l. ordered rs lavishly . including ::r remples. :': gxrnrent ':iv for the :u! because :::g of her lle angular :-iIures are :::it datc. r',- inlluencc :::r'. Orissa .:-:tat1te,) aS

.:': of thc

Gairga period, including the famous Jagannatha temple at Puri (one of the most sacredtemples in Orissa, which, like the Lingaraja templc, is dificult to study becauseit is still uscd in active wordrip) and the Ananta VSsudcva temple at Bhubane6vara(Fig. 19.26),as wcll as the magni6cent Sun temple at Konarak (Konarka; Figs. 19.28-40). The Ananta Vasudeva, the supreme examplc of a Vai;r.ravite temple at BhubaneSvara,was dedicated in rz78 (as known by inscription)13 by Candradevi, a daughtcr of Anangabhima III during the lule of Bhanudeva (I) of the Ganga dynasty. In spite of the fact that the sectarian oricntation is Vaisnavite rathcr than Seivite, the to bc simply a rebasicform ofthe ten.rpleseen.rs ducedversion of the Lingarajatcmplc, following precisely the general trcnds visible in thc development of the Orissan tetrtple tyPe. Consisting of four elements, again the bhogonaltlapa ard xitamandir (which arc later additions) and the jaganohan and rckha dcul (Fig. 19.27), rhc primary diffcrcnce between this teurple and nost others at Bhubancivara is the sculptural decoration, which includes incarnations of Vi;gu and shrinc images of Krgna, Balar-ama, and Subhadra, K1lna's sister. Howevcr. a cornplcrc)ydifferentconccprion. though still within drc limits of thc Orissancan19.25.Sculpture of wornan adjusringher garnlcDt, o11 ons,is found in thc renowned Sun tcmplc at KoLiirgarajx renple. Bhubaneivara, Orissa, India. Ca. narak,not far from Bhubane6vara,whichis clearly mid-clcvcnth century. one of the most ambitious and wcll-thought-out nonunents in all of South Asia. Dcclicatcd to Surya, the sun god, ancl built in the forrtr of, gigrntic chariot pulled by sevcn horses, this important temples of that approximately 6ooye.rr period were of that religious persursion. templc (Fig. 19.28) rnarks drc high point in the achievemcnts of the Orissan architects and However, a ncw phase in the religious history embodics advanced astronornical rnd rcligious of Orissa was ushered in by thc Gangas, one views of thc thirteenth ccntury as rvcll. It is a of the most distinguished princely lines in nonument that was grcat in its own time and ancient India, the later branch of which was Iong after, having bccn written about in eyewitVaignavite in their religious preGrcnce. Various to ir\ ncssaccountsand in latcr tert\ .ubseqtren( branchesof this illustrious family had controlled construction. That it does not represe[t the portions of Orissa, cspeciallyKalinga, for somc "dccadence" ofthc Orissanstyle, ashas so oftcn centuries, and already had a temple building been stated,will be clearly seenin thc following tradition at Mukhalingam in Andhra Pradesh.In discussion. the twelfth century, Anantavarman Chodaganga A l r h o r r g hr l r e r ei s n o d c d i c r t o r yi n ' c r i p t i o r r dcfeated the Somavarir(is,thereby considcrably at the tenplc, a latcr inscriptionraand important extending the Gairga tcrritories. A number of textual cvidcnce, the latter largcly discoveredby Vaignavite monuncnts were erectcd during the

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS

r9.26. Anants Vasudcvetcnrplc lrol1l south Bhubxnelvara' O ssa' lndix. Gangeperiod, reign ofBhanudcva (I) Dcdicatedill r278.

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19.27. Plan of Ananta Vasuctcva tenrplc- Bhubaneivara' Orissa, India. Ganga pcriod, reig ofBhanudcv: (l). Dcdicrrcd in r278.

