The Art Of Ancient India_12

J5d

TATER SCHOOLSOT THE DECCAN AND THX SOUTH

Hoysala ornate style. Xrected on the orders of Vi;nuvardhana himself to cor.nmcmorate his victory over the Colas at Talaka{, the deity of the ternplc, in fact Visnu in his Ke(ava form, was n a m e dV i j a y a N a r e y J n l( V i t o r i o u s N a r a y a n a ) , in an apparentplay on both the name ofthe god (Narayanais ViSpu) and Vignuvardhana'svictory over the Colas. In addition, the name may rcfer rc the acaryawho is gencrally credited with converting Visr.ruvardhanato Vaisnavism, Remanuja, who is also known as Vi;nu Narayana.? Dcdicated in rrr7,8 the templc stands as the principal rnonument in a complex of later temples within a large courtyard. It cousists of a pillared nan/apa that takes on a crucrforrn shapc duc to rlrc rarfia-likeprojections of thc walls, an antechamber, and the shrine proper (Fig. zz.z4). Like other ornstr:-style Hoysala tcnples, this structure restson a plinth. But unlike examplesin nrany other Indic stylcs, where the plinth would be rectangularor square regardlessof thc contour of thc tcnple, in this and otber Hoysala ornate-style structrres, the shape of the plinth follorvs that of the teinple itsell As a result of offsetting the walls of the ten.rplc and plinth, more spaceis provided for scr ptural decoration, resulting in rnuch of the richness associatedwith ornate-style Hoysala teilples. Staircaseson the exst, south, and north side of the plinth flankcd by pairs of miniature !.,hrardsgivc acccssto thc tcrnple and correspond with the three doorways leading into the rra4nrcrltre of the eiatanair no dapa. The srrpersr longer present, giving thc temple an overall squat appearance that was not originally so pronourced (Fig. zz.z5). In its original state, the na4dapa had a tuore porchlike appearance,for the spacesbetrveenthe pill,Lr. supporring tlre roof rvere lelt open. Howevcr, during the reign of the Hoysala king tsallala II, pierced stone windows lvcre added, giving tl.represent more closed appcarance(Fig. 2 2 . 2 6 ) .T h c ' c w i n d o u " . r r h i l e n o t p x r t o f t h e original scherne,fall within the scopcof Hoysala art xnd ultimxtely r.nay bc dcrived from traditions of the Deccan, cspeciailythat of the Early Westcrn Calukyas and monuncnts such as the Lad Khan temple at Aihole. In addition to the carved window screcns,profirsc sculpting of the

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exterior of the temple walls provides this monument with the characteristic richness of omatestyle Hoysala works (Fig. zz.z7). In a superficial sense,the abundant carving on the temple, both inside and out, is suggestiveof northern styles, such as those of the Candellas or Solankis. Indeed, it is possible that the preference for intricate forn-r ultirnately derives frorn northern associarions.Houever. rhe delicacy of the carvings and their often miniature scale is characteristic of Hoysala art. It is generally believed that the close-grained chloritic schist used in building the Hoysala monuments was particularly conducive to such detailed work. The carvings are generally deeply undercut so that the {igures and other n.rotifs stand out sharply against thcir shadows. Decorative elements, such as female figures or inllabited vine scrolls (Fig. zz.z7) generily run in horizontal rows continuously around the ternple wall, creating a higliy organized, controlled design Paficrn. Some of the most acclaimedsculpturesof the Ke6ava temple are the bracket {igures, called

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22.25. Kcieve tcrnple from east.Belir, Karnat:ka, IDdia. Hoysala period,rcign of Visnuvardhana. Dedicatedin rrr7.

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zz.z6. Ke(ava templc, from thc southcasr. Belur, Kar4alaka, hldia. Hoysal: pcriod, reign of Visnuvardhana. Dedicated in rrr7.

IATER SCHOOI-S OF THI DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

22.27. Dctajl, exterior wall, Kelava telnplc. BEldr, Kamttaka, India. Hoysala peiod, reign of Visnuvardham. Dedicared in r rr7,

22.28. Fenalc brackct figurc, Ke6ava terlplc_ Be)ur, Karntraka, India. Hoysala pcriod, reign of Visnuvar_ dhana.Dedicatedin rr17.

IATIR

DICCAN

SCHOOTS

J61

22.3o. Pillar capital 3nd cciling sectioD, latdald oi Kc(ava tenple. Bahr, Karnataka, India. Hoysala period, reign of Vi;4uv:rrdhana. Dedicatod in rrr7.

