The Art Of Ancient India_10

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an underlying uniry and commonality, distinctive characteristicsare visible from clan to clan.

An examination of some of the more important art stylesprovides ample evidenceof this.

Tun Gun; ana -P RArrH IRAS oF KANAUJ lc^.73o-ro27) Vincent Smith has stated that all "authors who treat of Indian architecture notice, and are embarassedby the fact, that each style when it first comes to our knowledge is full-grown and comolete. . . . The extensive destruction of monuments, especially those built of "nciint brick, no doubt supplies a partial, though not adequate,explanation."l This truism, applicable throughout ancient India, is especiallyrelevant to a discussion of the art of the Gurjara-Pratiheras,for our knowledge ofthe architectureand sculpture in the regions of their control from about jJo to ZJo, in the period prior to their ascent,is piecemeal, making it seem as if their art arosefuil-blown. However, an exarnination reof Gurjara-Pratiharastylistic characteristics been a number of stylistic must have vealswhat sources. These include the Gupta idioms of northern India, the post-Gupta y/estem Indian trends that fourished under the Maitraka and other d)'nasties, and the strong influence of the full-bodied, lieshy forrns seen in the art of the Vakagakasand other western Deccan families. Thus, while the art of the Gurjara-Pratiharasis properly viewed as part of the main continuum of developments in northern krdian art, not every step of this development is known. The origin and homeland of the GurjaraPratiharasand even the meaning of their name have long been debated by scholars. The first king, Nagabhata I, establishedsupremacy over the Gurjaras of Nendipuri and the Pratiharasof Jodhpur (hencethe hyphenated name of the line) and successfullyresistedinvasionsby Arabs who came to India primarily for trade purposes.His rule, approximately from 73o to 756, laid the foundation for the rise of the great Rajput clans, but also saw the seeds of destruction being planted, for tle retreat of the Arabs was only temporary, and two and a half centuries later, the Muslim conquestsof westem and northern India led to the submision of the Rajput rulers. The Gurjara-Pratiheraswere not alone among

I

I

the Indian dynasties trying to gain control of northem India, for by the time of Vatsaraja, Nagabhaga'ssuccessor,a triangle between the Gurjara-Pratiharasin the west, the Ragtrak[tas of the Deccan, and the Palas of the east had emerged, each struggling for hegemony over vast territories and for control of the wealthy and famous ciry of Kanauj. Kanaui. which had been built into a beautiful and renowned city by Harqa in the seventh century, was strategically important becauseof its location along the major trade routes of the Ganges.It soon became an active center of the arts where Sanskrit poetry, architecture, sculpture, and probably painting fourished. Yet, in spite of the known glory of Kanauj, little remains tq testify to its former splendor. Cunningham noted that most of the many Hindu temples of ancient days (and possibly some of the Buddhist monasteries noticed by Hsiiantsang) had been dismantled for later reuse in the buildins of Muslim monuments.2 There is no doubt tlat the reconstruction of the history of the art of Kanauj would be an important step in tracing the post-Gupta trends that led to the final realizations of Hindu architecture in north India. Inscriptions left by the GurjaraPratiharasprovide extensiveevidenceof patronage and building by the rulers and their subjectss but the remains are scant testimony to the epigraphic evidence. In spite of this, it is possible to establish a stylistic continuum-from the eighth to tenth cenftries for the regions that formed the heartland of their empire, namely, parts of modern Rajasthan and Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,and other regionsfor sculpture,aswell asfor architecture.. The far reaching effectsof the Deccan styles of the Vakatakas, Kalacuris, and other ruling families on the develoomcnt of the art of northern India have been vastly underestimated: the credit is often Eiven to Sarnath and the late fifth-century style th"t developed there. By the

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THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CrANS

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uo.r. Female figurc, uppcr fragmcnt. From Gwelior, Madhya Pradesh,India. Ca. sevenchcentury. Bcige sandsronc.H: 5r crn. National Muscurn,New Delhi.

zo.z.Marriage ofSive and Parvati (Kalyanasundaramiirti). From Kalna, Bharatpur, Rtjasthtn, India. Probably Gurjara-Pratihara period. Ca. eighth cenrury. Beige sardstone.H: 9J cl1l. National Museurn, New Delhi.

late fifth century, the full-bodied, l1eshyforms of western Deccan figure sculpture had reachedas far north as Begh in rhc Gw-lior region and persistedin the art of that area for severalcenturies. The surviving upper poltion ofa female figure fiom Gwalior provides such an cxample of a work revealing the heritage of Dcccan art (Fig. 20.r). Although thc carving probably dates from about thc scvcnth century, that is, prior to the advent of thc Gurjara-Pratiharas,it docunents an irnportant sourcc for the iater art styles. Clear ties to thc Vakagaka and postVakataka art of the Deccan arc sccn in the rounded forms of the body, the heavy, hcmispherical brcasts pushed closc togcther, and details of thc hair style and ornamcntation. A greater crispnessto Gatures of the face, creating a more linear and sharply dcfined effect, and the greater elaboration of jewelry arc a prelude to the highly ornate forms to be crcatcd under the Gr.rrjara-Pratiharas and othcr Jaterdynasties.

A rcprerenration of rhe Marriagc oF Siva of about thc cighth century is a more complcte example of this stylistic stagc (Fig. 2o.2). The

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figures maintain the fleshy, heavy quality, along with an emphasison claboration and detailing. With complex hairdos and jewelry and sharply carvcd facial featurcs, as well as numcrous s r r b s i d i : r cr yl c n r c n t i' n t h e c o m p o s i r i o nr.n o v e ment away from Gupta and Gupta-relatcdstylcs i : c v i d c n t . r l t J r o u grllrr cg c l r l y . u a y i r r gp o : r n r c s arc still rcniniscent of carlier idioms. Clouds isolatc thc headsof the figurcs from the clustcrs of attendent bcings above in a nlanncr sinilar to that seen in sculpture of the Early Western Calukyas. A latcr stagc, perhapsof the tenth century, is seenin another rcpresentationof the Marriagc o f S i v a . 6 o m E t a hi n U t r a r P r . , d e s(hF i g . : o . 3 ) . Although clcarly the descendeirtof the preceding femalc type and still full-bodied and fcshy, Pdrvati now standsrather stiffiy and lessgraccfully. She is more amply bedeckedwitb.jcwclry

454

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS zo.j. Marriage of Sivaand Parvati (Kalytnasundaramiirti). From Etah, Uttar Pradesh, India. Probably Gurjara-Pratiharaperiod. Ca. tenrh century. Beige sandstone.Ht 77.5 cm. Bharat Kalt Bhavan, Vartlrasi.

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2o.4. Vi94u Viavarupa. From Kenauj, Utta! Pradesh, India. Probably Gurjara-Pratihtrepe od. Ca. eighth or early ninth century. Stone. Kanauj Museurn, Kanauj.

rJ-reper other i rng th vet all earlier (Fig.t &om t

THT ART OF THE REJPUT CLANS E:: Xalyanalc:: Pradesh, c::riod. Ca. . ;: i7.s cIlJ.,

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and her facial Gatures are hardencd, with even more crisply delincaredforms. Siva, roo. has been transformed fiom the gently swaying figure in the preceding exarnple and now stands in an angular tribhalga (thrice-bent) posture with his legs turned awkwardly in the opposite direction from his head. His facial features are hardened, and his jewelry is more overpowering and more precisely and crisply depicted. A greater senseof order pervadesdre relief, which basalsobecome more elaborate,for the figures are arranged in strict registerswith controlled vertical and horizontal placement, This strictness,which parallelsthe development of an increasingly rigid organization of architectural forms, undoubtedly reflectsthe growing codification of many aspectsof society at the time. Tle systematizationand categorizationof things and division into strict spheresmay also refect developing theories in mathematics, a discipline for which India is renowned. A sculpture from Kanauj,. probably of the eighth or early ninth century, showing Vi94u in his Vi6varnpa maniGstation (Fig. zo.a) demonstratesa very dif,erent stylistic idiom. The image, in this case,bearsclear afirities to typical Gupta and post-Gupta trendsofnorth India, rather than to those ofthe Deccan,asseenin the slendernessof the figure and the very fluid and soft appearing facial Gatures, especially the mouth. This srylisticstrand was anorlrer major conrributor to the synthesisthat became the GurjaraPratihara style and its regional variations. As difrcult as it is to give form.to the formless (or to the omniformed), the Kanauj sculptor has attempted to show both the conceptualunification and diversification of the form in which "The whole world there united, / And divided manyfold."a The main figure has eight arms and.four faces.His body is adorned with jewels befitting the highest god or king and his hands hold an array of weapons. Surrounding him and filling the perimeter ofthe sculpture slab are numerous otherfigures, bothdivineanddemonrc,represenring the multiplicity of things in the universe, yet all part of a single whole. In contrast to the earlicr depiction of this subject from Samalaji (Fig. rr.r5), Vignu appearsto be more isolated from the myriad rhat surrounds him. Instead of

45J

1o.5.A king and his consort.At HargatMAla temple. Ab.neri, Rajasthan, India.ProbablyGurjara-pratihera pedod.Ca.eighthcentury.

appe.aring to emanate from Vis4u, as they do in the Samalejiimage, the figures above are neatly arranged in rows and are individually reduced, ashad beenthe subsidiaryelementsin the Marriage ofSiva from Etah (Fig. zo.3) The village of Abaneri in Rajasthan has yielded a number of spectacularand quite unusual sculptures of about the eighth century. Although the temple is quite ruined, a number of exquisite sculptures adorn the plinth of the Ilerset MatA rcmple. The subject matter of these reliefs is usually consideredto be secular.Each carving is ser into a niche flanled by pilasters decorated with foliate motiG and capped by repeatirrg cafldraiala arches, and shows figures, probably representing a king, his principal consort. and various artendants(Fig. zo.5). ln rhis case a bare-topped and bejeweled male figure wearing a skirtlike cloth around his hips and having an elaborate curled coiffure sitsir lalifisana, his right hand holding a nowdamaged object and his left tickling a companion under the chin. A smaller Gmale perches atop his right leg, while two others attend the scene. The delicacy of carving and depth of expressionare comparable to any of the finest works from the entire spectrum of Indic art. The {igures are rounded in form, yet

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LArER |\ORTHERNSCIIOOLS

20.6. Sdrya teolplc (Tenlple 7), ftorr1 norlhq"cst. Ositir, Rtjasthan, lndia. Gurjara Pratihera pcriod. Ca. nrid-eighth century

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2o.7. Plal ofSurva te,nplc (Tcmple 7). Ositir, Rtjasth,n, Indir. Gurjara-Pratiharapcriod. Ca. rnid-cighthccntury.

THI ART OF THX R,dJPUTCTANS

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their facial features,hands, and fcet are carved with extreme daintiness.The round stool provides volume to the composition and increases the senseofreality. Architecture ofthis period may also be studied in Rejasthan,at Osiai, now a small village not far from Jodhpur, which apparcnrlywai controlled by the Gurjara-Pratiharasand possibly a minor ruling family known asrhe Abhirasin the eighth and ninth centuries.Although largely in ruins, about sixteen remaining temples testify that it was once a flourishing cultural center. An inscription in a Jain temple at Osiafi gives evidence of arristic activity during the time of Vatsaraja of the Gurjara-Pratiharas,who ruled in the last decadesof the eighth century. However, the actual patrons of the temples are unknown, Stylistic comparisons to other nore securelydated monuments indicate a forescence at the site in the middle to late eighth and ninth centudes.s A Surya temple, called number seven, ar Osiafi, probably daring from the mid-eighth century, is a modest-sizedstructure consistinqof a shrine, manlapa, and porch (Figs. 2o.6, zo-.7). Originally, four subsidiaryshrinesconnectedby a cloister (.iala)that served also as a compound wall rendered it a p aicayatane strvcture, although these have vanished alrnost withour a rrace. The cloister is an important elemedt, for it anticipates the later western Indian Jain temples in which the central structure is surrounded by a cloister. Although the temple consistsstill ofthe shrine and porch areas, as had typical Gupta monuments, the whole is now much more elaboratein decoration and is more readily cornpared to nearly contempolary-onum.nts els.where in nonhern tndia. Sincethere is evidenceofreconstruction ofthe temple after its original period of construcrion (the iikhara, for example, may be a product of the tenth century), the original monument rs best studied in the I owet half of the dmaxa. The exterior wall of the vimana is a delicate balance between decorative moldinqs, foliate motifs, and modesrly sizedniches, each containing the figure of a deiry. The central niche on each side is slighdy larger than the others and is more prominent (Fig. zo.8). In contrast to

4J7

2o.8.North sid,eof rimAfla,SCryatenple (Temple7). Osian, Rajasrhan,India. Gurjara-pratihara period. Ca. mid-eighthcentury.

the Gupta sculptural scheme,seen at Deogarh, the increasedcomplication and introduction of secondary elements efectively de-emphasizes any one element, Thus, the relieG on the three sides do not dominate the decorative scheme, as had the single relielS at Deogarh. A rvestwardfacing temple, this monument would seem to have been circumambulated in a counterclockwise direction, as ar rhe Deogarh temple, if the order of the exterior oi"h" ."ulptu.", rnay be used asa determinant. Ganeia,the overcomer of obstaclesinvoked at the beginning of worship, appearsin the principal niihe on the sourh; Surya. the main deity of rhe temple, appears in rhe principal niche on the east (rear); Durga, as Mahigasuramardini, is placed in the principal niche on the north (Fig. zo.8). representariveof religious victory. that is, the a$ainment of the goal of worship. -deities Subsidiary niches with other compleie the pantheon presented on this temple. The

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LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

;,.. , 2o.9. Hari-Hara renlple (TerDple r), from west. Osian, Rejasthan, India. Gurjara-Pratiharapcriod. Ca. mid-eighth century.