ORISSAAND RELATEDREG]ONS 4JJ

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Alice Boncr,rs reveal that Raja NgsirirhadevaI of the Gairga dynasty initiated construction of the temple at the suggestionof his mother while hc was still a prince eighteen years of age. The occasion was his return fiorn successfulcampaigning in the capacity of commander-in-chief of his father's army and the money to be used was rhe boory gained lronr rhesecempaignr. However, funds from the royal treasury plus other contributions eventually went into the total cost of the building, which has bcen calculated to represent one thousand times Nrsirhhadeva's weiglrt in gold. From its iniriation, the project became the preoccupation of Nrsirhhadeva for nearly twenty years. Records show that it took six years and three months of planning and twelve years and ten months of building and was completed only after hc had beconc king. A popular but unfounded view regarding the temple is that due to the grand scaleof the conception and inadequatebuilding techniques, the work was never completed. Textual sources indicate that the tcmple was finished and consecrated, and that thi main irnage was installed on Magha Sukla saptdtlti, the birthday of the sun god, which occurred on a Sunday in the Saka ycr rr7g, equivalent to A.D. r2J8. Thus, the period of building, fiom conception to completion, was from about tz3g to 1258. The rcmples fame apparentlysprcrd far and wide for several."nturi.i lr, .o-"f,., pletion. Caitanya, the great Vaisnavite saint from Bengal(r486-r533),visitedthe temple,and the great sixteenth-century Mughal e.rnperor Akbar's court chronicler, Abn'l-"Fazl, went to the place and remarked that "even those whose judgemcnt is critical and who are difiicult to pleasestandastonishedat its sight."16Nineteenthcentury visitors, such as Stirling, Fergusson, and Kittoe also saw the temple stiil standing, including portion, of th" n-o* lost likhai, although much destruction brought about by age or malicious intent had alrcady begun to show. For example, the l
tion of tire temple by Nlsirirhadeva would have been placcd there as well, according to an ancientpractice. The date of consecrationwas not just chosen at.random but rvas rather a target date carefully selected by the king becausc of its auspiciou,ness. (In fact, in impaticnce to have ihe temple _his completed by that date, the king may ha-ve been responsible. for ]c"ser qualiry work by iorcrng construcrioneven during rhe rainy sca_ son.) Astronomical evidence ha-scorroborated that.Magha Sukla saptamioccurred on a Sunday in the year r2J8, as it does oncc every seven years.The auspiciousness of this day, due to the coincidcnceofthe sun god's birthday falling on a Sunday, was such that the mcrit accrued frorn doing good deedswas multifold.rz A main func_ tion,ofthe-Sun temple was to facilitate worship of thc birthday of rhe sun god each year. "l_ rhough othcr fornrs of worship. strch'asdaily sun rituals, mlnthly cerenloni"i cel"br"dng th'" movemcnt of the sun through the signs oi the zodiac, and the celebration of equinoxes and eclipsesalso formed part of the bisic functions of the Sun temple.ls Like typical Odssan temples, the Sun temple at Konerak is situated within the center of a largeguadranguJar compound (Fig. r 9.29,inser). A number of smallershrinesare also witiLin the compound wall, some possibly older than the main temple itscle At least three different types of stone were used in the construction of lhe temple, each of which had to be brought from somedistancc,A fine chlorite was usedfor carved doorframesand important images: larerire,for the core of the plarlorms and staircases; and khondalite, an easily weathered stone, for the m a j o r i r yo f r h e b u i l d i n g .A l r h o u g hm o r t a r w a s nor used. dowcls were cmpioyed to hoid the stonestogether. In contrast to early stone tcm_ ples, the joints were finely disguisedby surface dccoration. The n-rainstructureis oriented to the east and has been buiit to be almost perGctly aligned with true north. The temple sit' on a high plinrh and consirrs of a rekha deul and a jagaiohan. Thc rekha deul has a cruciform plan on the exterior due to the addirion of risas (niche remples)on the south, north. and west, although the.hrine interior is

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19.29. Plan of Sun tcnrple. Konarak, Orisa, India. Ganga pcriod, built by Nrsifihxdeva L r2r8 58.

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ORISSAAND RELATEDREGIONS 4J7

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square. The jagamohanhas esscrtially an elaboratcdpoicarathaexterior cxtended conceptually by the plinth, which projects outward on the north and south sidcs,again crcating a cruciform configuration in the plan but leavrng a sguare interior (Fig. 19.29). Originally, the shrine was topped by a likhara; the jaganohan is of the 'fhe pidha rypc.\e nila templcs surrorurding tlre slrrine contin paiva-deuafas,the sccondary aspectsof the main deity of the templc, in this case, threc variants of Surya, which will be discusscdbelow. A detachedhall, which may be a ratumafldil ot a bhoganaxdapa,precedcs the temple. It is square in plan and rcsts on a high plinth but is roolless now, although its heavy pic$ nust once havc supported a roof of some ryPc. At prcsent,thc temple is in a quite ruined statc; rtsrekhadeulis alnost totally lost and thejagatnolrz interior has been filled in and blocked offin recent years. Howevcr, the original appcarAnce may be infcrrcd from a drarving fiom a palm leaI n.ranuscript(Fig. r 9.3o).20The drawing sholl,.s the teurple as it nright have looked, complctc witb iikharo al.d pidha roof, in its rolc serving

r9.3o. SLrn rerDplc at Konarak. Illustration on le:rvcs of a palm leaf nrarruscript of r6ro fron Orissa, India. Prcsent lvhereabouts unknorvn. (After Boner and Sarm,, Ntw Light on the Sutt Tenple oJ Kd?a/[a, courresv Chowklumba Sanskrir Scries.)