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22.3r. Entrlncc to shrine arca, Keiava rcnrple. Bchr, Karnataka, Iudi.. Hoysah pcriod, reign of Visnuvardhana.Dedicatcdin rr17.

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562

LA.IEI- SCHOOLSOF THE DTCCAN AND TI{E SOUTH

and omate as the exterior' Each pillar of the in the Kanna{a language of the remadanokais nntl(apa ts finely carved, some with figures and qion, which are placedbencath the overhanging othcr elements,others simPly in round patterns iool of the ^ondipo. originally. there were Forry (Fig. zz.z9). [n the center of the nandopa' a bay such figures, although now there are thirty-eight' i . . r . " t " d b y t h e f o t r r c e n t r a l p i l l a r s 'r b o v e In con."pt, the bracket figures can ultimately which is a highly detailed, carved ceiling panel, be tr"c"J to the art of the Early Western Calureminiscent of examples found in northern kyas once again. One example shows a woman templc .rylc. (fig. 22.3o).female bracketfigures of dd to get garment piesu-ablyloosening her pl".ed at eaclt corner of the central bay (Fig. zz.z8). sco.pion, shown below her feet ".e " The entrance to the shrine area is flanked by a tribhaiga The figure stands io an accentsated and is decopair of LargeVaiftravitcdvdrapalas for her posture and is virtually nakcd except -ornaments Thus, zz.3r). (Fig. lintel elaborate an rated with her and the loosened cloth around the to exterior the from ternplc, the entire associahips.Tlre fullnessof her figure suggests rich form. highly ornate, is a interior shrine, as the such tions with western Deccan traditions, At Halebid (ancient Dorasamudra), the Hoyearlier art of the Ra;grakotas and Vakapakas' sala capital, the most prominent structure is the The dceply undercut foliate motif behind her temple dcdicated to Siva (Fig. Hoysaieivara lacelike and is very eff-cctively "pp""r, "l-ort *onu*.n, of rhe omrte srylc :z.jz), seenagainstthe dark shadows. "norhe, have bcen begun around rrzr by to Believed The interior of the Ke(ava temple is as rich

zz.3z. Hoysalelvara tcrnple fron the northeast. Ha]ebi{, Kar4agaka, India. Hoysala pcriod. Ca. 112r-60.

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rATXRDECCANSCHOOTS J6J h pillar of the nrh figures and round pattems nn4lapa, a bay pillars, above j ceiling panel, c in northem ' bracket figures he central bay. i' flanked by a ia. and is decol. 22.3r). Thus, :rrerior to the :. rich form. :Jra), the Hoysrructure is the :. ,-. ro )rva (rtg. re ornate style. round rrzr by

the orders of one Ketamalla, an ofricerofVisnuvardhana, it was apparently completed some years later, around 116o, by Kcdaroja, the architect of Vis4uvardhana'sson and successor, Nlsirirha I (r- ca. tt4z-l3). [r the opinion of Percy Brown, this temple "is, without cxaggeration, one ofthe most remarkabiemonuments ever produced by the hand of man."e It consists of two virtually identical but separateternples on a large singleplatforrn, comected at the inner arms of their transepts(Fig. 22.33). h plan, the fwo cruciform temples create a double cross, due to the joined inner arm. Preceding each of the temples is a pillared Nandi pavilion. The differencein form between thesetlvo srrucrures is unexplained, but it is possible that one is a

later addition or had been modified in later times. As in the caseof the Kc(ava temple at Behr, the plinth of this templc csscntiallyfollows the outline of tlrc strucrures.In plan, each separatetemple is similar to the earlier tcmple at Belur, consisting of the pillared mandapa,at antechambcr, and thc shrine proper. Since the towers over the shrincs are mrssing, the overall appearanceof the temple complex is low and squat, although this was not thc original intention on the part of the makers. Following the pattern secn in the Beltr temple, tlre entranccs have tniniature uintdnas flanking the stairs and largc, ornate duanpalas attending the doorways (Fig. 22.34). Perhaps even more profusely carved than thoseon carlier

22.j3. Planof Hoysale5vara tcmpie- Halebrd,Karnttaka, India. Hoysalaperiod.Ca. trzr-6o,

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LATER DXCCAN SCHOOTS J6J

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E 22.36. Transept connecting rwo remples. looking south, Hoysaleivaraternple.Halebid,Karnaraka.India. Hoy:ala pcriod. Ca. \t2r4o.