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zo.ro. V,mana dr4lzr (Trivikrama), south side, HariHara tenple (Tcmplc r). OsiaR,Rajasthan,India. Gurjara-Pratihtra pcriod. Ca. mid-eighth century-

2o.rr. Hari-Hara, on east side of Hari-Hara temple (Temple z). Osian, Rtjasrh.n, India. Gurjara-Pradhara period. Ca. mid-to-late eighth century.

THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCTANS 4J9

Hara temple .:n-Pradhara

image of Durge reveals thc heavy and full forms of the body, the large round breasts pressedclosely together, and the lines denoting the fesh around the ribs characteristicofGurjaraPratihara representations.The increasedactivity of the figure predicts the style to be popularized in the following centudes,and marks a departure from the repose and calm of Gupta-period works. A more complete version of a plfrcaIatutta remple of approximateiy the same date, that is, the -iddli of the eighth century. is the Hari-Hara temple, called number one, at Osiafi (Fig. zo.9). The temple and its four subsidiary shrines (the northwest one is now destroyed) stand atop a terrace that unifres the separate elements. The central shrine faces west, as do the two back comer shrines, but the two at the west or front side of the tenace (jqgatT) face each other. The sculptures that adorn the temple reveal the consistently high qualiry of expresion and execution seenat AbSneri, Osiai, and other Guriara-Pratihara-periodsites. The main niche on ihe south side of the principal structure shows Visnu's fifth al)aftr, Vanana Frivikrama), the dwarf who tricked rhe asurusinto granting him as much of the universe as he could cover in three sreps.and then grew to gigantic size to cover it all (Fig. zo.ro). The conical crown and curled hair exhibit a debt to frfth- and sixthcentury forrns, but the vitality and energy of the image reflectthe developedGurjara-Pratihara idiom. A particularly fine representation of Hari-Hara, the unified form of Siva and Visr}u, from another Hari-Hara temple at the site, called number tri/o, further exemplifies the style, for even this standing, frontal icon of the god has an innate livelinessand senseof anirnation (Fig. zo.rr). Clearly a syncretic god, HariHara's imoortance at Osi5fi mav be related to a soecificiult orevalent at the site. tenth centuries saw the disThe ninth "nd semination of the Gurjara-Pratiharastyle complex throughout much of northem India, as well as a marked change in the sculptural style itsele for the softnessand animation previously seenin the figures gave way to a harder, stiffer form. Although the tradition grew up primarily in western and northem India, it had impact

on artistic schools in regions where GurjaraPratihara political swav was felt, even if the art itself riay not hav; been specifically linled to the Guiara-Pratiharas. In the caseof artistic cenJersthat already had longstanding traditions, the effect took the form of a new overlay, ratJrcr than complete change. Such was the case in the Buddhist art of Samath where the srylistic impact may be seen in a stelewith representationsof the eight major events of the Buddha's life (Fig. zo.rz). Usually dated to the Gupta period, this sculpture,upon close exarnination, reveals ties to the GurjaraPratihara style of the eighth century, although the new sryle was only grafted onto an existing tradition of long-standing repute. The organization of the relief, with its paired scenesplaced in two vertical lines, reveals the tendency to organize and compartmentalize that is characteristicofthe architecturaland sculpturaltrends of post-Gupta times and contrastsstrongly with

2o.r2. Eisht Events from Life of Sakyanuni Buddha' From Srmath, Uttar Pradesh,India Probably GurjaraPrariheraperiod Ca. eighth century Beige sandstone' H: 96.J cm. S,rnath Site Museun' S:mtth'

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itself as wcll as the perr.r.nnentnature of the undift-crcntiatedreality, while the ghaq1a,wrth the irnpcrmancncc its transicntsound,syn-tbolizes of cxistcnce. Although gencraily classifiedas a Buddha, Vajmsattva embodics principles that rcach far beyond tl.re idca of the enlightcncd Sakyomuni, for the ornan.rcntshe wears, including his crorvn, earrings, necklace, anklcts and b r a c e l c r ,r.r r r r l c t . .r n J g i r J l e . i g n i f y t h c p c r {ectiorls (pafi tifis) necessaryfor thc :rttarnment of nirva4a.His crown, the most claborateofthese iconographic synbols, contains sr.nall imagcs of four of the five jiza Buddhas (the fiftl.Lbeing ir.nplicd at the rear of thc crown) and is, in fact, t natldalao{ tlte fivejiras. In thc caseof Vajrasattva, the five figurcs in his crown are 11ot t]rc sourcesftotrr which he erranates, as is usually in thc n.rcaning of figures in tl.Lehead-clrcsscs Buclclhist iconographics. On the contrary, thcsejr'rias and thc Buddha-r'ealn.rsover which they preside arc considered to bc inhcrent in Vajrasattva, and arc tl-re lnlnifcstations of the natr-rrc of lis knowlcdge. Stylistically, this figure again shows the crystallization of form, especially visible in thc fcatures of the face, FrolnSernath, Urtrr Pradcsh, India. which chrractcrizes the latc Gurjara-Pratihera20.rt.Vajrasattva. period.Ca. cighrhccntury. pcriod style. Yet it still rerainsson.Lethingof the ProbablyGurjara-Pratihara lI: r32 clr1.Sarn,th Site Museur, Beige sandstonc. softnessof carlier Sarnath carvings. The ornain bold reliefagainst mcntsanLljcwelsnow sta11d the llcsh, and are quitc plastically carvecl. Possibly, this sculpturewas intended to be conpleted rvith plaster ancl paintcd as suggested a Guptarenditionofthc samesubject(Fig. ro.zr), by the unfinisired charactcr of the l.nlo alrd in which , rnore free-forn Jrrirngemcnti. vi5ibackgrorrncl. ble. It aiso contrastswith the typical Pala-period Conflict lvith thc Pala kings of Magadl.Laand examples in which a large central Buddha Bcngal scerlsto l.ravcextendedGurjara-Pratihara generally dor.ninatcsthe other scenes(Fig. r8.9). inllncnce to thc castcrn portions of the South C r r r j . r r . r - P r " t i l r r rs. tr y l i s t i c c l r J r J c t e r i ' t i c s. r e Asian subcontincnt, and in return broLrght Pala especiallyvisible in the trcatrrent of the figurcs into thc art at sonlc siteswithin tlle ch:rracteristics notablc in thc and facial features, particularly fold of the Gurjara-Pratiherapolitical sphcrc. A high-ridged eycbrows typical of the developing l c r vr c u l p r u r clso l n d - l S a r n e t hp r t s c n ta n i n t e r Rajput forms. datc esting probiem regarding thc rclationship of the Another sculpture fiom about the san.rc .rr sculptural traditions at Sarnadl to contenPofurther demonrtrrte. Iarer Buddhist inrrgery raneous (Fig. zo.r3).The subjectofthis sculpture ones of Bihar. Onc of theur is a represSarnad.r . y r n b o l i z e . i s { j j 1 1 . 1 s 1 v 1w. h o i h e p r . r c t i t i . , r r e r entation of r Bncldha tn rlharnacakran {rd (Fig. zo.14).6Thc stylisticfeaturcsof this stele, as thc undilfcrcntiatcd state of the Univers:rl ancl othcrs of the group, distinguish them (!nnyata)-He is identifred by thc lajrn he holds froru other sculpturcs found at Sarnatir, for in his right l.Landand thc rcr.nainsof a gha4fi -fhe rvhilc thcy arc carved out of the Chun-r sand(bcll) in hil lc{t. uajta is a symbol o{ !ffiyofi

THE ART OF THE REJPUT CLANS

461

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r .oouary, | ,:;:r which i :::erent in n::' of the E::;-il,r', this i:: of form, ci :he face, r:-Pratiharar::ng of the i The ornare,:efagainst an'ed. Posrc be comu suggested r lalo and L-radha and r;-Pratihera i the South rr.-rght -Pala : ;rithin the a, sphere.A !a an lnlern irip of the conten1Poc;pra nudra rr rhis stele, r-uish them arnatlt, tol bunar sand-

zo.r4. Buddha. From Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh,India. Probably late Gurjara-Pratihlra period. Ca. early eleventh centffy. Beige sandstone.H: rr4.5 cn1. Samath Sire Museum, Se reth.

2o.rj. Buddha.FromBiherSharifvicinity,Bihar,India. Gurjara-Pratiharaperiod, fourth year of reign of Mah e n d r a p a( lcaa . . 1 . o . 8 9 4B) l. a c ks t o n eH. : 6 7 . J c m . NtlandaSiteMuseum,Nalandt.

stone typical of the region, they relate in sryle to the black stone carvings of Bihar dating from the Pala period. An examination of the Buddha in dhormacakra mudra lllastrates the similarities to images from Bihar, which include the basic format of the stele, the treatment of the throne, the 0oriated motif on the crossbarsof the throne back, and the decorated rim of the halo. The position and rendering of the ridyadharasat the top of the stele are so similar to examples from Bihar that they suggest that they were carved following the same iconographic texts or drawings. Since the Samath examples are unusual among the Samath remains in their similarity to Pela sculpture, particularly to works of the reign of King Mahipala I (late tenth-early eleventh century) it is unlikely that a whole wave of Pela infuence was felt at that site. Rather, it has been sulgested that a Pala sculptor may have visited Sarnath and,

while there, carved these images in his usual manner, but in the local material.T Concomitantly, incontrovertible evidence of Gurjara-Pratiharaimpact on the art of the Pala regions is known, for Mahendrapala, the Gurjara-Pratihera king who ruled fron about 89o to 9o8, left a number of inscriptional records that signify his prominence in Bihar and northern Bengal. Severalsculpturesfound within the areasof Bihdr bear inscriptions Pala-conrrolled dated in Mahendrapala'sreign, signifying that at least temporary inroadswere made by that king. Each of theseimagesis Buddhist, suggestingdrat the popular religion of the region prevailed, as occurred at Samath, but that a new ruler was acknowledged. One example, which was found near Bihar Sharif and is dated in the fourth year of Mahendrapala'sreign, about 894, shows a seated Buddha in dhatmacakramudra (Figzo.i5). The format is virtually identical to that

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of many contenporary imagcs from Bihar; however, the deeply incised, thick lines of thc thronc and halo seen particularly charactcristic of all of the known Mairendrapala-periodpieces from tlc easternrcgion. In spite of Mahendrapala'sapparent political succcsses in thc cast,thc strength ofthe Pratiheras apparcntly began to w.ne during the reign of his succcssor,Mrhipala, wl-ro rvas twicc deleatcd by thc por.verful Rastraklta kings Indra III ancl Krsna III. At the same timc that thc GurjaraPratihara lorces were dwindiing, othcr RajPut clanswere growing more powerful. An inscription datcd to 954 crcdits the Candellasrvith thc However, scvedefeatof the Gurjara-Pratiheras.8 ral other Rajput families appareutly contlnucd to

acknowledge the Gurjara-Pratihara domrnance, rvhile n.raintaining indepcndent rulers in their own tcrritories. Among thosewho assertedthcir indcpcndencearound this tin.rewere the Cahamanas and the Guhilas. Ncwly arising clans, such as the Haihayas of north-ccntral India, the Parameras of Malwe, and the Calukyas ( 5 o l x n k i . )o f C t r j . r r a rr.l . " g a i n c dp r o t n i n c n c e . By about thc mid-tenth ccntury, the GurjaraPratiharas s,cre wcakcned, controlling only Kanauj and its environs, but little else.Thc line continued in this dcbilitated statc until thc ilvasions of Mahmnd of Ghazni, which began in roor; the last Gurjara-Pratihara rulcr for s'hich we have records rulcd at least until 1421.