as a rcpresentationof a chariot for thc sun god's daily and annual journeys through the sky. Thus, while the ternple in many ways is typical of Orissan art (although more elaborate and larger than any other examplc),its form rcsembles a chariot being drawn by sevenhorses,with one horsc for each day of thc weck, thrcc on the north and four on the south. Thc concept of the tenple as chariot rnay bc related to thc practice of using a large wooden crt (ntha) to parade portable imagcs of a deity through thc city strccts on spccial occasions, which was prevalent in various parts of ancicnt India. Thc cart motifas a part ofthe designofa nonumental stone temple, hor,,'cvcr,probably derivcs fiom southern Indian types. Sincc one of Nrsirhhadeva'squeens was a Pendya and Nrsirirhadeva himself was a descendantofa Cola princesswho had bccn marricd into the Ganga femily, such a correlation could cxist.2l Thc twclve pairs of wheels carved on the plinth represcnt the r$'cive months or signs of thc zodiac. Each rvheel is more tiran thrce meters in diameter ancl ius cight major and eight minor spokes(Fig. r9.3r). Tlic rims,spokes,

SCHOOLS 4J8 LATET.NORTHERN ro.1r. Wheel on Plinrh of Sun Orissi.,lndra' tc,r-rpl..four"t. Gang:rPcrjod. rcign ot NrsrmhadcvaI. r238-58.

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ro.r2. Easr doot to ioga Lohalt' Surt t."tPl.. Konlrak, Orissa' India. Canga Period, retgn ot NlsirnhrdevaI r238-J8'

with and other elements are caryed in detail wcll' as figurcs and notifs foliate an,l l".or"ti r. + ,p..in. iconographyhe' nor t'een deternrincd to a lor eachpair of whcels,but c"ch m"y relate partic,rlarsign of the zodiac in- sculpturalprogrrm rs well .,sposition One o1 the manusctlPt5 *nft tirc rernplc tells of the whcels i..ii"* ""qu"l to the constellationsof the zodiac b.ine cereariothe, tclls of thc dcvotions and *hi[ aPProPrtat the pairs monies paid to the vadous as a ate tim;. Beneaththe whecls and running a band is temple the the plinth of er."" "rou"a in pr-ocession'Although tiny' they o? "l.oh.rr* more ,arrr.'" f,to"tion similar to that of their Kailasaet thc gr".rdior" countcrParts,like those temPle at Ellora' natha -yet it Th. doortu", rc thejaganohanis lavish' that clemcnts clabo"tion of mo.. ,a^"n,, "n Gupta Pedod hi,l bcen visible at least since the Multiplication r9 (Fig 3z)' direction n.ih"n " ,.,ch j"n.tbs and lintels indicate oi,tt. .t"-""" "' complication The scalc o[ in,i. n-*i"* is 'eJuccd proporrionarcto rhe aitta"""f ..iif and thus eaci eLment te"mt lett J""rriit.rt"*"

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ORISSAAND RELATED REGIONS 4Ji9

ietail with :-:ies aswcll. : ierermined .rr_relate to a ':lanuscrlPts rhe wheels ,: rhe zodiac :. and cere:ie appropri:Jlnlng as a :l; is a band --a tlny, tney : :hcir more : ihe Karlasa-

:.en1entsthat 3!pta pedod ,'r':ldplication ..:elsindicate ',-ale of ini,.rate to the ':i! seemsless

prominent, Above the doorway was placed a huge stone slab carved with represcntationsof the navagrahas(nine planets; Fig. 19.33). Although particularly Iitting a subject on a temple dedicated to celestial ald astronomical deities, suchasthe sun god, the nauagtahas atefiequently part of the doorway schemeof northern Indian temples after the Gupta period. The lifting into place of this extremely heary stone is described in one of the rnanuscripts associatedwith the temple : apparently pulleys manipulated by both elephants and humans performed the chore. From left to right, the planets are Ravi (Sun), Soma (Moon), Mangala (Mars), Budha (Mercury). lJfllaspau(JuPrterJ,)ukra tvenus). 5aru (Saturn), Rahu (ascendingnode of the moon), and Ketu (descending node of the moon), although it should be noted that technically, Ravi, Sorna,Rehu and Ketu are not planets. Each of the reDlesentationsshows a seated figure contained within an architectural niche resemblinga rniniature temple. Carved ofa close grained chloritic stone,as are other major sculptures at the temple, each figure is distinguished by certain featuresor attributes.The most striking representation is that of Rihu, typically shown as a kind of demonic monster, holding the crescent moon symbolic of lis supposed devouring of the moon, wfuch is said to cause eclipses(Fig. 19.34).In style, the imagesresernble other rnajor images at the temple, although they difer from the general sculpturescarved as part of the walls and fabric ofthe temple. This is due not only to the use of a different stone, but be-

r94j. Navagtahaparcl ofeast door to jagalrolmn,Sun tempie. Konarak, Orissa, India. Gairga period, reigD of Nrsirhhadeva L r2l8-J8. Houscd in shed at site. Chlorite.H: rr4 c1n;L:6.o9J m.