Hoysala temples, the figures are literally encrusted with minutely detailed decoration. yet all the elements are controlled within their appropriate context so that the effect is highly organized. The bodies of the figures are even heavier and fuller in appearancethan earlier ones and stand in gracefully swaying postures. A strong relationship can be seen between the sculpture style of the Hoysalas and that of the neighboring Kerala region, in both the heavy figure type and the abundant omamenration. The walls ofthe temples(Fig. 22.35)have delicate strips of sculpted fiiezesrunrring along the base, including a row of elephants proceeding in clockwise direction at the bottom. In contrast with the massivescaleofthe elephantfrieze ofthe Kailasanathatemple at Ellora, these animals are shown in miniature in keeping with the overall scaleof carvings. The middle part of the walls bears figurative sculpture including deities and women in vadous postures. For the most part, thesefigures are in animatedposesand are heavily

laden with jewelry, yet the effect is highly organized as each figure occupies a specifically defined space.The upper pariofthe walls has a to\)\/ oI mLmature rtmanas. A rather spaciousfeeling pervadesthe interior of the temples,although once again, the interior is richly embellished with carved pillars and derailed cciling coffers. The transepr;onnecring the two tcmplesis a long hall (l-ig. z:.30) lit at borh endsthroughrhepoih openiig. arihenorth and south sides of the temples. In format and treatment, the entrancesto the two shrine areas are similar to rhat at Belur, althoueh the scale is greater (Fig. 2237). The Saivirc narure of the shrine antechamber dvarapalasis clearly indicated by the snakeentwined weaponsthey hold. Temple building under the Hoysalascontinued at an active pace during the twelfth and thirteenth centudes.At the same time, the Hoysala empire was expanding both to the north and the south. In the latter half of the thirteenth century, the empire was partitioned so that

566

sourH LATERscHools oF THE DEccAN AND THE

tcrnple' 22.?7. Shrine entrance,southern buiJding, Hoysalc(vara 112r-60' Ca Hoysala tndia. Period Karnataka, Hati;d,

the Nrsiriha III f. ca rz54-92) controlled Hoysala dre of north€rn regions, that is, rnost thc ,"rritori"r, air,l his brothcr Ramanatha ruled Nlsirirha i"rrlil hoi,lingr. Temples built under fi irr.lod. ti. f"m.d Ke(ava temple (called "Som:retha" in an inscription) at Somnathpur' a Vailnavtte monument' as rrs rnme irnplics' the of,h. o.n"r. style. Both the temple and lz68 town of SomnathPur were founded by by Soma, a generai of Nrsirhha III The tcmple of thc extmt is pcrhaps ' Jre most complete size and small its and t"nts -or-rot Ho'yra1" {inest the of one it render ."ruing g"irlik" Hoysala structurcs ih" K.6".r" temPle at SonutthPur is a triplcshrine strLlctule contained within a rectangular (Fig. zz.3r). A single gateway (nnia"ou.,yrta ternple irut"i o" ti.7*t pio',id"' at"et' to the (l-iq. zz.lq). ln contrarrto 'outhernthe "o*oornd ,,yl.q"prrrr' ,ihi.h ".. uindna-likeitr fortrt' sugge't' cnrranccwry rlrc in oiofurion ofpillrtt iHoysa\t na4lapa In plan' the il" fo.ttt "f "

ea.ch temple consistsof three separateuiminas' a singlc' with shrine, and ..Il"-ber h"ui'nn "n ".t smaller' ,lr r"i ,o1rlopo, which is precededby a vinana Each zz pillarcd porcir (Figs.2.2.38. 4o)' moderately a by ropped i, i. ri"tt.r. ln plan ind prosized tower (-aboutnine meters high)' thus have.been may vidinq an extrnt examPleofwhat (Fig.uz4L)' , r y p i . . , lH o y . : l , t o * e , f o t n t ,ln ro(ltllern styles ind colr;Jst to both norchem the same tinc, the Hoysala of "pproti-",.1y aftcr extravagant height' aia ""t'rtrive Dcccan-dcrivedstyles'the "..trl',l., A, itt otlr", Da.."t or an interr-nediatcform betwecn the io*"r, "r" southenl-style superstructurcsand ,i"J,*oroa north,h" E".rer.llv curvilinear spiresfound in Thc dctailed trcatrnent of the it.hit".,or". ".n vertical' ,".f"". .f the tower, especially the nort]rern oI rrocred rib', i. rlso relninisccnr sotne fo'r,t'.. ,ugg"',ing rhe lrybrid-izationrhrt The .o,t,"n,l liitt" ,lrn o loi''',. of architcctr'rre follows that temgle rests upon a low plinth tL" lh"p" of the tenrplc, including thc intricate

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forrn ofthe star-shapedvim-dnas,ar,Ld circumambulation can be performed on this plinth. (As in other Hoysrla monumenrs.rlrere ir no enclosed ambulatory passage.) The temple is surrounded by a pillared cloister (Fig. zz.4z), off of which open sixty-four subsidiary shrines.

pl"" of Keiava (Somnerha)tempte. SoDl-Jl.:s. nathpur, Karnataka, India. Hoysala pcriod, reign I of Nrsiftha III. Foundcdby 1268.