I

TnE Hlrsavas (on Karacunrs) or TRIPURi

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Onc of the dynestics that c.ru1e into powcr upon tlle weakcning of the Gurjara-Pratiharas was that ofthe HaihayasofTripuri, who catne to rule thc eastemPottiou of north-ccntral India. Their land, usually called the Cedi country, was contiguorls rvith portions of Bih-r ltnd Oissl and it is not surprising that the art produced d t r r i n g t h e i r ; , c r i o do f r L t l c' e { c c t . r * o c i a t i o n s both r,vith thc Gr,rrjera-Prltihera art of the central ancl '"vesternrcgiotts ofnorth lndia, anci, to sorne exterlt, thc art ofthe east. Tccluicrlly, thc Haihryas forln one of thc tlany branches of the Kalacuri faurily r,vho ruled portions of north Indix anci the Deccan at virrious Periods. AlthouglL Haihaya-periodmonunents have bccn .locumentcd ancl describcd, rvork toward rclating thc remains to contetnPorary nonunlents in other parrs of Sor-rthAsia and tolvard understandingthc rvorks in the contcxt of their tine has only rccently begun. However, a brief look at sone of the rnajor architectural types sheds extrcn.rcly inportant light on Haihaya ties rvith other art styles of India, as rvell as a pxrticular Saivite dcveloprnent and the untsual architcctural n-rodescrcated for its practiccsand ritual neecls. T h i s S a i v i t e ' r c t . t h e M . r t t a - l n , y u r . ro r "Drunken Pcacock" clan, is known from about half a dozen inscriptions, three of which were

found in the Cecli country.e It was apparently introduceclinto thc region by YuvarajaclcvaI (ca9r5 45),king of tirc Haihayas,when hc importcd ;r M:itta-nnyaux Saivite asccticnamed Prabhava6iva. Yuvarajadeva I's chief queen, Nohala, probably bclonged to thc family of a snall dy,r"sty, nnrn"d Calukya, whose capital, called Matta-mayura, was centeredin the Guna district of Madhyl Pradcsh and rvho rverc the earliest known patrous of the scct. Within two gcnerations, as knol'n frorn inscriptions, at least two more such in-rportationsoccurred, ancl ascctics lvere given land ancl rnonasterics,ieaclingto thc establishncnt of a con.rtrttnity belonging to dris clan. A lineage for these ascetics,baseclon a teachcr-disciplebasis,sincethey werc celibate, has bccn establisheclfrom epigraphic eviclcnce. Onc ir-Lscriptiorrrevcals thlt the Matta-naydra ascctic, Prabodha6iva,hacl a monastcry t?/drrd) collstrLrcted,along with a tank and a weil, in the Kalacuri year 724, equivalentto 972 10 Since thc inscription was built into a wall of a tt.tonastery at Canclrehe, it nay be :rssumedthat tlris is thc natha btik by Prabodha6iva (Fig. zo.r6). Furthcr, thc inscriptiotr mcntions that this strLlcture was built near a house of gods (templc) built by Prabodha6iva'sspiritual prec e p t ; r ; r h i \ i r g c n e r . l l y . r s s u m reoJb e r h cn e r r b y S i u , , e - p l . 1 F i g . .: o . r s . 2 0 . r 9 ) A l l o \ \ i n g f o r

a

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TI{E ART OF TITT REJPUT CLANS

46J'

3 dofiunance,

ulers in their r assertedtheir ere the Cahaarising clans, central India, &e Calukyas prominence. the Gurjararolling only else.The line iG urtil the which began ira ruler for rt least undl

r apparently ajadevaI (caLheimported ned Prabha-q, Nohala, of a small rpital, called Gu:radistrict : the earliest two generaat least two arld ascetics ading to the elonging to cs, based-on rere celibate, dc evidence. atta-may[ra ery (matha) I a well, in gqz.Lo Since I of a monsumed that haSiva (Fig. :ntions tlut ose of gods iritual pree the nearby llowing for

20.16. Plan of Saivite monastery. Candrehe, Madhya Pradesh,India. Haihaya period. Kalacuri year 724 \ .D.972).

a one generadondifrerencein date, this temple could have been construct€d about twenty to f,wenty-fiveyearsearlier, about 9Jo. Since the Matta-may[ras are known only from a handful of inscriptions,it is difficult to specifr how their beliefs and practicesdiffered from those of other Saivite sects.A clue to apPears of the Matta-mayuras the characteristics which compares in the Candrehe inscription, Prabodhaiivato Kumdra (Karttikeya)and says that his "one hand was versedin pouring libations on high tongues of fire (asKumera's one handwasversedin pacifyinghisfiercepeacock)" and that he had "always abjured the company of women."1lThe notion of Kumdra'speacock (nayarc), alladedto in the inscription and perhapsalsoin the Matta-mayuraname as a symbol of passioncontrolledby Kumara,seemscentlal to the Matta-mayuraideals.Kumara, the son of Siva, was, according to some traditions, conceivedwithout female particiPation,since Siva'sfiery seedcould not be bome by any woman. Kumdra'savoidanceof contamination from women, even in his lack ofa mother, continued throushout his life: he is chasteand

0

10

20

30

40

remains single (although said to be married to the "army of the gods" or, altematively, to Kaumeri, the Virgin). One of his names, Skanda, reGrs to the spurt of semen that in loga must rise throush the inner channels of the subde body to the mouth offire, where it is consurned, symbolizing the mastery over the sensesof the yogin- When mind control is not attained, Skanda is not bom, but through the achievement and the "birth'' of Skanda,the yopir "becomes" (iva, by inference, in .epe"ting Sita's act of the creation of Kumara. This goal, to "become" Siu", *", the aim oF Matta--mayura practices. Their name, "Drunlcen Peacock," may refer to the sexual excitement that is totally under control and should not be taken as an indication of sexual licentiousness. The absence of sexually explicit sculptures on the monuments of the Matta-mayiiras at Candrehe seems to be a further indication of the essential beliefs of the sect. The monastery, now ruined and best studied by its plan, is a square structure measuring a1lproximately eighteen meters on each side (Fig. zo.16)-It consistedofa central pillared courtyard

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and therefore few have survived. The exterio! and interior of the mathaare very plain. Sculptural decoratibn is confined to a Gw of the doorways, which are modestly carved (Fig. eo.r7). The sirnplicity, which is in general uncharacteristicof post-Gupta-period art of the north, undoubtedly reflected the asceticway of Iife aspired to by rhe Marra-mayEras. The nearby Siva temple is also of interest becauseof its unusual form (Figs. zo.r8, zo.r9), for its shrine is circular both inside and out, as is the entire lihhdra. Further, in contrast to most other contemDoraneous northern art styles, it is nearly devoid of {igural sculpture. Its decoration consistsprimarily of mouldings and other architectural embellishments. The monument stands atop a rectangular platform, although this may be partially the product of later reconstructions.Facing west and consisting of a maq/dpa, mahama4(apa,anturala (artechamber), and gafthagrha, its elements are clearly discemibleon the interior but are perceivedonly 2o.I?. Stone doorwav of northem entrrnce to Saivite as a rectangular shape appended to a circular monastery. Candrehe, Madhya Pradesh, India. Haihaya form on the exterior, although the temple parts period. Kalacuri year 724 (,t.o. 972), are differentiated by the roofs on the exterior. Only one other specimen of a temple with a circular shrine, both inside and out, has been surrounded by a numberofchambersofvarying found, and this was near Gurgi at Masaun. The sizesand shapes,apparently designedfor difsite of Gurgi is also linked to the Matta-may[ra ferent purposes,such as meditation or worship. sect on the basisof inscriptional evidence. The circular form is frequently associatedwitt the Some of the chambersopen directly into the pillared courtyard, but others are more remote concept of the female, as in /ogirt ternples, and accessibleonly through corridors or other one of which is found at Bherashet and is tied to rhe Haihayas,t2 rooms. A badly damagedsecondstory of the and it i" posilble'thatfor the Matta-mayuras this form representedthe notion building, which may not have covered the entire lower level, may have been used by of sexuality symbolically, as would be fitting the asceticsfor living purposes.The plan relates for their austere practices. The decoration of the exterior of the nagara-style iikharc consists strongly to BudAlist vihara known in freeat of candruialasof nearly identical size creating a standingstructures Buddhisrmonasticinstitutexture on the round surface,wbile, below, the tions as well as in cave architecture.However, wall since so Gw Hindu monasteriessuryive from bears simple, undecorated pilasterlike ancientIndia, it is difficult to determinewhether projections. Other templesfound within the Cedi territory the Hindu form is indebted to that of the Buddhists,or whether parallel developments, exhibit a wide range of stylistic proclivities partly relatedto similarneedsamongall monastic absorbed from the Deccan, north-central and to some extent eastern India, although it is institutions,account for the points of comoarison.It is likelv that Hindusbuilt rumerous difficult to tie these monuments soecificallv to rhe Haihayas.Some of rhem, including ones ieligious retreats or monasteriesover the centuries, though apparently stone was rarely used that can be clearly associatedwith the Haihayas,

THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CTANS

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2o.r8. Plan of Siva tcnplc. Candrchc, Mrdhya Prsdesh, India. Haihaya period. Ca. mid-tenth ccntury.

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2o.r9. Siva temple frolr southeast. Candrehc, Madhya India. Haihaya period. Ca. mid-tcnth ccntury.

Pradesh,

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are ichlrr decorated with sculpture. A monu^"nt^l tirorlg from Gurgi tbat-must havs once adorned a Siva temple and is now set up at Rewa suggests something of the sculptural forms of approxirnately the tenth century (Fig. zo.zo). Its two upright jambs and three lintels are richly carved (although some porrions are covered by the modern wall into which it has been placed) with female figures, deities, and architectural and foliate motifs comParable in style to late Gurjara-Pratihara monuments and the art of their successols.

numerous Candella p ments of t their own provide s contemPol presenceir the Cande conquest

Pressmg forces. Perhaps line is the at the sit

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'lora4a. From Gurgi, Madhya Pradesh,India. zo.zo. Haihaya period, Ca. tenth century. Now at Mrhareja's Palace,Rewa.

T n s C a l . I p r r r , a s o F B u N D E L K H A ND Originally feudatoriesof the Gurjara-Pratiheras, the Candella family rose to power through the familiar sequence of events reenacted intrumerable times in ancient India; originally owing their allegiance to the once stronger line, they capitalized on the weakening of the GurjaraPratiharas and, ceasing to acknowledge r the latter's sovereignty, establishedtheir own principaliry, in this case,around the site of Khajuraho, in the region known as Bundelkhand. Eventually, as befits the pattem, tlrc Candellas were themselves overcome in a similar manner. Like many other lndic dynasties-in spite of the realities of their rise to power, the Candellas possesseda traditional account of their origin, one version ofwhich claims descentfrom the moon, Candra, henceproviding the narne of their dynasty.l3 Their greatestperiod of ascendanry occurred in the tenth and eleventh centuries, although Candella rulers may be traced uP to rj4o, goveming portions oftheir former empire.

The size of the-Candellarealm was never really great; the main sites and capitals were concentrated within a small area and included Khajuraho (ancient Khajjuravahaka), where the most sisnificant architectural remains are located; Kalaijara, one of the most impregnable ancientfortressesoflndia at times under Candella control; and Mahoba and Ajaygarh, two other fortresses. 'Within the Candellacapitals,culture flourished as the kings patronized poets and dramatists, not the least of whom was Kggra Mi6ra, the celebrated author of the Prabodhacanhodaya. This drama. Derformed before the Candella celebrated a then-recent king Kirtivarman, military victory over the Kalacuris. Civil works, including the excavation of tanks, and the building of dams, fortresses,and palaces,were commissionedby the Candella kings, suggesting a full treasury providing plentiful employment for skilled craftsmen in the kinedom. Further,

struction i five survi homogen of a con creatols o most of and.srylis are Saivit link then temples througho It is ge temple a temPle, ( (Figs.zo. evidence

'*.!:.ta

THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS :ie. A monu'ist have once Li\\'se[ up at

ie sculptural century (Fig. i rlrree lintels : Portrons are s'hich it has ,. deities, and on.rparablein )auments and

:::lesh, Iudia. i .:: .\hhir:ja's

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s ala conc: :rcludcd r -l.rc the :---. arc lo::::regnable rcerCandella :. two other

numerous tcmples werc erccted during the Candellaperiod. Theseworks and other achievements of the Candellas are known both from their own inscriptions, over sixty-five of wbich provide such information, as well as from contcnporary Muslin chroniclers, whose very presencein India at that time is a reminder that the Candellasruled on the brink of the Muslim conquest of northern hrdia, and faced the pressing problem of repelling the Muslim forces, Perhapsthe greatesttestimony to the Candella line is the beauty of numerous temples erected at the sitc of Khajuraho. Traditionally, over eighty templcs arc ascribcd to Candella construction at the site,although only about twcntyfive survive today. They representa strikingly homogeneousgroup and seemto be the product of a concerted and sustained ellort by their creatorsover a pcriod of tirne. Bccauseof this, most of the temples sharc ccriain conceptual and,stylistic featurcs,rcgardlcssof whcther they are Saivite,Vai;navite, or Jain. Thcir stylesboth linl< them togethcr and distinguish them fiom temples of the northerrr type at other sites throughout South Asia. It is gcnerally assumcdthat thc carliest cxtant temple at Khajuraho is thc Caunsat l,oglai templc, or, thc tcmplc of thc sixty-four /ogirij (Figs.zo.zt, zo.zz), although no incontrovcrtiblc evidence verifiesits presumedninth-century datc.

Skel.h F a. Nol To S..tc

2o.2r. Plan of Caunla! /ogi"t tcrrple. Khxjuraho, Madhya Pradcsh,India. Candcliaperiod. Ca. ninth ccrtury

-:.. flourished : ,\liira, the ::::androdaya, -,. Candella :hen-recent C:r'il works, i:. and the ':.-rces,were !. jrlggcsting :::ployment

467

zo.zz.Vicwlooking southinsidecourtyard ofCaunsar/oJi,?ttemple. Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh,India. Candella period. Ca. ninth century or Jater.