19.34. Rahn; dctail o{ utagraha paDcl, Sun temple. Konirak, Orissa,India. cariga period, rcign of Nisirilhadeva I. r238-J8. Houscd in shed 3r sirc. Chlorite. H: (of 6gure) ce. 90 cm.

440

rATER NOnTHERN SCHOOTS

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19.35. SDryl in southenr t?i.ia,Sun tcmPle Konarak, Orissa, L,dia. Ganga period, reign of Nqsifihadeva I' r;38-58. Chiorite.H: 338cm.

19.36.NfsirirhadevaI as an archer. Fron Sun tenple. Konrrak, Orissa,India. Garigaperiod, reign of NJsirhhrdeva L 1238-58. Black chlorite. H: 89 cm. National Museum, New Delhi.

causethe finest craftsmenwcre selectedto work on thesespccialirnages,asverified by the manu5cript .rcco(rnts,while Iessdistinguishcdartisrs pro;ided rhe nurncrous olhcr cnrvings The are notable for rhe rather heuresof the pJ.rnets ,ri.lled form, of the bodies, the broad, smililg faces and aimost slitlike features(especiallythe the fine eyeE, thc high-peaked headdresses, "nd detailing of the jewelrY. Orisinallv, there were at least four major the temple, one in each of the three i-"g"i "t and the nrain image nilai(the rhreepar!rra+/erralas) ofthe sanctumofthe temple (which is now lost)' The southern(Fig. r9.35) and western rlia figures show Surya in a standing posture, while that on thc noith shows a dcity scatedupon a horse' It is posible that this figure does not represent Survr rt all but may dcpict Revanta.his son' ridesa horse. fhe southwho characteristicelly em image shows the god standing with no flex ro his body in a manner behtring, nrajor icon'

As is typical of Surya, he has two arms, which hold lotuses. Hh body is nearly cornpletely detached from the back-slab of surrounding elements, a feature also found in sculptures of comparable date in other northem styles. A stiff smile is visible on the face, lacking the gcntlenessand warmth of rnany eariier images, Lut still of very fine quality sculpturally. The denselygrained stone permitted great amounts of detailing on such accoutrementsasthejewelry worn by thc god. His sevenhorsesare depicted being driven by his charioteer below, and he is flanked by attendant figures, with the kneeling figlre in afijali mudra next to Surya's right foot said to be a raja, posstbly Nrsidrhadeva himself. 'Whether

or not this is the case,a number of reliefs fron.r the ternple have been identified as representing King Nlsirirhadeve and events in his life. In fact, certain aspects of the iconographic program of the temPle seem to

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oRISSA AND RELATED REGIONS 441

r Sun temple. erl of NrsirhS9 cm. Na-

|rms, which completely ;urrounding erlptures of D sryles.A lacking the lier images, urally. The 2l amounts

thejewelry ue depicted v. and he is he kneeling s right foot adeva himnurnber of r identified ald events :ts of the ple seem to

19.37.Nrsirirhadeva I worshipingDurga Mahisesura- r9.j8. Sculpture of female musician atop roof of mardiniandJagannttha. From Sun temple.Konerak, jaganohan of Sun temple. Konerak, Orissa, India. Orissa,India. Gangaperiod, reign of NJsirhhadeva Ganga period, reign of NpsithhadevaI. r238,J8. L r238-J8.Black chlorice.H: 87 cm. NationalMuseum,New Delhi.

be personal to him rather than conceived for the deity. ln the Baya Cakala manuscttpt tt is noted that the king on returning from war ordered an image to be made showing him "in the attitude of a triumphantly returning warrior,"zz and, although this image is not known, others relating to events in his life have been identified. One sculpture shows the king as an archer (Fig. 19.36)and is apparently the carving described in the Baya Cakada as that made by the artisan Ganga Mahapatra and for which he receiveda pair of si]k cloths, two earrings, atrd fwe tolas of gold. Another shows the king worshiping a shrine with an image of Durga Mahisasuramardini at the left and Jagannatha (the main image of the temple of that name at Puri in Orisa) next to her (Fig. 19.37). While most of these images clearly refer to the king alone, one relief identified as the marriage of Rema and Sita fiom the Ramaya4a has been interpreted as a double play on the name Site,

referring to both Srta and Sitadevi, the wiG of the king, and thus the king as Rama. Carved of chlorite. these figures are again very crisp in detail, and in style they relate to the master works of the parlva-deuotas. Monolithic stone sculptures in the Konarak compound include the free-standing animal colossi that "guarded" the three original stairways of the jagamohax, namely, wvo lions atop crouching elephantson tJ}e east, two war stallions on the south, and two eleohants on the north. Huge free-standing ..olptures also adorn the roof of the ja3amohan, whose pilhas are ab ranged in three terracelike main stages. The uppermost of these bears enormous representations of lions seatedon their hind legs and facing outward. The lower two bear life-size and larger than life-size sculptures, primarily of female musicians (Fig. 19.38), gracefully and rhythmically posed, as well as representations of Bhairava. Originally two Bhairavas faced each