These shrines must have once contained Vai,\4.aviteimages, though the images are no longer Presem. The arrangemenrof sculpturaldecorationon the exterior of the temple is similar to thar seenin some other Hoysala ornate-styletemples,

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22.4r. Vihanas of Kesava (Somnatha) temple, from south. Somnarhpur, Karnalaka, hrdia. Hoysala period, reign of NSsirhha IIL Ca. 1268.

zz.4z. Pillared cloisrer on norrh. looking east,Kefuva (Sornnatha)temple. Somn5thpur, Karpaqaka. India.Hoysalaperiod,reign of NrsirhhaIIL Ca. 1268-

570

LATER SCHOOTS OT THE DICCAN

AND THE SOUTH

22.43. Ganc(a on south sidc, I{eaava (Sonlnadra) lenrple. Sornntthpur, Karn,taka, Indi:. Floys:la pcriod,rcign of NpsirnhaIII. Ca. r268.

22.44. Erotic Iigures, south side of enlrancc porch, Ke(rvr (Somnrtha) rcllplc. Sonnrethpur, KarDtlakr, India. Hoysala period, rcign of Nrsirnha III. Ca. 1268.

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IATBR DECCAN SCHOOTS 57t a (Somnatha) dia. Hoysala

consisting of the srnall, detailed horizontal the principal form a{ier whom the temple is friezes,abovewhich are deitiesand other figurausually called in the west. As Venugopala, Kggr.rais shovrrnplaying a fute with which he tive carvings. Sculpturesinclude what are by this time familar subjectsin Hindu art, such as enchants his companions, the cowherdesses (gopis)andcows,therebyinstillingdeepdevotion a dancing figure of Ga4e6a(Fig. zz.4). An in his followers. In this form, Kgqnastandswith interestingfeatureof the sculpturalprogram of the weight of his body on one leg with the the temple is the presenceof erotic imagery on the south sideof the entranceporch (Fig. 22.44). other leg bent and thrust acrossthe stableleg. While not uniqueamongHoysa]aexamples,such Janardanaand Ke6avaare two of the standard figures are generally de-emphasizedor absent twenty-four icons of Vi;4u, which are differenfrom south Indian and Deccan imagery, in tiated bv the oosition of the attributesheld in i i -, contrastwith their popularity in many northern the hands. Each of the figures standson a high, complex base with a representationof Garu{a styles,such as the art of the Candellasor in Orissantemples. beneath. It is likely that the multiple-shrine Inside,the temple is similar in treatmentto temples of the Hoysalas (and other Deccan other Hoysalaomate-styletemples.The ceilings familie$ reflect a speci{ic form preferred beare elaboratelydecorated(Frg. zz.a5), asare the causeit allowed worship of multiple aspectsof entrancesto the three shrinesand shrine antedeities without combining them into composite forms, in contrast with what was done, for chambers.The images in the three shrines are eachslightly smallertlan human-sizeand consist example,in Ka(mir with the popular Caturmarti rorm. of Kpqraas Ver.rugopala in the south shrine(Fig. in the north, and Ke6ava, 22.46),Jatard,anaYignu

orrance Porch, xrr, Kaqre[aka, a III. Ca. 1268.

22.45. Ceiling panel, Keiava (Somnetha) temple. Somnathpur, Kar4elaka, India. Hoysa]a period, reign of Nrsirhha III. Ca. 1268.

22.46.Krsna Ve41lgbpalain south shrine,Ke(ava(Somnatha) tenrple. Somnathpur,Kamataka, India. Hoysala period, reign of Nrsirhha III. Ca. 1268.Srone.