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The Gatures often said to suggest an early construction date include its stark simplicity (it was nearly totally devoid of sculptures save for the imases once contained in the niches around its peririeter); the use of granite as a building rnaterial (sandstone was the prevalent medium of the Candella ternples and presumably representsa later feature); as well as the use of large, boulderlike blocks of masonry, roughly cut and boldly articulated, again a feature generally associatedwith formative stagesof stone architecture in Sorrth Asia. Yet becauseofthe unusual purpose and character of this temple, which not-on1y distinguishes it fron other temples at Khajuraho but places it among only a handful of simrlar temples in other Parts of South Asia, it does not seemjustifiable to base arguments for its date on what might otherwise be acceotable criteria. Its exceptional form and soicial subject matter, ho;ever, makes it a dttittg b"giottittg for a discussion of Candella of its probabledate. art, regardless The temple is built on a rocky promontory about seven meters above a plain. In contrast to the usually circular form ol yogini temples, this structure consists of a large, rectangular open courtyard surrounded by a cloister of cells, sixty-four of which measure only about a meter in height and depth. Another cell, larger than the others and located direcdy opposite the main entrance to the complex, which ir on the north, may have enshined the main image of the temple. Each cell is like a miniature temple, having a simplified tower o{ the nagara style (Fig. zo.zz). Each would have housed a sculptural representation of a yogint, only three of which have survived to modern times. Although many other architectural examples in India are characterizedby an enclosure o{ cells, yogint temples are unusual in that the perimeter,rather than a Prominent central shrine, receives the greatest emphasis. It is posible that this relates to the Gminine corcept that yogint temples portray, in which the idea ofthe enclosurerather than the enclosed, expressiveof the female as opposed to the male reproductive organs, is stressed. The purpose and meaning of the yogint temple is related ro Hindtr Tantric practices.

which must have been prevalent in the region, as manifested in the sculptural programs of the majority of the Khajuraho temples. The particular type of Tantrism may have been related to Kaula or Kapalika practices.In particular, the Kapalikas are associated with yogixts and various sexual practices in which the female was given great importance as the "seat" of the Self, and thereby the realization of Self was located in the yoni , or vulva.14 While the ultimate aim of the Kapalika was to transcend the sensual, the participation in rituals in which sexual relations with women were a ma1or asDect must have led to the downfall of many a would-be holy man. The theorv behind Tantric practices, both Buddhisr anj Hindu, often included not only the enioyment of women, but also the drinling of *ine, the eating of fesh, human sacrifice, and the use of the hurnan skull as a drinling vessel. These five practices cornprise the pafrea makaras, the so-called "frve n's," for their Sanskrit names all begin with the letter m. In short, t.uttrirs often made use of things that were generally prohibited to the "right hand," or customary leligious practices. The Tantric (or "left-hand") way was believed to be the fast method of achieving the religious goal, but certainly, it was the lesssecure, For the temPtations of the senses,which were to be overcone through indulgence, frequently further ensnaredthe practirionersinto participationin the physical world. tt is not surprising that Tantric practiceshave been looked down upon by nonpractirionersjn South Asian sociery at every period, forcing Tantric followers to pursuesecletismand esoterism. Typical of the developcdphaseof architecture at Khajuraho, and an exarnple which may be used to define rnany of the major characteristics of the Candella style, is the LaklmaDa temPle (Fig. zo.z3). Not only is this buil.ling one_ofthe best-oreservedmonuments at the site, but its d"t.'-"y b" fixed by an inscription which was found at the base of the ternple. This epigraph, dated in the year rorr of the Vikrama era, or a.o. 954,was left by Dhairga, the son ofYa(ovarman, the seventh Candella king. It revealsthat Yaiovarman, alias Lakqavarman, erected a

"charmir

nsals th descripti remple ir srith cor har-ehac builiing tur,Ier : enr.hrile of Vi5nt fts origir bur it b rie ruler bapala a Pradlnr' ot'rainei rePrese! cas hart srnce ra

THE ART OF THE R-T.JPUTCLANS

469

in the region, programs of temples. The ay have been tices. kr particI wtth yogixts rich the female the "seat" of on of Self was u While the s to transcend Ltualsin which rere a major 'nfall of many 'ractices, both rded not only o the drinking moan sacrifice, as a drinking ix the pafica 5" for their € letter /r. Iq 'f tbings that "right hand," l -[e I antnc I ro be the fast rus goal, but For the tempe to be overrently further rnicipation in urprising that d down upon ian society at iollowers to )farchitccture ;hich may be characteristics $rala temPle ing one of the : site, but its cn rvhich was this epigraph, krama era, or n ofYaiovarlr revealsthat l erected a

zo.z3. Lak;rnaga templc from east. Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India. Candellaperiod, reign ofYaSovannan(Laksavarman).Completed by Vikrarna era rorr (A.D.9J4).

T

"charming splendidhome of [Vishnu] . . . which rivals tbe peaks of the mountain of snow,"15 a descriotion that mav refer to the Laksmana temple irself. Thus, Y"iou"rrn"n, who is credired with consolidaringLhe Candellaempire. must have had a firm hand in establishingthe Candella building tradidon ar Khajuraho.The inscription further reveals that the main image originally enshrined within the temple, a representation of Viflu Caturmurti, had an interesting history. Its original owner was the king of Tibet (Bhota), but it had passedthrough the hands of Sahi, the ruler of Kira (the Kangra region), to Herambapala and then to bis son, Devapala, perhapsa Pradhara ruler, fron whom Yaiovarman obtained it. Although the image now enshrined representsthis form of Vi5qu (Fig. zo.z9), it can hardly be rhe one implied in rhe inscriprion since it is of stone rather than metal. Further-

more, its style is in perGct harmony with the Candella craftsmanship characteristic of the temple. The image relerred to in the inscriprion may have been lost or stolen some time after having been enshrined, but it must have been reblaced within a short period becauseof the style of the presentimage. The history of the transferral of ownership of an icon such as this sheds light on several important issues-first, the idea of "booty" or rather, the acquisition of a valued object of one king by another as an element of war in ancienr India, and second,the docurnentation of direct transmissionof artistic influence, including both iconographic and srylistic modes. Indeed, if the term "Bhota" in the inscription can refer to that portion of Ka(mir that has generally been part ofthe cultural sphereofTibet, it is possible to suggest that the great popularity of Viqru

470

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS

Fo--,

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zo.z4. Plarr of Laksmaqa temple. Khajureho, Madhya Pradesh, India. Candellaperiod, reign of YaSovarrnan(Lakpavarman).Cornpleted by Vikrama era rorr (e.o. 954).

Caturmufti in Kairnir (Figs. r7.r7, r7.rg) h^d direct bearing on the construction of the Lakgmana temple at Khajuraho. Although it was apparently finished by os+, the date of Dhairga'sinscription, it is not known how long the temple took to construct. The traditionally held view that over eighty temples were built at Khajuraho during the approximately r5o-year period of Candella rule there suggeststhat on an average a temple would have been built approximately every two years. A large and ambitious project, such as the Laksma4a temple, would certainly have taken longer, but still, it rnay be assumedthat work proceeded at a rapid pace with great numbers of workmen carrying out the tasks. Since the style of this and other Candella temples is the direct descendantof the styles of the GurjaraPratiharas,it is possiblethat craftsmen formerly employed by the earlier rulers now turned to the Candella patrons. Although the names qf

some architects are known, and some mason marks appear on stonesof the temples, little is known about the individuals who actually did the work. Typical of the Candella style, the Laksrnar.ra temple restsatop a plinth, to which the devotee gains accesson the east(Figs.zo.z3, 2c.24).'tlis feature may be contrasted with the temples of Orissa, which generally have an enclosing wall but not a plinth. The Laksmanatemple is of the saxdhara type,having an enclosed circumambulatory passagearound the shrine, and it is of the lofrcayatundvariety due to the presenceof the four subsidiary shrines at the corners of the plinth. As had been seenat the Hari-Hara temple called number one at Osiafi (Fig. zo.9), the two front shrines face each other rather than the direction faced by the rrain temple. Each of these four virtually identical shrineshas a small garbhdgrhatopped by a !:ikhara preceded by a small flat-rooftd pillared porch. Each would

470

LAIEII NORTHERN SCHOOLS

",

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5

10

20.24. Plan of Laknn:nr tcrnplc. KhajLu:rho, Madhya Pradesh, India. Candclla pcriod, rcign ofYe(ovarnrarr (Laksavarrran). Completcd by Vikratra era rorr (A.D.9J4).

Caturnlrirti in Ka{mir (Figs. i7.r7, r7.r9) hxd direct bearing on the construction of the Laksmana tenple xt Kha.juraho. Akhough it was apparently finishcd by os+, the datc ofDhanga's inscription, it is not known how long the tcmple took to construct. The traditionally held vicw that over eighty templcs werc built at Khajureho during the approximately 1Jo-year period of Candella rule therc suggeststhat ou an averagc a temple would have been built approxirnately every trvo ycars. A largc and ambitious project, such as the Laksmana templc, would certainly have taken longcr, but still, it may bc assurneclthat work procccded at a rapid pace rvith grcar numbers of workmcn carrying out the tasks. Sincc thc stylc of this ancl other Candella tcr.nplcsis the direct dcsccndantof thc stylcs of the Gurj:rraPratiheras,it is posiblc that craftsmen formerly cmploycd by the earlier rulers now tumed to thc Candella patrons. Although thc names of

some architects are known, and sorne mason marks appear on stonesof the temples, little is known about the individuals rvho actually did the work. Typical of the Candella style, the Laksmana ten.rplerestsatop a plinth, to which the devotce gains accesson the east(Figs.zo.z3, zo.z4). This Gature may be contrasted with the ternples of Orissa, which gcnerally have an cnclosing wall but not a plinth. Thc Laksmanatcmple is of the sandharatype, having an enclosedcircumambulatory prssagearound the slrrine, and it is of the paicayatuflavaricty due to the prcsenceof the four subsidiary shrines at thc corners of the plinth. As had been seenat the Had-Hara ternple callcd nulnbcr one at Osian (Fig. zo.9), thc two front shrines face each other rather than thc clircction faccd by the rnain ternple. Iach of thcsc four virtuaily identical shrineshas a small (lllara prcccded by a .garbhagrhatopped by a snall flat-rooGd pillared porch. Each would

THE ART OF THT RAJPUT CLANS

47'

zo.z5. Lakgma4atenple from north. Khajuraho, Madhya pradesh, India. Candellaperiod, reign ofyaiovarman (Laksavarman).Com_ pleted by Vikrama era torr (a.o. 954).

50me mason rples, litde is actually did re Lak;ma4.a r the devotee :o.24). This e temples of rclosing wall :ple is of the ircumamburd it is of the sence of the lels of the 'Hara temple r.9), the two .er than the rle. Each of ; has a small -eded by a Each would

have beendedicatedto a specificdeity, posibly *uee forms of Vis4u and one ,ep.esentationof S[rya, as suggestedby the central figures carved in the lintels over each doorway. Examination.of the profile of the temple (Frg. as well as its plan (Fig. zo.z4) ,zo.z5) reveals its main components placed on an axii from east ro west: thi fust poih (ardhamaxdapa), the second, larger porch i*ot1$pQ, th. ft1;h;ma1lapa (great hall), and the vinara, with rts characteristic likhara. Thae elements are clearly distinguishable by their separate rooG, each successively higher from the eastern to the western end of the temple, culminating in the Iugh iikhara o-rer drc garbhagrha.The eFect of these rising roofs may be a metaphor for rhe distant peaks of a mountain range, a frequent and deliberate allusion in Hindi temple art. In rhis case-it would be a particularly apt comparison, since Dhanga's inscription stares that his father had built an abode for Visnu which

rivaled the peaks of snow. The roof! over the *ree ma4/apasare pyramidal in form, rather than domical, in contrast to later examoles. and each is crowned by a bell-shaped *errlber. A vase (kalaia) tops the bell-shaped form over the mahama4dapd.The iikhari of the shrine area is rounded in outline as is normal in the norrhernIndianstyle,althoughit is more poinred than Orissanrypis, and islanked by smaller replicas of itself, creating clust..ed .ffecr. " Again, this Gature may be contrasted with the flagara-styletemples of Orissa, which typically have simple, rather than chstercd, lil
472

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

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temple Khajurizo.z6.Sculptedintcrior of mahanandapa,Ltkgurana ho, Madhya Pradcsh,India Crndclla period, reign of Yaiovarman Completedby Vikrama era rorr (.r'p. 954). (Lakgavarman).

permit subdued light to enter the tenPle, partially illurninating the ornately sculpted intcriors. Placed high above the eye lcvel of thc devotcc, the porches and their rvindows do not allow the worshiper to glance outward and be distracted during devotions, but nerely permit light to cnter. I hc trseof pillen in thc y aswclJasclrclavi:]rJ int.rio. oithe ,r,rlattandapa sculpted interiors distinguish the Kbajuraho temples fron their 0orthern-style countelParts in 6rissa. A view into thc nahana4Qapo(Ftg. zo.z6) shows the four pillus that circumscribe a square within this hall, above u'hich is a deliiately carved square ceiling coft-er. Thcse pillars were not merely dccorativc, for aldrough

tlrc size of the nahaua4dapais rather modest (nonc at Klrajuraho is larger than about scven meters sqlrarc),it was neccssaryto reinforcc the weight of the roofs and towers above through the useofpillars. Four stonc bearns,placedabove the piliars as they might have bcen in wooden a.chite.t,,re, support the ceiling. Clustered around the tops of the pillars are numerous sculpturcs,primarily consistingof fcmale figures in a variety of poscsand activitics. The ceiling panelsare carved separatelyin such a way that i.rh.n each was put into its proper place, the whole intcrlocked so that each course suPPorted the onc above. Entrance to the circumambulatory Passage

THE ART oF THE RAJPUT 0LANS

42,1

zo.z7. Circumambulatory passageto left of shrine, Laksmana temple. Khajurtho, Madhya Pradesh,India. Candellaperiod, reign of Yaiovarman (Laksavarman).Completed by Vikrama era rorr (4.D.9J4).