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r9.39.U3ra(Terrifying)Bhairaveatoproofofjaganohar of Suntemple.Konarak,Orissa,India. Gangaperiod, reignofNrsirhhadeva I. rzjS-58.

tg,4o. MithLtna,on Sun remplc. Konarak, Orissa, India. Gangaperiod,reign of Nlsirhhadeva I. rz38 J8.

direction, onc being peaceful, the other terrifying (Fig. 19.39)in countenance,and lepresented the benign (anugra) and wrathful (rgr4) jrotectors of the temple above the portals. Each Bhairava hasfour facesand six arms, and appears in a dancing posture, standing upon a boat, which is said to be the sqhsarq-potd,or world boat. Both the fenale nusicians and the Bhairavas are extremely powerful figurcs, not only becauseof their size, but becauseof the monumentality with whicb they are represented. Thesc figures are large, full bodied, and actively posed.Yet in spite oftheir heavy fleshiness,they are remarkably graceful. The omxmcntation and jewelry are so fully carved that the figures actually seem to be "wearing" their decorations. Each figure is posed naturalistically, as if the artist had an understandingof anatorny and motion, aswell asdanceand music in India. Yet the aim was apparently not to capturc the individual physiognomy of particular characters. This rnay be inferred from the Baya Caka/a,

which tells of an artist who carved three sculptures of Gmalc figures, one of which was rejected by thc overseeingarchitect, who claimed that the artist had made it a likenessof his wiG and therefore it could not be placed on the tenlple. An intriguing aspectofthe sculpturalprograrn of the Sun temple at Konarak is the profusion of nithuxas and erotic sculptures decorating the walls of the buildings (Fig. r9.4o). These figures have received much attention, as have those at Khajuraho and other mainly northem temple sitesof the post-Gupta periods. In general, however, their purpose and meaning has been studied out of contcxt. At Konarak, in light of the overall hugenessof the monument itself, the erotic images in fact play a rather minor role. Some interpreters have associated the erotic figures on the Sun temple with Saturn cults, but this claim has not been substantiated. An excellent explanation of eroticism in the context ofthese tenples is given by Boner,z3for

she sayst (physical prema, the by denial sublimati both rhe Anothe revealed portablei: of the Sun to carry I metal "su mediators and the S is now pr Puri and r image s'o would ha for that p Another developm ship, l'hic leled the I ofthe rarir

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ORISSAAND RNIATED RIGIONS

Jdssa, k:' lr : . r:38-

she says-thatin the search for the Truth, hama (physical desire) could be transformej into prema, the self-surrender that cannot be achieved by d, nial bur only rhrough transFormation and sublimation.Thus, the nl'thra would represent both the union and the transformanon_ Another important aspecq of the temple, revealed in the Baya Cikada, is the use of portabieimagesoF metal. Sincethe main image of the Sun temple was ofstone and was too larie to carry out for worship and procession,rlv"o metal "surrogare''imagcs of Sirya .,served as medrarorsberween this image (the stone image) and the Sun God in heaven."zaOn. su.h i-[i "in is now preserved in the Jagarnarha t.rnpl. Pun and was posibly from Konarak. Suih an tmage would have been used in ceremoniesand would have been bathed, dressed,and anointed ior that DurDose. Another importanr aspect of the religious , -wor_ developments in ancient Orissa was lakti yH.h developedin Hinduism and paral_ :Tp; teled he Wajfid devotion in Buddhism. In spire oI the ru\ty of yogifli templesin India,25 two are

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44Ji

located in Orissa. Alrhough rhe dares o[ the Lrnssanexampiesare not fixed by inscriprion or orher known historical evidence, they ieem to date lrom_the Somavarh:iiperiod or perhaps slrght'yearlier.yogini rcmples,dedicateJto rhe sLxry-tout (female yogins)are generally ,yogirlts circular, the form usuaily ,"rroii"t.d *i,h th. teminine aspect,as seen in the small temple at Hirapur (Figs. rg.4t, t9.42). The entranceio the Hirapur temple extends outward fiom the circular enclosure; thus, the form resembles the circulat yoni and.spout into which the liiga is trequentlyset in Saiviteshrines.undoubtedly a detrberareatlusion.-Originally. the temple had srxry sculptures ot yoginrs arranged in niches around the inner circumference of the temple, aswell asother female and male imagesin nicLs both,inside.andout. One exanrpleihows Ajai_ kapadaBhairava_ (Fig. tg.+l). m"le d.iry wlth " oruy one teg. who is rarcly encounrered in rhe vast repertoireof lndic iconographyand whose mcarungrssU uncerrain.No indicarionrhat rhe cerrtral courtyard was rooGd over exists in this or the other known yogir; tenples.