572

LATER SCHOOI-S OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

Concrusrolr Ultimately, the partitioning of thc Hoysala en.rpircthat hacl taken place in the lattcr half of the thirtccnth century was reconciled, although not bcforc a great deal of damagewas done and the cmpirc had become significantly weakencd. Ballala III (r. ca- tzgz-44) annulled the partition and reunited the kingdom, but by this time the Muslim threat was so grcat to the Deccan and the south tlrat it was impossiblc for hirn to carry orlt his plans to rcbuild the Hoysala kingdom. In r3rr Malik Ka{iir had attackedthc Hoysala capital of Dorasamudra, and although

Ballala III rvas ablc to ellect a temporary agrecncnt with his encrny, another Muslim expedition in r3r8 and an attackby Mohamned binTiighluq in r326 madc tlre demiseof the Hoysala kingdom inevitable. Whcn a Muslim sultanate was cstablishedin nearby Madurai, the Islardc conquest seemed nearly conplete. However, under thc Vijayanagar rulers, the Deccan and the south rnadc oue final resistanceto thc foreign rulers and protected the indigenous culturc from destmction.

)orary agreeulim expediummed binf the Hoysala Lim sultanate . rhe Islamic :. However, Deccan and o the foreign rous culture

CHAPTER T'WENTY-THREE

The Vijayanagar Period(ca.r336 to r565)

The Muslim forces that drew to a close manv chapters of Hindu hisrory and art in northern India would probably have done the same in the south and the Deccanwere it not for the rise of the kings of Vijayanagar. The successand strength of thesekings, who ruled in three successivedynastiesfrom the city of Vijayanagarl during the time that the Muslims were establishing various statesin the norrh, enabledthe south and the Deccan to continue the indisenous Hindu tradirions. although with ,o-. o-v.rl"y of Islarnic culture. Vijayanagar, the "City of Victory," was founded at Hampi by the brothers Harihara and Bukka, Hindus who had been appoirrted govemors by the Muslims to help quell Hindu resistance.zHowever, after embracins Islam (or perhapsmerely pretendingto do so in order to gain power), the brothers "reconverted" to Hinduism and founded an empire whoseprimary rnission was to hold back the Muslim forces and foster a Hindu revival. Within two decades, the kingdom extended acioss the Deccan from

sea to sea and, at its height, encompassedan area that included the former territories of such powerful dynastiesas the various Calukyas, the larer Colas. and the Pandyas.Becauseof this, the art produced d-uringthe Vijayanagar hegemony srrongty reflecrsthese earlier traditions. Rather than being a synthesis of them, however, regional variations incorporating rhe local tradrtrons are apparenr and, properly speaking. Vijayanagar-period art should be studied in light_ of these geographical concerns as well as developments over time. Thus, Vijayanagar temples and alt works in southern India mav be viewed asa further stepin the Tamil continuum, while in the northern Deccan and Andhra Pradesh,the Calukya heritage prevails. In contrast to the Calukya artists,however, the Vijayanagar workers prefcrred the harder graniiic stonesusedprimarily in rhe sourherntraditions and this was used throughout the kingdom. In spite of its importance and abundance, Hindu art and architecture of the Vijayanagar period has been a much neqlected'area in ihe

57J

574

LA'IEF. SCHOOLS OF THE DLCCAN AND THE SOUTH

study of South Asian art listory. Yet one can harclly travcl in the Deccan and the south without corltinual rcmindcrs of the Vijayanagar craftsmcn, who left their products virtually cverylvhcre. Since n-rost Vijayanagar n-ronuments, including lofty gopuras, multipillared ttaxdapds,aud n-ranysculpturcs,arc charactcrizcd by tl.reir htgc scalc, thc Vijayanaear heritage has great impact. Size alone, of course, is not an inclicator of quality in art, but thc overwheln.rirrgcflect of enorrnous sculpteddeitiesor buildings that dwarf thc viewer cannot help but assertthc might and vigor of their makers and In this the religion for rvhich they lvere rr-lacle. way, the art ofVijayanagar perfbctly rcllccts one ofthe main motivating forcesbehind its proclucr i o n r h c r c . r . 5 c r t i oor f H i n d r r p o u c r . r 3 - i r ) s t the Muslim intruclers.Cariccl along on thc crcst of a reiigiotrs rcvival, prin.r:rrily Lhakti h character, thc buildcrs producccl new strLrctllres, lavishly decorateclwith sculpturcsanclpaintings, and reftubishc.l aqd added to numerous older m o n l r r r r n r )r l r r o r r g h o r ]ctr c e r r r p i r e1. 1 . 1 1 'o1f which had bccn dcstroyed by Muslirn attackers. It is inportant to rerlerlber, however, that the Vijayarugar state was not without its own internal political and religious dissension.Trvo ofthe threc scparatedynasticlincs of Vijayanag:rr were foundccl rvhcn rninistcrs overthre\,v their I{cligious conllicts also plagued the predecessors. onc bctween the Jains rulers, sr-ichrs thc far-r-rous and Vaisnavitcs during the reign of Bukkr I (tZs6 ll), rvhich lcd to his proclametion that in thc cycs of the state ell rciigions were equal and rverc to be protected.Lltriguc,.ttcn-rptsat fratricide, and othcr such cvcnts punctu:rt€ Vijeyanagar history. Thc city of Vijayanegar, rvhich covered en areaof :rtlc:rsttwenty-sixsquarekilomcters,wasa glorious monument to the kings :rrrdthe erDpire. Aftcr the Battle of Talikota, rvhich took placc in 1565 whcn thc four allicd MLrslin sultans of B i 3 r p r r r .A l L r r r e d t r r g . ,Gr .. , l c o n d . , .r n d B r d a r dcfcated the Vij:ryanagar army and ca,-rsedthe demisc of the clynasty,pillaging of Vijayanagar continucd for r-norc than six months. Yct, in spite of this, a trcmcndor-rsaruount of thc city to spcculateabout survivcd,which hasled son-re horv vast it originallv nllrst have bccn. The