her modest bout seven :injbrce the \-€ through lacedabove rn il'ooden Clustered numerous cale figures fhe ceiling a way that llace, the : supported rl

Passage

that surrounds the shrine is gained from the mahamatl/apa.Some light enters this narrow passagewayfrom the windows, illuminatine the arriculated wall of the exterior of rhe shrine to the devotee's right, rather than the path irself (Fig. zo.z7). The shrine is enrered rhr;ush a heavily decorareddoorway (Fig. zo.z8), a descendant of the Gupta schemes seen in both Buddhist and Hindu art, although by now much more elaborate and complicated. A "moonstone'' and high threshholJ mark the transition into the ga hagTha,creating both a physical and psychological demarcation for the visitor. Within, the representationof Visnu Caturmurri (Fig. zo.z9) has a human Faceon

the front or east, a lion's face on the south, a boar's face on the north, and a demon's face on the west or rear, and is iconographically comparable to KaSmiri interpretations. The image is of the sthanaka(stan&ng) type and shows the god in a frontal and unbending pose, carved so that he stands nearly free of the sculpture slab and tJre numerous subsidiary figures who attend him and amplify the iconographic program. A pointed, rayed halo of a type popular in a number of Rajput styles is carved behind his head. Although the image in the shrine represents the final religious expressionof the Laksmar.ra temple, the devoree has encountered a barrage

174

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2.r.28.Elrtrarrcerc shriuc, L:rk!rna+r t€nrplc. Khrjuraho, Madhya Pradcsh,Indir. Candella pcriod, rcigtr oi Yr(,ov.rrnan (Laksar':rrrran). Courpletcdby Vikrarl1lcrr rorr (A.D 9r,{)

TI{I ART OF l'I]E RAJPUT CTANS .I7J

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476

IATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

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2o.Jo. Sculpture on cxterior of Laksruana tel)lple. Khajureho, Madhya Pradesh,India. Candclla period, reigrr of Ya(ovarnan (Laksavarman). Compietedb,vVikrama cra rorr (a.o.954).

of sculptcd fonns from his arrival at the tcmple t o t h e f i n r l v i c w o f r l r e e n s l r r i n e gd o d . F o r i n contrastto templcs ofthe Gupta period, Candella templesarc lavishly sculptedboth insidc and out. A panoran-raunfurls before the viewcr at the first circumarnbulation of the temple around the exterior of thc plinth, where scenesof daily life, war, and lovc arc portrayed. Representative of the external world, the worid of form (rapa), somc of the scenesmay depict actual historical cvcnts of the Candella period. Another realm greets the devotee upon climbing up onto the pltnth (jagatt), whcre an array of figures adorns the exterior of the templc (Fig. zo.3o). Thc schemeis highly ordcrcd according to vertical and horizontal divisions, with sculptcd ground lincs dcfining the positions of the individual {igures. Whilc it is morc claborate than post-

Gupta and Gurjara-Pratibara cxamples, it is cssentially the samc in chxracter. The guarried blocks of stone seem to blend into onc another, and the sculpted forms blur their joints so that, in contrast to the Caunsat 7ogfui tcmplc, the structural units of the building are barely visible in the finished product. Major icons are placcd in nicheslocateddirectly under cachporch ofthe temple, punctuating the ardhamanlapa,ma1j|apa, mahamatllapa,and the sides of the shrine and emphasizing each elemcnt of thc whole as the devotee circumarnbulates the ternple. (In this case, a clockwise direction is indicated by the placenent of Gal.reiaon the south and Durga on the north.) Thc very active poses of the ligures on the cxterior ofthe ten.Lple(Figs.zo.3o, zo.3r, 2c.32) provide a feeling of movement and change, although controlled by the rigidity

TI{E ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS

rErples, it is The quarried one another, joints so that, remp.le, the barely visible os are placed r porch ofthe ,Pd, nwl!44p4, e shdne and rqhole as the rple. (In this cated by the r and Durga poses of the : fFigs.20.3o, f movement ; rhe rigidity

477

zo.3r. Sculptureof woman removing thom, onexterior of Lak;ma4a temple. Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India. Candella period, reign of Yaiovarman (Lak;avarman). Completed by Vikrarna era rorr (e.o. 954).

20.32,Mithutld,on exteriorof Lak;mar.ra temple.Khajuraho,MadhyaPradesh, India.Candellaperiod,reign of Yalovarman(Lakgavarman). Completedby Vikrama eraIorr (4.D.9J4J.

of the architectural scheme. The figures are carvedvery three-dimensionally and are almost freed from their backgrounds.Deep shadows and bright sur6ces from the sunlight infuse the forms with vitality. These celestialbeings, including beautiful women (Fig. zo.3r) and nithnas (Fig. 2c.32), wirh their facesin rapture, suggestthe unificatioawith the divine to be experiencedby the worshiper. The largest and most ambitious Candella templeat Khajurahois the Kha4{ariya Mahadeva (Fig.2o.33).It may havebeenerectedby Vidyadhara, who ruled from around rorT to roz9, and was, according to the Muslim cbronicler, Ibn ul-Atlur. the most oowerfirl hrdic ruler of his time.16Stylistic analysissupports a date of the first quarter of the eleventhcentury for the creationof the structure,which may thus represent one of the last major achievementsof the Candellas.For after Vidyadhara,whose rule was threatenedby other Rajput clansaswell as theMuslims,especially Mahmodof Ghazni,with

whom Vidyadhara came into coniict in rorg and ro22, the line was weakened, The Khandariya Mahadeva ternple shares a high plinth with two other temples, a much ruined and heavily restored small shrine popularly called the Mahadeva temple and the so-called Devi Jagadambatemple, which originally may have been dedicatedto Visnu. It is possiblethat this temple group rePresentsa syncretisticideal, perhaps not ualike that of the Lak;mana temple with its main structure and four subsidiary buildings. although in this case.it is not so readily idenrified. That the Saivite aspecr is emphasized would be indicated by the fact that the Khaqrdariya Mahadeva temple is the largest and most imposing ofthe three. The emphasis on height and verticality sug. gested by the steep plinth, staircases, and tall likharus seen in the temples of Khajuraho is nowhere more perfect\ portrayed than in the Khapdariya Mahadeva temple, whose jlAhara rises over thirty meters above the level of the

IATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

20.33. Kha4deriya Mahedcva tenplc from south. Khejurtho, Madhya Pradcsh,India. Candcllepcriod, probably reign of Vidyadhara.Ca. first cluarterelevcnth cc11tury.

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20.34.Plan of Khandariya Mahedevarcmplc. Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh,India. Candella pcriod, probably reign of Vidy.dhara. Ca. firs! quarter eleventhccDtury.

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THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS

2o.3j. Sculptues or exterior of Khaqderiya Mehadeva tenple. Khajureho, Madhya Pradesh,India- Candella period, probably reign of Vidyadhara. Ca. first quarter elevelth centarY.

20.36. Sculpture of anorous couple, on cxtcrior of Kha4dariya Mahadeva temple. Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India. Candella period, probably reign of Vidyadhara. Ca. Iirst quarter cleverlthcentury.

479

jagati. lts profile epitomizes the symbol of the temple as mountain. lts plan. in comparisonto that of the Lakgma4a temple, shows a greater senseof mass,and in relationship to the overall size, less spacein the interior, with the thicker walls providing a greater equalization between mass and void (Fig. zo.3a). Like the Lak5ma4a, the Khandariya Mahadeva is cruciform in plan, and shrine areas the porches of the mahamar,t(apa creating a double transePt effect, Over six hundred sculptureson the exterior and rwo hundred on the interior adorn the structure, and, indeed, the carved pantheon that inhabits the walls of the monument represents the culmination of a trend in Hindu temPle art tbat is traceablefrom the Gupta period. Sculpture now dominates the architectural form, so that even though the carvings are strictly relegatedto precise locations on the monument, the effect of ihe sculpture is more overwhelming than that of the architectural forms themselves.Posed in accentuated postures, twisting and turning in space, these {igures (Fig. 2o.3J) embody the movement and dynamism merely hinted at in the repose and introspection of Gupta-period carvings. The hardening of facial features, elaboration of detailing of jewelry and headdresses,and deeper carving than was visible in Gurjara-Pratihara monuments here reachesits final form. As in the caseof many other temples at Khajuraho, amorous couPles and sexually explicit figures adorn the structure (Fig. 20.36). Many of the {igures, which are in generalelongated and stylized,are said to representra1,i&as, Gmale oersonilicationsof the notion of human love. Voluptuous women, however, had been parr of the decoration of religious structures for centuries, and it is unclear which represent nayikas and which embody other symbolic meanings. Often, drey are shown in very dynamic posesand seem to be actually rnoving, sincetheir bodies are arranged as if in a cubistic sequenceof time and space.The sharply carved features of the faces and the heavy shadows caused by the deeply carved forms emphasize the dynamism the viewer perceives while viewing the temple. Created at a time ofintense, ambitious building activity throughout the Indic regions, the Kha4{ariya Mahadeva temple

4EO TATIR NORTHERNSCHOOLS

20.j7. SirilhanedaAvalokite(vara.From Mahoba, Uttar Pradcsh,Indie. Candellapcriod. Ca. clcvcnth or rwelfth century.Bcigc sndslore. H:8r.4 cnr. StatcMuselnn, Lucknow.

is approxiruately contclnporary to othcr major rronuments such as thc Rejlrajc6vara templc at Tanjore (Figs. 2r.21 26l,Pl. 33), the Lingarnja templc at Bhubaneivrra(Figs.r9.23-2J),and tl.Lc Sul tcn.rpleat Modhera (Figs.2o.44 48). Likc r l r c r r . i r r c p r e . e r r r sh c c ] i n r . , xo f ; n i n r p o n . r n r regional variant of Hinclu architecturc. While Kh.rjuraho is indeed tl.rcshow place of Candella art, thc hill lortresscsconttolled by thc Candcilashavc also yiclded significant rematns, At Mahoba, important evidenceof thc late survival of Budclhisr.nin the region is found in sevcral stray images.That thcrc r,vasno lossin vitality fion thc art tradition is seen in a scuipturc of SirhhanedaAvalokiteivara that is gcnerally dated on drc basis of thc paleography of its donative inscription to tlrc elcvcnth or twelfth century (Fig. 2o.37). Thc rc),txed rajalila (royieasc)pose and gentlc countenanceof the figure suggest ties to carlicr Budclhist traditions, altirougl.r thc claboration of cletail in the lotus pedestal, lion, and back-slab inclicatc its late drte. Candella art, onc of the best known of thc Rajput idioms, rypifies many of the northern Indic developmcnts during this pcriod. Thc art is markccl by an incrcasing colnplexity of form and iconography as wcll as an ambitiousnessof schcruethat representsthc colmination of trends t ] r , Lltr . , db e e nd c v c l " p i n gl o r c c n t r r r i e . .

THE PARAMIRAs

Tl.re Paranfras of Mtlwa srrpposecllyoriginated in the rcgion arotlnd Mourrt Abu in Rrjasthan. For a while, tirey werc vassalsof the R-strakutas of the Dcccan, but cveutr-rallythey frced thcmselvesfrom Rastrakaitrcontrol and cxme to rulc much of thc westen Part ofnorth-central India. A number of templcs of the Paraurdra period are found throughout this rcgion, cxtcncling into Rajasthanand thc northern Deccan. While ccrtain local or rcgional chxractcrrstlcs are evident in monun-rcntsthroughotlt thc Par.nlara lands, a number of fcatures uray be consiclered typical of this dynasty's art, nany of whicl.r arc prescnt in the wcll-preservcd telDplc of Nilakanthaat Udaypur (Udayapura)(Fig. 2o.38).

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Oftcn called the Udaye(vara temple aftcr its founcler, Udayaditya Paramtra, for whora the town is also named, inscriptional cvidencc inclicatcsthat this Saivite templc was begun in Vikran-ras,rnt,afrrr6, equivalcntto A.D. roJ9, ancl that tl-re flagsta$ rvas crected in Vikrama Thus,the tenPlc was sothratr137,or a.o. ro8o.1? corlstructcd over :r period of solnc twcnty-one years. Thc stmcture is oriented to thc cast and is containcd rvithin a rectangular courtyard encloscclby a lorv u,all, the outer facc of u'hicl.ris carvcd. A line of stone seatsoncc ratr llong the inncr face of tl,c wall, each of rvhich had a back rest. The n1:rir temple is prccededby a dctached squarehall (posibly originaily a dancc pavilion

THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCLANS 487

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20.38. Nilakantha (tldayeivara) templc from south. Udaypurr Madhya Pradesh, lndia. Paranfra pcriod, reign of Udayadirya Paramdra.Vikranaera rrr6-37 (A.D.rojg-8o).