441

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19.42. PIe:r.of /ogi'ri tcrnple. Hirapur, Orissa, I[dia. Ca. tenth century.

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:n::: r:-,'Fr r9.43. AjaikapedaBhairava at ?ogi,ri templc. Hilepur, Orissa,India. Ca. tenth century.

BUDDHIST ART oT ORISSA

The Buddhist art of Orissa is one of the least studied subjectsofall South Asian art, in spitc of the fact that archaeologically, the region is enornously rich in this material. In many respects,the sculptural styles parallel those seen at variolrs stages of development of Orissan Hindu art. However, the architectural forms reflectBLrddhisrtradirionso[ other regionsexcept in their decorative elements,which arc also tied to the Orissan style. Much of the architecture is in ruins and will therefore be excluded from discussionhere. Thc prcscncc of Buddhism in Orissa apparently goes back to a very early date. At lcast by thc time of A(oka, Buddhism had been established,and it has'survived there even to the presentday in various forms. Buddhism was apparently encouraged in the early eighth century, when the Bhauma (Kara) kings came

into power, for the first three oftheir rulers were Buddhist devotees,and it continued to fourish under subsequentnon-Buddhist rulers. ArchaeoIogical evidence testifies that there was considerableactivity during this period, and this is vcrified in Chinese sources,as well as by the Tibetan historian Teranatha, who was well aware of the importance of the Buddhist monasteriesin Orissa as thcological centersfrom the eighth through the twelfth centuries. Very little of the early material in Orissa has survived, but the art styleswere definitely relatcd to those found in northern Andhra Pradesh. Indced, from the eighth through the twelfth centuries the two areas seern to have forrned a single complex. Most notably, the site of Salihundam in Andhra Pradesh has yielded stone sculpture almost identical to examples found in the Asia Hill range in Orissa.Thus, to fully

ORISSAAND RETATEDREGIONS 445 understand the Buddhist art of orissa, it is necessaryto look not only to Orissan traditions, but to thoseof contemporaneousAndhra Pradesh, wbich in tum greatly depend on the Ikgvaku and other early traditions, Four sites in the Asia Hill range, near the Virupa River, are among the best known later Buddhist sites in Orissa, namely Lalitagiri (or Nilitagiri), Udayagiri, Ratnagiri, and Vajragiri. Because so little excavation has been done at thesesites,a firm chronology ofthe monuments and their srylistic developments cannot be established, nor have the stylistic distinctions from site to site been determined. Therefore, the presently suggested dates are based on comparative stylistic and iconographic relationswith other sitesin South Asia. The excavated ruins of Ramagiri have produced an enormous quantity of sculptures dating from the eighth t}rough the twelfth centuries. Presently situated in the shrine of the uihara is an approximately eighth-centufy Buddhist trinity (Fig. rg.aa) consisting of Sakyamuni under

ir rulerswere d to flourish :rs.Archaeore l1tas con-

l. and this is ll as by the o rvas well rddhistmonrrs from the t.

in Orissa has airely related ua Pradesh. nlelfth cen'e formed a site of Saliielded stone mpJesfound rus. to fully

19.44. Sakya"'uni Buddha attended by bodhisattvasAvalokiteivara and Menju6ri-Vajrapeti. Ramagiri, Orissa, India. Ca. eighth century.

the bodhitree in the center, attendedby Avalokiteivara to his right (Fig. r9.a5) and by Maffju6riVajrapanito his IeFr.Each bodhisatrvacarriesa fywhisk (carrl) in addition to distinguishing flowers and attributes. Technically, the figure of Sakyamuni illustrates a number of interesting features. It is pieced together from separate blocks of stone, a technique also seenat Sirpur (Fig. 19.6). The massiveblock from which the lower portion ofthe figure is carved is by far the largest, and the head is carved from a small squareblock surrounded by severalother pieces carefully joined to form the ptabhaman{alabehind the figure. The fact that the prabhamatldola itselfand thc halo superimposedon it completely lack detail suggeststhat these were originally painted. The damageto the face is typical ofthat effected at the time of the Muslim conquest when deliberate defacement was carried out. Stylistically, the figures have a heaviness and massive quality reminiscent of Vakaqaka art of the western Deccan, although a historical connection is not known. The bodies and heads are