glories of the

clty .rre known through the accounts of nuncrous foreign travelers who visitcclit, including Nicolo Conti (Italian, r4zo), Abdur Razzaq (Pcrsian, 1443), and Domitrgo Paes and Fernao Nuniz (Portuguese,t5zz and rJ3J, rcspcctively). All were apparcntly inpressedby its wcalth, grandeur, and fortifications. According to the eyewitness account of Razzeq,the city l-Ladsevenconcentric enclosurcs, each of rvhich was hcavily fortificd-the outer three enclosurescotrtaineclthe cultivable lands and thc irurer four enclosedthc city proper and the palace arca. The ruins of the rvalls extant toclay reveal their grand scalc, for some are as much as ten neters high and as wide as a modem two-lane road. Razzlq furthcr renarked that city r,vas"such that the pupil of the eyc has never seen a placc like it, and the ear of intelligence lus ncvcr been informed that thcre existecl anything equal to it in thc rvorld."3 Paes,who visitcd Vijayanagar during tl.Lereign of Krsnaclevaraya,the foremost ofthe Vijayan . r g . , r , r l c r . .r n i d l r c t l i , - , u g l rttl . e c i t ) w " s a s largc as Romc and Jradcountlessinhabitants and was the best provicleclcity in all thc world. He saw onc roon in the palacethrt was made entirely of ivory fion.r foor to roola Such sights and accountsbrought back to Europc rnust have stimulated the agc of cxploration in Europe and the scarchfor better rorltcs to thesefabled places. It is of interest to 11otethat drc abandonnent of the city aftcr thc battle of Talikota was so complete that Cacsaro Federici, an Itrlian who visitcal it trvo years later, rcrnarked that "thc hotses strnd still but enptic, and thcrc is dwell i n g i n t h e r nn o r h i n g .a ' i ' r c p o r t . d .b r r rI y g r c . anci othcr rvild beasts."5Both sccular buildings (such as the elephant stabics and che Queen's bath) and rcligious monunents survivc, Iargely arrangcd into two centers,one roy:rl, the other sacrcd.6In addition, nun-rerousbuildings show the clcar inlluence of Islamic architecturc, although thcsc latter are outside thc purview of this volumc. Pcrhapsthe rrrostirnportant Vijayanagar ruler, espccially insofar as art and archttecturc are concerned,was Klgqadevaraya,rviro ruled frolt-r rJog b rJ3o. He was a patron of literaturc,x social reforner of sorts, x11dis crcditcd rvith

THE VIJAYANAGAR PERIOD 575 1 through the lravelers who i lftalian, r42o), :nd Domingo '.:ese,IJ22 and ::parently in. and fortifica: 3 S Sa C C O U n t O f

:!ric cnclosures, :'i.d the outer -rldvable lands ::n proper and :: rvalls extant :or some are l.rs wide asa :iher remarked :rii of the eye .rd thc car of ::etl that there rhe world."3 :ring the reign .rf the Vijaya:: city was as nabitants and :::.ervorld. He l'as tlade en:.: Such sights :-roenlust have i1 |.rlrope ano : ribled places. ::ndonment of -rk6ta was so :n Italian who '-<edthat "thc rhereis dwel:.j. but Tygres --:r1arbuildings i rhe Qucen's -:rlive, largely r.-al, the other '':ildings show chitecture, al:.- purview of ,..-anagarruler, ';hitecture are -:o ruled from ;redited with