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i'1;;* zo.4o. Sculpture on exterior of Nrlaka4lha (Udayelvara) templc. Udaypur, Madhya Pradcsh,L1dia.Per:trlaraperiod, reign ofUdayadilya Parrnrara.Vikranla era II16 37 (^.D. roJg-so).

or Nandi shrine) and was once surroundcd by eight separatesnaller shrines,only six of which rcmain. Characteristic of t]re Paranera stylc, the ter:rple proper consistsof a urain hall having three entrance porches projecting out lrom it, each of which r.nay be cntcrcd, and the shrine areaitself (Fig. 2o.39). The tnary!apa rs crowned by a pyramidal, tiered roof wl.rile the shrine is toppcd by a likhara o{ a variant form of thc northern stylc, having a taperedshape.Typical of Paramaranonunents, thc likhara bears four spines dccorated with candraialas,c.catilg an almost tcxturcd surface, and a distinctive grouping of minietttrc likluras in the interspaccsof thc spincs,all of wlrich are

containcd rvithin thc gcneral contour of the ilklara itscll Also, at thc basc of cach of thc spincs is a prolninant sculpturcd medallion vu'itlrina larsc candraialtiar.d sculpturcsbeneath it. Thc sanctunr,althoughsquarcon the interior, is stellateanclcirculxron the exterior. Unlikc many othcr variants of dre Rajput stylc, this Paramaranlonunlent doesnot have an encloseclambulatory surrounding the sanctLlm. The intcrior of the tenple is claborately carvcd, renriniscentof thc Khajurahotcmples,aspillars, rvaiis, and ccilings did not cscapcthc scr.rlptor's tool. Thc sculpturalstyle, as seenin a scricso[ lenralc figurcs atlorning rhe ternple, rccalls thc figurcs rt Khajuraho.although thcy appearlcss

THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCLANS 48J angular and are not so umaturally posed (Fig. zo.4o). The Paramera sculptural style, while having regionalvariations,may also bc seenin a representation of Sarasvati dated in the Vikrama year ro9r, equivalent to e.o. ro34 (Fig. zo.4i).le Strong ties to western Indian styles, especially Gujarati modes of the Gurjara-Pratiharaand later periods, are visible in this example, which was executedduring the reign of King Bhoja, a king of the Paramara line. These include the slender, tubular legs, the accentuatedpose, the sbarply defined facial features with the straight nose, curved lips, and fattened eyes, as well as the particular form of the drapery, jewelry, and hairstyle.

2o.4r. Sarasvati.From Dhtr, Madhya Pradesh,India. Paremaraperiod, reign of Bhoja. Dated Vikrama era IogI (r..D. ro34). White marble. H: r29.J cm. Bdtish Museum, London.

T H E S o L A i r K r so F G u J A R A T( c A .9 J ot o r 3 o 4 [ 9 6 t - n a 4 ? ] )

nrour of the : each of the :'l medallion tures beneath 1 the interior, t,

I rhe Rajput s not have an the sanctum. :arely carved, ies. as pillars, rLe sculptor's in a sericsof e. rccalls the . appear lcss

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Another Rajput clan to surface at the time of the weakening of the Gurjara-Pratiheraswas the Solanki line, sonetimes called the Calukyas of Gujarat, who came to power in the last ha]f of the tenth century. In their own inscriptions, this family referred to themselrresas Calukyas, but in order to avoid confusion between this fardly and the Early Western Calukyas of Badaml the Calukyas of Kalyani, and the Eastern Calukyas of Vengi, the name Solanki will be uscd here. Abundant factual material is available for the study of the Solankisdue to numerousinscriptions and precise accountsabout them given in Jain chronicles. Thus, there is ample evidence of Solanki patronage of religious establishments, construction of temples, and building of tlieir capital cities. And yet, the regions of western India that they ruled, especiallyGujarat, once extraordinarily wealt\ duc to the mrncrous ports and vigorous foreign tradc, have suffered from the damageof wars and various kinds ofdestruc-

tion. Many of their structures wcre dismantled by Muslims and Hindus for reuse in other buildings. Others have collapseddue to internal weaknessesor techdcal imperfections in the buildings thcmselves.Furthernore, many of the tenples of Gujaret were made of whitc rnarble, w h i c h c o u l d b c c a l c i n e di n r o l i r n c .a c c o u n r i n g for the probablc fatc of son.reofthe most luxuriant stmcturesofancicnt India. StrLrcttrcs br.rilt under the Solankiscontinued trcnds that had been developing for several centuries throughout much of South Asia, including incrcased sculptural decoration of tenlples, grcatcr sizc and cornplexity in plan and fornr of thc telnples.taller ji raras,growing stylization of figtres including attenuation and a[gularity of forms, more variety in figural pose, and, of course, thc ever more complicated iconographic schemcsthat wcrc in large part the basis for tl.rc other developments. Specifically, however, the temples reflect certain local and

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464

LA'tEIl. NORTHERN SCHOOLS 20.42. Elevation drawing of Nilakagha Mahadeva temple. Sanak, Gujarat, India' Solaiki period. Ca. late tenth century'

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regional developments characteristic of northwestem India. Therefore, although the temples are essentiallyof the nagarcsryle, they may be classi{iedby the subrype Leti (i.e., from Lata, or Gujarat).1e Located in the SarasvatiValley within about a z5-kilometer radius of Papan (ancient Ar.rabilapataka), the ancient home of the Solairlis, is a group of small temples,believed to represent the early phaseofthe Solanki style. One oithese, the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple at Sunak, is a well-preserved specimen and rnay be used to demonstrate the early sryle (Figs. 20.42, 20.43). No epigraphic information confirns a dare for this temple, although an inscription dated equivalent to A.D. rogr seemsto refer to its existence and thus provides a terminus date.20 However, judging from its style, it was probably created in the late tenth century. Relative to later Solaril
rHx ART OF TI{r RaJPUTCLANS 4gJ temple elementsfound in later Solanki works. Not far from Patan was rhe once-flourishing city of Modhera where a temple, dedicated to Surya, the sun god, is representative of the eleventh-century Solafrki style, although on a grander scalethan is typical (Figs. 2o.44,2o.45)An inscription in the back wall of the shrine dated in the Vikrama era to83, equivalent to A.D. 1026,indicates tlrat the temple was already dedicatedby that date. On this basis,the tenple is thought to have been built during the reign of Bhima I (rozz-63). The temple complex consisting of several units is positioned facing due east so that at the equinoxes, the sun shines directly into the shrine. On the east is a large kx7/a, or reservoir, with flights of stairsleading down to it, that occupiesa dominant placein thi overall scheme (Figs. 2o.44, 2o.45). Numerous small shrinesare placed at intervals on the steps leading down to the tank. Although many Hindu temples have tanks excavarcdin association with them, this ranks among the grandest in all of South Asia. A decoratedtora4aIocated at the western end of the &a4la serves as a transition between the tank and the temple proper (Fig. 20.46, right). Thc temple consistsof three elements, each of which has a name distinctivc of the architectural lomenclaturc used for this regiou of ancient India: the porch (sabha na4dapa, or raiga mandapa),which is an open, cruciform pillared hall placed along the axis of the rcst of tlrc templc but is separatefiom it (Fig.2c..46)l the assembly hall (gadha uadap.ii and finally the shrine(gafihagyia) itself with its surroturding circunrambtrlatory passagc.Thc sabhatnndapa has four entrances,cach having an ornamcntal cuspedarchway, somc ofwhich spring from the opcn nouths of nakaras. An almost stcllate shapeis suggestedby the plan of the hall due to the numerous recesscsof the walls. Inside, the cxquisirccrrving of rhepillars.cu'pcd archwrys. and ceiling givc a feeling ofaidness and lightness not sccn so cxtensively in the temples of other regional stylcs (Fig. zo.a7). Possibly, the longstanding woodcarving traditioll of Gujarat, still famous today, was a model for the hvish sculptured work found in typical Solairki monuments that distinguishcs them fiom those of

486

IATER NoRTHERN scHoors 2o.4j. Vicw of Sun tcrnple fron east. Modhcra, Grdar;t, India. Solanki period. Dedicated before Vikrana era ro83 (A.D.1026).

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THI ART OF THE RAJPUT CTANS 487 !:r tcmple from GLr.juat, India. llrdicatcd before :: \,D, 1026).

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20.46- Sabhana1lapa of Sun temple, fron southeast.Modhera, Gujarat, India. Solanki period. Dedi.rred bef're Vikr,rrrraerr ro8j (a.D.1026).

465

TAT.ERNoRTHEnN scHools 20.47. Intedor of sabhana4lapa of Sun tenple. Modherr, Gujarit, India. Solanki period. Dedicrted before Vikrama era ro83 (A.D. 1026).

20-48. Deteil of carving, interior of salfid na1/apa, Sun rerlple. Modhcra, Gujar.t, India. Solanki pcriod. Dedicatedbeforc Vikrama era ro83(A-D.r026).

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THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCrANS 469 i .:-::: nat1/apa t.:,:::. Gujartt, E: : Dedicated -. irE3 (A.D.

other schools of Indic architecture. Hardly a surfaceis left uncarved as figures, foliate motifs, and architectural devicesabound (Fig. zo.a8). The assemblyhall and shrine form an integral unit. Measuring just over three meters square inside, the shrine is small, especially in comparison to the overall grand scaleof the temple scheme. ln contrast to the rest of the temple, which is lavishly carved, the interior walls of the shrine are olain. A basement cell beneath the main shrine may have been used for storage of treasure, a practice cornmon in the temples of western India. It may be suggested,in fact, that the Muslim destruction of Hindu temples was not always for iconoclastic purpor.r. Porsibly, and very probably, raiders were seeking the treasureso often housed in the temple. Not only would the treasurebe desirablefor its own value, but its loss could help to undermine the economicbasisof a ruling dynasty. Considerable damage has been sustained by the temple, including the loss of the roof over the sabhamapfupa, damage to the entranceway of the shrine, and the loss of the superstructure over the shrine area, Yet, its grandeur is still visible. The exterior surfaces of the temple, strictly divided horizontally into basement,wall, and superstructure,with the numerous elaborations to the plan that provide almost rounded contours to the exterior of the buildings, speak of the increasing elaboration of Solairki archirecture, Although very damaged, the Somanatha temple at Palan cannot be eliminated from a study of Solairki architecture (Fig. 2o.49). Not less than three temples, each built on the ruins of the former, occupy the site and testify that after each destruction(the most famous of which was by Mahmud of Ghazni in roz5), the sacred temple was restoredand rebuilt; thus, its history is a virtual recapitulation of the history of tbis period and the religious and political problems that plagued western krdia during this time. Eventually, the temple was converted into a mosque. Although it has a legendary origin as a sacred pilgrimage site, t}te temple as we know it (dedicated to a form of Siva known as "Moon Lord" or Soma Natha) was built in the first half of the tenth centurv. but was

rebuilt during the eleventh century by Bhima I and then again by Kumarapala in the twelfth century. Supposedly, Bhima II also added a maqlapato the temple. Literary and archaeological evidence suggeststhat when complete the complex consisted of the main temple, a tora4a, a kitchen, and a theaterhall and was surrounded by a number ofother nearby temples.The main object ofworship, a llrg,z,was partially destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni (perhapsin an attempr to find the treasure buried beneath it) and was removed to his capital at Ghazni where it was set up at the entranceto a mosoueso that Muslim devolees could tranple upon- it as a reminder of rhe idol worship they abhorred. Ahhough the much destroyed temple is difl-rcult to study except as a pastiche of various periods and styles, the plan (Fig. 2o.49), which is itself the product of several building periods, reveals a

2o.49,Plan ofSomanatha temple. Palan, Gujarar,India. First half of tenth century, with severallaier rebuildings.

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2o.Jo.Vic!'v'ofJain tcrnples,nrainlv Luna Vasahl,frollr northwesl. Mount Abt, Rtjasrh,r, India. Solanki pcriod erd later' Elcventh ccntury and later.

forn that n.ray be seen as a logical outgrowth of that of thc Nilakantha Mahadeva ternple at Sunak. Especially inPortant is the elaboration of the exterior wall of the tcmple and the incrcasednumber of pillars cncircling the central space of thc mandapa strpportitte thc ceiling above and forming a dynan.ric pattern within the hali itsell Among the n-rostnotablc monuments of the Solanki period are the Jain temples on Mount Abrr in ie;asthan (Fig. zo.5o). Although Abu, named aftcr the sacrcd mountain in the Sirohi district, had bccn famous for centuries,it carlc into special prominence under the Paramala suzcrains of the Solankis. Inscriptional and archacologicalcvidence testifiesthat it was holy both to S"i-ritesand Jains from an early period, but since Mahavira himself is supposcdto have

visited thc site, it has been especialiysacredto the Jains as a titha, ot place of pilgrirnage. Its sacredcharacteris further suggestedby the fact that thc so-calledAgni-lel1,r(frre-pit clan)Rajputs claim to have originated there. As a ternple city, it ranks among the finest onesof the Jains.Built over a period of tinc, it was added to. rcfurbished, and elaboratedupon, rcfecting the sustained patronage of wcalthy Jains whose rcligion dictated that they acquire thcir mcansthrough peaceableocctlpations,such as banking and tracling, rather than through the spoils of war. The irrportant ports of western India, at which cloth (particularly Gujarati cotton), ivory, and other items wcre traded with thc Arab and European worlds, enabled this region to become pcrhaps the wealthiest in all of India during this pcriod. As a conscquence,

THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS

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2o.Jr. Plan ofJain temples:A) Vimala's temple;3) Tejpala'stemple (Lltra Vasahi);C) Adinirha temple. Moun( Abn. Rrjasrhrn. lndia. Solanki period and later. Eleventh century and later.