446

NORTHERNSCHOOLS LATE.Il.

r9.45. Dctril of r9.44, Avalokitcavare. Rauagiri, Orissa, India. Ca. eigh$ centtry.

dcpictedasif rvithin Avalokite6vara, r9.46.Khasarpana Moult Potalaka.Udayagiri, Oriss:r,India. Ca. latc ninth tenthccntury.Spccklcdbeigestone.H: ca. r8o cn, asseenwith bottornburicd.

roundcd and yet thc features of thc faces, the snail-shell curls of the Buddha's hair, and the outlincs ofthe figure are very crisp. The Buddha wcars such a diaphanousgarmcnt that it is barely visible cxcept for the thin diagonal acrosshis chcst. The Lo,lhisatt,r"s also have a soft, fleshy qrr.rlity.crpeci:rllyin tlte w.ry th.rttlrcirlbdomens h.ng ou"i rlreir girdlc, rnd in th" fullncssoI

vuious other xttcrdants end worshipcrs fill the stele.Even the halo around his head is decorated along thc rim. The figures includc tl.re scven rzanrgl Buddhas along the top and Tara and Bhrkuti flanking his halo. As in Bengal and Bihar, nurnerous Tantric sculpturcshavc been fotnd in Orissa. An irnagc of Samvara found at Ratnagiri, perhaps of the elever.rthcentury, follows thc dcscription found .'lmosr ex.tctly (tig. in the MspnrrnayoSri-rali the uajra and gha\ta carries Tlre deity 19.47)26. mufua), thc (,ajrahnfikara hands in his crossed (k:ntfc), kattrt (axe), paraiu (anartr (drttm), taitapvla (skull), trijnln (tridcnt), Lapala \noose), Instead Bra,ltrrakapala, and the bhatuaiga(stafl:-). a he carries companion, of embracing a female counterPart synbolic sta{l'(ia&rl), which is thc of the fernale form. Tucked into thc crook of his left arm, it takesthe place ofthe female, who

their cheeks. A four-arncd figure of Klasarpana Avalokitcivara at Udayagiri illustratesthe late ninth- or tcnth-centtuy style (Fig. 19.46) The figure is i\ t bhaiga rnore attenuatedand slender, starTds posture, and is n.ruch more highly ornamented than the earlicr examplcs.Standing graceful and relaxed, the bodhisattva is surrounded by a carvcd back-Jab thet depicts ]ti' ntountain abodc, Potalaka. A host of beings inhabit a rocky landscapeto the sides of the figure and

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ORISSAAND RITATXDREGIONS 447

i :s ifrvithin ::: Ca. late :. Hr ca.r80

:ers fill tl.re i: Jecorated : ahe scven r l are and .-:' Tantric . -\n rnage i-.:ps of the r:ion found rnJ gna\ta '':i!dra ). tne -,. IL-;f"\ jj..'(noose),

:e carricsa :l:lnterPart .' crook of r::alc. who

r9.47. Sanvara. From Ratnagiri, Orissa, India. Ca. eleventh century. Speckledbeige stonc. H: tr8 cm. Patna Museum, Patna.

is almost without exception placed to the lcft of her male consort in South Asian art. The ja&tl is held to Samvara'sbody by the hands tirat display uajrahaitkarcnudrl, further suggesting sextral connotations since thc uajra symbo\zes the n.ralewhilc the ghaga denotes the femalc. Thus, the god, with the iafttl held against his body by a pair ofhands forming the aajrahuhkara ,nudtu, syrtbolizes the obliteration of duality that is the Buddhist goal. Although thc Buddhists must certainly have known that the Hindu term, ja,trl, lvhich refcrs to the Gmale energy, was equivalent to their own te n, Fajfia, it is uqcertain whether a homonymous play o11thc term -iaftti, as both the spcar and the female essence, was intended in the lluddhist context. The arch bchind the head supportcd by the two uppermost hands is a schematization of the elephant skin that Samvara uscs as a cape. He