numerous building projects both at Vijayanagar and the nearby town of Nagalpur, as well as throughout the provinceswhere he is saidto have been responsiblefor the creation of countless plllared na4lapas andgoparas(usuallyspec.fically calledraya gopuras). The Viqthalasvami temple at Vijayanagar bclongs mainly to his reign and is consideredto represent the finest of Vijayanagar architecture. Perhaps begun in r5r3, and possibly never completed (somesay due to the sack of Vijayanagar), this complex contains the essentialelements ofa typical Vijayanagar-periodtcmple, including the main temple itself and its pillared halls,subsidiaryshrines,andother accessorybuildings. In addition, its elaboratelydecoratedpillars with figural carvings and rearing animal motifs typify Vrjayanagar-period trends. The temple schemeconsistsof a large rectangularwalled enclosurc containing at leastfivc scparatestructures within the capaciouscourtyard (Fig. z3.r). Three gopurasprovrde access to the courtyard, although the main entrance is through the gateway on the east(Figs.23.2,4.3). A typical but snall example of the period, this gateway is built of granite on the lower level and has a brick superstructure that rises in receding storiesin typical southern fashion. Directly prcccding thc main tcmplc on thc cast (Fig. z3.r) is a ch;rriot carvcd complctely of stone (Fig. 23.4). Modelcd after woodcn cartslikc rhorc ured ro carry irrragcs ofdeities in processionin south India, its wheels are reputed to have movable parts. Its towcrcd superstructLrre, visible in the illustration, a phot o g r c p ht a k c ni n r 8 5 r , .i s n o w l o . t . Two other typically Vijayanagar-pcriod accessorystrrlcturesto thc tcmplc are the ArDman shrine (Fig. 23.r) and the kalya4ana4lapa (Frgs. 23.5,4.a). Usually resemblingthc main tenpie, although on a smaller scalc, an An.rn.ranshrine is dedicatedto the feminine consort of the male deity of the temple, and is normally placed to the northwest of the principal shrine. Inclusion of a specificresidencefor thc female divinity in Vijayanagar art is a logical culmination of the growing importance of the female, which had been developing over the centuries, visible as early as the Pallava period *here, for example, at Mdmallaplrram, the Trimtrti cave temple

allowed a separateworship area dedicated to Durga (Figs. t+.\3, r+J4). Also an important Gatnre of late south Indian temples, tlre kolyara ma4(apaor "mattase hall" was invariably placcd to the front of the main tcmplc and dightly to the sidc. This type of hall, usually the most elaboratc and lavish of all the structuresin thc temple complex, asis the casehere, was usedfor the performancc of certain rituals. On some occasions,the malc and fcn.ralc dcities of thc temple and Ammau shrine, which were frequently made of bronze and were thus portable, would be transportedfrom their usualabodesto bc placed in the kalyatlamatl/apa{or cxhibition and worship. Squ.rrcin plrn and containing a ccntral raised platforn-r surroundcd by rows of intricately carved pillars, this open but rich pavilion is one of thc gcms of Vijayanagar art. The nrain ternple. dedicrted to Vitthal.r. a form ofVis4n, is con.rpriscdof an ardhanap/apa, a ma1/apa,andt maaa(Fig.z3.r). Viewed from the rear (Fig. 23.7), the granite wall and baseof thc building sccm to stop abruptly, for thc dinrinutivc brick towcr over rhegafihaglha docs not reach to the edges of the base, iudicating that it is probably a substitute for what was intended to be a much larger, grander superstructure. Had the roof and tower been corrplcted, thc ten.rplc would indccd havc bccn one of thc fincst cxamplcs of southcrn Indian architccturc. Somc of thc claboratcly carved pillars in the na4Qapa preceding the shrine arc "musical" and sound different notes when hit with a rvooden stick. "fbe garbhagrhahas an enclosed circun-rembulatory passagcxt thc courtyard lcvel. Hou'cvcr, sincc the dcvotec must dcsccrd dark staircascsfror.n the levcl of thc na4lapa lloor in ordcr to circumambulate, it createsthe impressionof being urderground when one is insidc thc templc. Besides thc numcrous structurcs that were founded and built initially by thc Vljayanagar kings, their nobles, and other individuals at Vijayanagar and elsewhere,a numbcr of already cxisting monumcnts wcrc addcd to during this period. Since these additions werc not part of the original plans of the ternples,they sometimes prescnt a nonintegrated appearance.Most commonly, Vijayanagar-period additions in-

576

LATERScHooIs oF THE DEccAN AND THE soUTH

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23.r. Plan of Viqhalasveni telllple. Vijayanagar(Hampi),KarlEtaka, India. Vijayamgar period, mainly reign of Krsnadevaraya.Ca. second-third d€cadesofsixteenth century.