almost no expense was spared in the production of images and shrines for the religion. The white marble temples, generally stark and plain on the exterior but intricately carved inside, demonstrate that the Indic artists and their patrons had not lost their zeal for sculpture in spite of the fact that their energies were now diverted fiom primarily rock-cut monuments to stluctural temples. Apparently, Jains played an important role in Solanki society, even from the time of the founder of the dynasty, Miilaraja. Thus, it is

not surprisingthat during the reign of Bhrma I his minister, Vmala, built a masnificenr temple at Dilwara (Delvada, Ciry oi Temples) on Abu, anddedicated it to Adinatha(\.;abhanatha), the first Jain tirthaibara(Fig.zo.5ra).(A second temple at Mount Abu is also dedicatedto Adinatha pig. zo.5rcl.) Supposedly,Vimala built the templeout of his desireto atonefor the sins of kllling (hirnsa),wbich he had committed in carrying out the dutiesof statecraft. Jain legend recordsthat Vimala, who had no male heirs, propitiated the goddessAmbila,

492

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS

requesting two things: a male heir and help in erecting the temple at Abu to atone for his sin. Ambika replied that while his merit was great, it was not so great that he could have both wishes and, when forced to choose one, Vimala decided to erect the temple. Vimala's structurewas completed in ro88 of the Vikrama era, or ro3z,zr and was built almost entirely out of black marble apparently available locally on the mountain top.22According to Jain tradition, the temple cost Vimala a total of r8J,3oo,ooo rupees, including the price of purchasing the land from the brahmdnsVery little of Vimala's original temple remains today, although a few black marble sculptures and fragments testify to its former ex$tence. As it stands,the temple is a product of many peliods and is made almost entirely of white marble, not black. Some work was apparendy done not long after the original construction, with most of its essentialcomponents built by the late t ovelfth century. However, building activity continued at Ieast into the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar in the late sixteenth century, for one of his religious teachers is represented by a portrait at the temple. On the whole, however, the temple may be considered representative of the Solairki style. The plain exteriors of Virnala's temple and the other Dilwara monuments belie the exuavasanr interiors and contrast strongly wirh so m-any other temples of this period whose exteriors were lavishly decorated with figures and other sculptural ornamentation. It is possible that when the temple was rebuilt after the partial destruction that orobablv occurred when Alaud-Din Khilji invaded jalor fort near Ab[ in r3rr, the superstructureswele not recotxtructed to their full original height, nor were other aspects of the exterior decoration redone so extravagantly. It may also be suggested that these features of the exterior might never have been as grand as those of other contemporary styles. The constant threat of invasion by the Muslims during this transitional phaseof South Asian history. especiallyin this westernregion. which suffered first when invaders arrived, may have led to a style in which the exterior of a religious structure did not advertise the wealth

zo.5z. Vimala's temple, southeastcorrer of sabhamaglapa. Mo:.rLt Abu, Rejasthtn, India. Solanki period'White Ca. twelfth centurv. marble.

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of the temple, while the interiors could be made aslavishly asdesiredand thus be preserved Fronr the Muslim iconoclasticenersies. Vimalas temple is essenrially rictangular in olan and is oriented on an east-westaxis with ihe main temple facing east. The temple is boundedby a rectangularcloisterhaving a row of double pillars on the east, north, and south sides, a single row on the west, and fifry-two cells (deva-kulika)containing representationsof seecedJain tithaikoras. This arrangemenr, in which the main temple is surrounded by a cloister, has been seen in other temple styles, but the emphasison the pillars, here almost a forest of pillars, createsa totally different effect and characterizesthe style. Outside the cloister walls, a number of other halls and structures were added in later periods. The first of three nandapas,the sabhamandapa, on the east, is the largest, but its form and the carvings, especially of its magnificent domed

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THE ART OF THB RAJPUT CLANS 493

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2c.54. Tt/thaihau in shrine on florth side of cloister, Vimala's temple.Mount Abu, Rajasthan,India. Solaiki oeriod. Ca. twelfch centurv. White marble.

ceiling, may belong to the mid-twelfth century, when repairs were carried out at the temple (Fig. 2o.j2). Almost every section of the ceiling and wall surfacesas well as the pillars is carved into intricate pattems. The sabharua4lapa and the next mot.t/apa,the rava-chokr(nine-compartmenthall; Fig. 2o.53), arc distinguished from the main body of the temple by their open form, as they are unwalled. These two pillared halls precedea tlird na4lapa that does not have pillars, but that is uni{ied with the sbrine area. This unit comprises the central core, which is virtually ubiquitous in Hindu temple architecture after the Cupta period. though sometimesits simoliciw seemsobscured becauseof the addition of piil"r"d halls and other architectural units. The original image of the shrine has been replaced by a later sculpture. However, the appearanceof this figure may be inferred from the reDresentations of I i haikarasin the srnallshrines inlhe cloister ofthe temple. These figures, such

as the one illustrated (Fig. 2o.54), epitomize the fully developedJain sculpture style of western India in which the forms of the body are abstracted to almost pure geometric equivalents. The torso, for example, takes the shape of a triangle; the arms and legs are taperedcylinders; and the head is a slightly squared sphere. The surfacesof the body arc smooth. serving as r physicalsyrnbol of the spiritual perfection ofthe tifihaikff a-'fhe style of subsidiaryfi guresadorning rhe remple reflecrsthat of the major icons, although unlike the shrineimages,othersmaking up the elaboratedecorativeschemeofthe temPle are generally very animated in their poses. A representationof a female musician on a pillar capital in the sabhana1lapa twists in space so that her body seemsto revolve around a spiral axis fiom her grounded foot to her turned head (Fig. 2o.55).Her limbs are rodlike cylinders, and the parts of her body are juxtaposed in an angular, geometric fashion.

+94

LATrR NORTHERNSCHoOIS

after whom the temple is oftcn cailed Lnqa Vasahi.Jain tradition holds that the cost of this nonument was r2J,3oo,ooorupees,slightly less than that of Vimala's templc. Thc later structure is built to approxinDtcly thc same scale as Vimala's temple and, likc thc post-Vimala phase of that temple, is also rnade of finely wrouglrt whitc marble. Permission to build the tenple had been granted by the Solanki king Bhirna II as well as thc Param-ra rulcr of Abu, Somasirhha. Like Vimala's temple, this structure is more fabr.rlous inside than out-its halls, pillars, and shrincs being lavishly c r r v e , l o f t l r e b e . , r r t i f uwl h i t c s t o n e . In plan, Tcjpala\ temple is a virtual duplicate of the csscntialGaturesof Virnala's temple (Fig. zo.5rb), although it is oriented to tl.re west, not the east. Certain portions of thc tcmple were rcpaired iIr r3zr aftcr thc Muslim destructions of 13r r to both this and Vimala's temple, but the interior spcaks of the finest of Solanki n-ronuments.A view of thc intcrior 2o.Jj. Fclrralonrusicianin sabhanld\ddld,Vilnlele's shows thc intricacy of carving for which the temple.Mount Abrr,RrjrsthaD,India. Sotankipcriod. Mount Abu ternples rre famous, which has led Ca. twelfthcentury.Whirc marble. to thc often repcatedsuggestionthat the artisans were paid according to how much stonc thcy removed so that they were encouragcdto dceply undercut their forns and thus create thc The fiuition of the Solar'Lkistyle, manifested charactcristiclacelikc appcarancc(Fig. 2o.56). in the thirtecnth centlrry, nuy also bc sccn at E v e L yc c i l i n g i s c a r v c d i n . r u n i q u r p . r t t e r n . Mount Abh in another Jain monur.ncnt. The including foliate and geomctric motifs, figurative temple of Tejpala, dcdicated to Ner.ninatha,the sculpture,and invariably a ccr-rtralpcndcnt n-racle twenty-secondJainfirflraiLarc, is clearly rnodeled of a singlc piece of stonc carved in an intricate aftcr Vir.nala's temple, perhaps rvith the aim dcsign. As in the casc of Vimala's temple, the of outdoing its predecessor.Tcjpria, and his thc of thc sabha natl/apa is a vast domed have bccn called cciling Vastriprla, oftcn brother " M e d i c i ' o f l n . l i a " b c c e u ' co f t l t e i r < x r r n . i v e creatiol (Fig. 2o.57).The major symbolic n.rotif in eachcrseis r sct ofsixteell femalcfigures,thc patronagc of art and architecture in favor of laymen are nnhi-ritlyad,urs. ln Jain litcrarrrr,. cltcre are the Jains. Thcse two wealthy naha-ltidyaleris who personify various wrth s\xteei and literary sources crcdited in epigraphic knowledge, usually associatedwith a kinds of monr-rments, the building of nunerotts Jain and are invoked at certain magical practices, few of which survive, including a triple-shrined These figures rcvcal rcligious prxctice. of stages ternple of Vastupala at Gimxr, and Tejpala's that havc taken place in style r.rrodifications the tenple at Mount Abar. No less than thirty art. The figurcs arc of Solanki ovcr thc centilries inscriptions at dre Abu temple providc inporhavc tubular and and attenuatcd, norc slencler tant historical information including thc datcs joints of fcsh or erticulation or lir.nbs,without of consecratiotr of various portions of the forr-n, contrasting with softncss of skin and no tcmple betr,vccnrz3o ancl rz4o and after. Tejpala earlier styles. built the tcmple for the spiritual rvelfare of his Thi stylc is also visiblc in the portrait sculpwifc, Anupamadevi and their son, Latnasirhha,

THE ART OF THE RaJPUT CLANS

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tures of Tejpdla and his wife Anupamadevi at the temple (Fig. zo.5S). Hardly based on the actual physical appearanceof the individuals, the stylized facial Gatures,with the large wideopen, almond shaped eyes, painted to become a focus of attention, and the typically swaying poses resemble the numerous other portrayals in sculpture at the temple. Conceived as types rather than as individuals, the sculpted figures in various elements of the temple, such as a ceiling panel fiom one of the corridors (Fig. 2o.J9), became part of the patternized forms that pervade the temple, which are expressions of the highest religious goal in Indic

thought, that is, the absorption of the individual into the entire pattem of the cosmos.In spite of the fact that the extraordinary opulence of such a monument almost seemsto contradict the world-negating asceticismof the Jain religion, perhapsit portrays the multiplicity within the Unity that underliesJain belief In addition to religious architecture in the Solairki period, a number of other types of structures survive. Notable among these are the var (wav) step-wellsthat continued a popular tradition fiom an early period in Gujarat, although strong Islamic influence that may date from post-Solanki times can be seen in the

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THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS THE GAHApvILAS

he concePt of a c :imple need for i of severallevels, r:nli among some lo-.in South Asia.z3 tu:an,demonstrates ures, although its Js ofconstruction, $ineenth centurY, siim period (Figs. o: rhirty-six meters rrers in width, the n a circular well r- SculpturedPillars ities decorate tue

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The Rajput dynasty that arose in the Varenasr (Benares)region on the collapse of GurjaraPratihera oower in northern India was that of the Gahadvalas,whose dominions extended throughout parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. tittle is known about the art produccd during their period of rule, however, since the regions they occupied were overrun by Muslims and the maioritv of their monuments dismantled or dertroyed. ihe Muslim attack on the Gahadvalas is chronicled in the Tajul-Ma'athh of flasan Nizami, which was begun in a.o. rzo5 (4.H. 6oz) and is thus nearly contemporary with the events it records, including the devastating battles of rrg2 ^Dd lg3 in which the king of Varar,rasiwas slain,much booty taken, and many Hindu temoles destroved. A four-ar:medimage ofVisqru Saikarpaqa,one of the twenty-four icons of Vigr.ru, recognized bv the oosition of the attributes held iu his hands (Hg. zo.6z), typifies the mid-twelfthcentury style popular over much of northern lndia and demonstratesits clear debt to Gurjara?ratihara art. The inscription on the pedestal gives the date Vikrama saiwat rzo4,za which correspondsto rr47. Although the Gahadvalas are not named in the inscription, it is likely that they were in control ofthe region around Delhi where it was found among rhe lslamicremains at the Qurb Miner -at the time of its creation. In contrast to the more feshy figures and animated posesof the Gurjara-Pratiharaperiod, this {igure stands stiffy, and it is completely detached from the back-dab and surrounding elements, a characteristic associatedwith late sculptures throughout the north. The stylized facial featureswith the raised, ridged eyebrows show ties to Gurjara-Pratihara art, although they have become abstract forms devoid of expression. A hard, linear quality, partly due to the use of the denseblack stone that enabled the carversto achievea high polish and exquisite detail, pervadesthe work, contrasting strongly to the earlierperiods ofSouth Asian art in which artists almost seemed to transform the store into fesh. Surrounding the rnain figure in the torana-like arch are representations of the ten

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Foundat Qutb Minar area, zo.6z.Vi$ru Sarikarsana. period. Dated Vikrana era Delhi, India. Gahadvala r2o4 (A.p. rr4i. Black stone.H: ro3.5cm. National Museum,New Delhi.

incamations of Visnu, which by this time were a standardpart ofVai5navite iconography, while at the top are depictions of the nine planets (navagrahas).The image, highly complex in form and symbolism, replesentsa {inal development of trends that had been seen since preGupta times. Its findspot, among the ruined Hindu templesdestroyedby Qutb-ud-Din Aibek, who usedportions of them to build his Quwwatul-Islam mosque,is representativeof tJredestruction of the Hindu art tradition and the transition to the Muslim phaseof South Asian history. Although Hinduism was certainly the dominant religion in northern India in the period just prior to Muslim dominance, Buddhism was still a major force and an irnportant religion, as klown fiom inscriptions found at important Buddhist sitessuch as Bodh Gaya and Sarnath. Inscriptions indicate that the Gahadvalaswere Vaisnavire,alrhoughthey. or their wives, seem