wcars as ornaments tltc sa4nudr?, thc six bone ornaments of Tantric yogitts. Itt addition, hc wears a garland, prcsumably of fifty heads, eacl.rone corrcsponding to one of tl.re syllables of thc Sanskrit phonetic systcrn. He stands in ali/ha posture on Bhairava and Kalaretri and is surroundedby thc cosnic fire that consur.ncs the universe at the end of thc con. The complcxity of this figure is charactcristic of thc decply involved philosophies of Vajrayana Buddhisn.r predominating here and elscwhcrc in South Asia at this tirrre, and yet such a figure can be read easily by initiates who have learned the meaning ofevery elen.rent.Thc presenceofsuch figures in Buddhism has given rise ro a considerablenumber of academicargun.rentsregarding thcir source of origin. Son.rc aurhors see their bcgimrings in Saivitc cults that rl,'ere assimilated by the Buddhists. Odrers hold that these figures are,Buddlist in origin and wcre I a t c ra c c c p t e idn S a i r i s m I. t j s c u r i o u sr o n o r ei n this respectthat the elephant skin held aloft, thc multiplicity of arrns, the stancc,and indeed the very characterofthe figure are strongly suggcstive of forn.rslike Siva destroying Andhakasura (Fig. 16.6). Stylistically, thc figure of Samvara is columnar and in spite oflis stance,static, and it lacks the lithc attcnuation of carlier imagcs. Theremainsof the AsiaHill rangeindicatethat thc nrosr advunced lorms of Tantrism ,,rcre practiccd in this region. Just as i[ the casesof Sarnath and thc Bengal/Bihar rcgions, travelers fiom China and Tibet visited thcsc sites and ccrricrl back wirh rhem to tlrcir o.,ln counrrics tl.rosebelicfs and practices that were to perpetuate Indic Buddhisra, although not within the Indic boundarics. In addicion, a strong rclationship visually r.naybe seenbetr,veenmany of the Buddhist works fror.n Orissa and carvings from Java ofapproximately the samcdatc,2?suggesting furthcr international ir.nplications for Orissan art. Sincc it is known that the royal fan.riliesof Java and Orissawere linked by marriage, furthcr investigation of each of the art traditions will undoubtedly lcad to clarification of the othcr. Fullcr study of thc Orissan Buddhist rcmains protrises to providc n-ruchinforr-nationregarding an important chapter in the history of Buddhist art.

4I8

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS CoNcLUsroN

The eastern Indic artistic traditions maniGsted in Orissa and adjacentareasare among the most clearly perceived of the Indic developments. Temples and sculptureswere produced in stone at least sincethe seventh century, and the tradition may be traced in observable, identifiable stagesthrough a rather linear development to about the thirteenth century. Developmcnts of size the templestyleovcr time include increasing and elaboration and multiplication of uaits comprising the rnain building of the temple, among others. Orissan architecture has been looked to as a model of clarity in the evolution of the

Hindu temple becauseof its progressalong this rather linear continuum. Within this highly ordered tradition, however, can be discerneda considerablevariety. Our knowledge of Orissan architectureis supplementedby the eistence of valuable texts that reveal many ofthe theoretical basesofthe art tradition. Becauseof the strength of the Hindu artistic tradition in Orissa, the Buddbist remains have often been overlooked. Yet, the abundant materials, particularly in the Asia Hill range, indicate a vital and significant Buddhist tradition in the region.

'essalong this L this highly e discerneda ge of Orissan : existenceof he theoretical thdu arristic remains have bundant mall range, inhist tradition Detail oJ 20.J6.

CHAPTER Tw'ENTY

North-Centraland NorthwesternIndia: The Art of the Rajput Clans

The history of northern India from the death of Harsa in 647 until the Mughal domination brought about by the Muslim emperor Akbar in the mid-sixteenth century is flavored by the character of the numerous Rajput clans, their courts, art, legends,and social customs. While the Rajputs are commonly remernberedfor thc miniature painting schoolsthat flourished under them both during the Mughal period and aftcr, the monumental religious architecture and sculpture they produced prior to the sixteenth century cornprisesan important chapter in the hisrory of South Asian arc. Thesecrcarionsare in many respectsthe culmination of the stoneworking traditions that had been developing for centuriesthroughout ancient India and the fulfillment of a major northem Indian-style temple tradition. The Rdjputs themselvesare believed to have been relative late comersto India; thelr ancestors included peoples who came inro pre-Gupta

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India (Parthians. Sakas.and Kusanas)as well as the Hunas, who helped annihilate the imperial Guptas at the end of the fifth century. By intermarriage, often with brahmanwornen, and performance ofreligious rites that enabledthern to becomepart ofthe Hindu fold, theseforeignersgainedposition and strength in Indic society. Ultimately, a large number of separateRajput clansdevelopcd.coming ro controldt timessignifi cant portions of northwestern and north-central India, including Rajputana (modern Rejasthan), which is narned for the Rajputs and was their heartland, Gujalat, and other regions. The Rajputs, who clairr-leddescentfrom the ancient Solar and Lunat k;atriya lines of India, or alternatively, believed themselvesto have arisen from a new, pure k;atiya order createdby the gods at the fire pit ofthe sageVasi;tha on Mount Abn, rarely presented a unified front, even against comrnon enemiessuch as the Muslims. In their art as well as in their history, in spite of

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I M P O R T A NSTI T E S O F T H ER A J P U TC L A N S N O R T H ' C E N T R A LA N D N O R T H W E S T E R NI N D I A C I B C A8 T H

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