SCHOOLS JOO LATERNORTHERN to have provided some patronage at Buddhist establishments,such as Sarnath. SinceVara4asi was rhe Gahadvalacapital.it is not surprising tbat Sernath, hardly a few kilometers away, was brought under Gaha{vala sway, and the art stylescurrent among the Rajputs and other northern dvnasties infuenced the traditional Buddhiststyles. the stylisticdevelopA fiqureofTara indicates at Samathduring occurred mentsthat probably (Fig. 2o.63). By the period the Gahadvala date of this probable eleventh century, the angular more had become imaqe.the 6guresryle and costume' the and and"hardene-d iewelry more elaborate.The figure clearly standsin the ibhaiga,or thrice-bentPosture,with the legs, torso, and head aligned along diferent axes' Compared to earlier examples,the jewelry is much more dominant in the sculPtureand serves to createa kind of texture acrossthe smooth, ferninine body. The crisply delineated facial includingthehigh-ridgedbrow, further features, typifies 't"ra this later stYle. asanemanationofAmoghaher" "pp."rs siddhi rather-thanasthe consortof AvalokiteSof the vara, as indicatedby the representation seatediixd in her crown. . She is attended by Marici oo her right, who is identified by the oresenceof a uaiia held in her right hand and ihe alokafowei rising besideher to her left' Tardoppositc small,portlyfigureartending * The T are (krodha)lormof Mdrtcris Ekaj"1a. "n-"ngry sculpthe presence demonstrates whose herself. tural reoresentationof some of the esotedc forms oi Tantric Buddhism.With thesetwo atof Arnoghasiddhi tendantsandthe representation

20.63.Tara. From sarntth, Uttar Pradesh,India Probably Gahadvelaperiod. Ca. late cleventhcentury Beige sanistooe.H: r4o cnr. SarnethSite Museum, Stmath

Tara is clearlyidentifiedasthe in her headdress, or Gmalecounterpart,of AmoBaddhapraifia, -Sydmarsra (Green.or literally.Dark ehasiddhi, iara). Like other Buddhistimagesof this date from northern lndia. sucha sculpturedemonstratesthat, while Hinduism was clearly the predominantreligionof theperiod,Buddhism wasstill viablein India.

M.qtu scIrrpr P AINTING

As the sculpture styles of the Rejputs grew increasinglyitifl stylized, and rePetitive, Painting see-s io h",r. g.o*o freer, more charming, .rr"d -or" innovative' As in the east during the Pirla period, manuscriptsprovide the main .our.. of ou, knowledge about painting styles in the west, although it may be assumedthat wall paintingswere also produced Taranarha, the seventeenth-century Tibetan historian, men-

tions e painting schoolin rhe west,comParable ro that oF the east. s,rpposedly founded by an artist named Srigadhari,zs who lived around the time of the Maitraka ascendancy. However, oaintinq remains fiom earlier than the eleventh i"r,ru.ri in western India have not been found, ,tumerous exampleson palm leaf from "lthough the t*ilfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries indicaterhat many workshopsand stylesexisted

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i:ddhism

1,::lparable I i:J by an !r irund the I .Jowever, | =r ileventn t :t-o found, ri= Ieaf from a= centuries s-, .esexisted

for the writing and illustration of religious texts. After around r4oo, paper, largely introduced by the Muslims, became increasingly popular as a support, although palm leaf manuscripts continued to be produced. Virtually all of the earlv manuscriots of westem India that have survived belong to the Svetambara Jain religion, probably commissioned by lay worshipers in order to gain religious merit. The study of these paintings forms a crucial link in understanding the relationship between the art of ancient hrdia orior to Muslim control and the culture of the Islarnic period. Therefore, although they are most often discussed in the context of Islamic-period art of ancient India, they are relevant here. Possibly, as iconoclastic pressuresof the Muslims began to afect the production of temple sculptureand architecture, rnore paintings were produced instead, to be given as gifts to the Jain establishmentswhere they were kept in llbraries (bhandarc).The styles, clearly related to sculptural modes, eventually made their mark on the Islamic stvles oroduced at the Mughal and orhe. courtr, since many of the artists who later worked for the Muslim rulers were trained in the Jain ateliers. Although perhaps representative of a provincial sryle, rather than a major workshop, a page from a mannscript containing the Kdlpesuba and Kalakacaryakatha dated to rz78 (Vikrama sdtitrqt 1335) demonstratesthe early style (P1. 3r). It was found in a bhandarin Patan and nay be of the Solanki period. The Kalpasutrais a Jain religious text to which the story of the acarya Kalaka is often appended. The Kalaka story (Kalakacatyakatha) was the product of a long tradition but was probably consolidatedby the rwelfth centrry or earlier. It is known in several versions and was a popular subject for Jain manuscript illumination. The horizontal format of the page has been determined by the palm leaf irself. Ar rhis time. rhe wrirren rext comprisedthe primary focu. of the manuscripr producers, and the paintings are con{ined to two small rectangleson the leaf. A hole, surrounded by a painted red dot, held string for tying leavesof the manuscript together. Two Jain nuns, dressedin white, are depicted in the left illustration while two lav women.

5,,

elaborately garbed in bright clothes, appear at the right. Yet, in spite of the fact that they are arranged in distinct painted areasseparatedby a considerablespan oftext in between, the artists have bridged this gap with the arangement of the two groups of figures facing each other and with poses and gesturesthat indicate a psychological and conversational relationship berween them. Clearly, the lay women are having an audience with the two nuns, whose hands depict the gesture of discowse (vitarka mudra), while the lay women have their hands together in the devotional afijali wudra. Color, which has always been extremely important in religious iconography of South Asia, but which has generally been lost in sculpture, is here a primary component of the composition and may have had symbolic value. The palette is limited to a Gw unmixed colors as is normally the case in the Jain nanuscript tradition, and as was seen in the Pala-Sena school. In this case, red, yellow, green, black, and white are used. Often, although not here, blue is an important element in the pictorial design and gold is used increasingly in later centuries. The red background, a feature also of Pala-Senamanuscripts, rnay have served a symbolic purpose. ln later Rajput painting styles ofthe sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies, it servesas a symbol ofpassion. Color is applied in a fat manner, without mixing of pigments or shadingofany kind, and there is little suggestion of pictorial depth. The forms of the figures and other clements of the composition are outlined in black: color is con{lnedto specificarea.. Probably bccausethe paintings are so small, only about fivc centimeters in height, it was necessaryto reduce the composition to a few important elcments.In later paintings, cspecially those on paper, in which the format rs not restricted by the shape of a leaf, more detail is introduced. Here, the figures convey the primary meaning while other elements, such as the stools upon which thc nuns sit or the canopy above their heads, indicate their rant (the lay women sit directly on the foor and have no canopy). The facial featuresare sharply defined, with prominent nosesand almost caricaturelike rendering. Thc farther eye, as is typical in this

502

SCHOOTS LATERNORTHERN

ohaseof paintinq,is shown r, if derachedfrom ih. f^.. i,""Ll ln cmpha'is uhich mry have dcrived fronr the protninenceoften given to the evesin lain sculptttrc.(Many J'rin sculptures of this p.t;od and enrtierlravc large eyes inlai'l with precious stones, or palnted 1n a lnauncr thrr insurcs grear e,nphrri, on rlretn lfig' 2o.54].) Tl.rc tiiangular-shaped torsos of the lay sltow affrnities to the geomctrical Jain -o-.n sculpturc stYies. Two illustrations in a mamrscrlpt on PaPer from thc late fourteenth or early fifteenth century suggestlater dcvelopments of thc painting ,r"diUoir-(pl. 32). Also a manuscript of the Kalnasutra lrrd Kalakacaryakatha' the selcctions illustrated show Kalaka being visitcd by a Sehi (Saka)chief and his attendant' in one case,and a i
garbed irr an Inner Asian costunc comPlctc i"i,h boou. Both compositions show a major {isure at the left, and an oppcsing figure or filur". on rlre righr' ln the Kal'ka )cene' the ,'io s*.11", Salrri balancethe larger figute of Kalaka; in thc Balamitra conposition, the wife servcsasthe solc counterbalanceto thc imposing f i s u r e o f t l r e k i n q l h e l a c c s l.o o k i n g t o r n a r d s th"ecentcr. oI rhe comp,rsitiorr' from rhc lcFt o f d y n r r n i ci n t c r a n d t l r e r i g h r . c r c a t eJ s e n q e focal points in and figures action betwccn the of thc viewcr the eye the composition to which at the while again return again and .looking lnuch a on are dcpicted painting.'Tbc two Sehis lesscr their indicating irn"ll"ri.al" than Kalaka, is wife Balamitra's and rank in this contcxt, cornpo'ition' rhc oI accorded Ies. rlr.rn I'alI s u g q c . t i n ql t c , . e c o n d r r y r o l e S t r c l rp i c t o r i l l a""r"1."..*Li.tt irrJic.rrcthc hicrarchyof frgLrres in the scene and structure the viewer's interprctation of the charactersand cvents, allow the ;rtists to emphasizeaspcctsof thc story, Just as in the theitcr, lishting and position on the strge acceotuatethe ccntral charactersand cvents o["tlrc dramr. t.serrtia]st)listic ferfLrrc\'rg'rin include the black outline to dcfinc thc forms and thc fat usc of nrainly pure prirnary colors' and again, the red background. Additional colors' .'.i.1., th" bto-"lt.,ofthe Sahi'sboots or thc light ", L l . r cs n g g c 'rt m t T i n go f c o l o r ' .u h i c h n r a yb e ,lr. ,"rii, ,.f conrrit uirh Per'ian or othcr Islamic paitrting schools.Still schcniaticancl llat' .vith the conpositions containing only r fcu' esscntialelcments,the Picturessucccedln communicating complicltcd lspects of a nxrrative wit}rin a small arca.

CoNcLUSIoN

Thc study of the Rajput clans and their art, esoccially in relation to thc growing Muslim dorlin"tlon ofnortlrern and ccntral South Asia, is still in its infant stage.Little-known dynasties and others not included here like thc Cahan.ranas must have played an cxtreruely irnportant role in the history and art of this periocl' Yct because .,f wi,le-scale destruction in subseclucntperiods'

little is known of thcir architccturc and art, what can be gleaned from inscriptrons except 'l.ristorical th"t talk of the citics "..o,tnis "n,1 and thc tcmplcs at Rantharnbor, of Aimcr, Thcsc "lost cities" othcrs. ancl Mount H,rrsa, lanrilies rvould Rajput othcr rnci others of the in the history chapters in-rportaut havc forrDed only suppose can lve and art, of northcrn Indian

THE ART OF THE RAJ?UT CLANS

fume complete Srw.a major I qgure or lnng lka scene,the Eu:gerfigure of ition, the wiG o the imposing nking towards ; &om the left dynamic interfocal points in c ofthe viewer looking at the ctedon a much ting their leser mitra's wiG is : composition, Such pictorial rc\ of figures viewer's interens, allow the tbe story, just psition on the ters and events featuresagain : the forms and rry' colors, and litional colors, pts or the light which may be sian or other matic and flat, g only a Gw rceed in comof a narrative

Etuae and art, m inscriptions ; of the cities re temples at e "lost cities" isrilies would in the history r only suppose

what their achievementsmight have been. It is also dificult ro assesshow much, if any, Islamic influencewas being felt in the creation of the indigenous art forms at this time. For example, is the type of borrowing seenin the adaptation of the Sahi type in Jain painting indicative of more widespreadbonowing and cotrtact? Is the preference for dome-type maxdapaceilingsalsoderivedfrom Idamic types? Can the growing mathematicizationof forms in templearchitectureand the useofcomplicated geometdc diagramsin sculpture be related to conceptsderived from Islamic sources?These questions cannot be answered until greater understandingof this rich period of South Asian history is accomplished. By rzo6 Qutb-ud-Din Aibek had established the Delhi Sultanate,firmly fixing Islarnic rule in northern India. That the indieenoustraditions of Buddhism,Hinduism,and l-ainir- were not destroyed,however, by this ind future ruling lines suchasthe Mughals,is seenin a number ol ways. Various saints'reform movementsof the indigenousfaiths, revival movements,and new literature-some of the richest in South Asiaall date from the period after the establishment of Muslim rule in the subcontinent. While temple architecture and sculptural modes may have been less lavish, the paintjng tradition blossomed-in Jain manuscripts, ani l"ter, in paintingsof the Ktl+a cult asseenin the Rajput and Paharistyles(which are not coveredin-rhis volume). In addition, metal sculpturefor temple icons and portable or horne shrines continued to be produced, rnuch of which testifiesto the originality and growth of traditional ideas, instead of stagnadon or repetition of earlier modes.A brassJain icon from Rajasthan dating from approximately rhe eighrJenth centur| testifies to this, for it ranks among the most

SOJi

20.64. Jain sculpture of the ReleasedSpirit. From Rrjasthnn,India. Ca. eighteenthcenfluy. Brass.H: 2j cm. Collection of Ajit Mookerji, New Deltu.

ingenioruofall Indiccreations, sinceit represents "the releasedspirit" as a totally nonmaterial being, its definition being createdby the matter surrounding it (Fig. zo.6a). Perhapsno more perfect example than this exists to show the ultimate religious concept of the Jains, shared alsowith the Buddhistsand Hindus.