Vijayanag period, pr third dec:

THE VIJAYANAGAR

2j.2. View looking [ortheast, Vittha]asvanri lenlple. Vijayanagar (Hanlpl), Kan]5taka, India. Vijayanagar pcriod, mainly rcign of Kr5nadevariya. Ca. sccondthird dccadesof sixtccDrhcerturv.

4.3. East laptoa from rvest, Vitthrlasvallli tenrplc. Vijayir:rgar (Hrnlpi), Kartt!aka, Irrdia. Vijayallagar pcriod,probablyrcignof Krstadevaraya.Ca. sccondthird decadesof sixteenthcenturv.

PEIIIOD

578

LATERSCHOOLSOI- THE DFCCANAND THI SOUTH

23.4. Stonechaioi in courtyard of VilfhalasvtrDi rcn.]le, as it appearedin r8J6. Vijayanagar(Harnpr),Karn,taka, India. Vijayanagar period, probably reign of K;gqadevaraya.Ca. second-thirddecades of sixteentbcentury.

4.5. Kalyata naljdapd,from wcst, Vilghalasvamitenrple, Vijayanagar(Hampi), Karn.!aka,L1dia.Vijayanagarpcriod, probablyreign of Kgg4adevaraya. Ca. second-third decadcsof sixreenthcentury.

THI VIJAYANAGAR PIRIOD

J79

2J.6. Inleior fronr wcst, kalya\d natdopa, V;tthalasvani temple. Vijayanagar(Hampi), Karnataka, India. Vijayanagar pcriod, probably reign of K$nadevareya. Ca. sccond-third decadesof sixtecnlh century.

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2J.2. Vitthalasvamitemplefrolrr r,r,-esr. Vijayanagar(Hanpi), Karnataka, India. Vijayanagar period, probably rcigtl of Krsnadevaraya. (enurv. Ce. second-thirddecade'of rir,recnrh

J8O

IATER SCHOOTSOT THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

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from north23.8.Southerngoprrra east, Ekambarc(varanethe temple. Keiicrpuran, Tamil Nedu, India. Vijayanagar period. Ca. sixteenthcentury.

cluded large gopuras,plllared ma4{apas,kalya4a matldapas, and ternple chadots, that is, the main Gaturesofthe typical templesofthe Vijayanagar period. Usually, thcse elements were added in large scale,often at thc expenseofthe ernphasis on thc oigil-:a'l limafid. Perhaps the most conspicuous display of Vijayanagar rulership is found in the enormous gopurasthat lrerc ^ddcd to form entrancesto the courts or prccincts of innumerable south ludian temples. Most of tltc gopurasadded to tcmples during thc Vijayanagar period arc commonly credited to KJ5ladevaraya, although, as in the caseof A(oka, who is credited with the erection ofcighry-four thorrsandstiipas,thi. ascriPtionis undoubtedly apocryphal. one such example is

the southerngoparaof the Ekambare(vararntha temple at Karcipuram (Fig. 23.8). Its ten stories risc to a hcight ofrnore than {ifty meters.Clcarly the descendentof south lndian structuresseenas carly asthe Pallava period, the rectangularstone b.''e is roppedby :r pl r,midrl brick rowcr ri'ing in dir.ninishingstoriesand having a barrel-vaulted structurc (jala) at the top. Much taller than gateways of earlier periods, such as the Cola period, such popurasliterally drvarf thc central s h i l c c o J l i n ga t t e n r i o r r s h r i n c .o f o l d e r t e r r r p l ew to rhe religious site by their visibility for great distanccsaround. Tlre piilared nan/apas of tl.Le Vijayanagar period are usually called "thousand-pillared nandapas"rcgardlessof how many pillars they

_: : : : , : :

THE VIJAYANAGAR PERIOD 58'

,-r iion north:rrnathx temTanil Nadu, : period. Ca.

:rcivaranetha I:s ten storles :erers.Clearly a:urcsseenas ;:1grlar stone i :owcr rising )trrrel-vaulted I raller than . re (-ota :- the central -:rq attention l-i:r'for great Vijayanagar :':-nrl-pillared -. oillars they

23.9.Pillar carvingshowingthree figureswith four 23.ro. Pillar carving of searedlion, at Virabhadra legs at Virabhadratemple.Lcpaksi,Aadhra Pradesh, templc. Lep:ksr,AndhraPradesh, India. Vijayanagar India.Vijayanagar period.Ca. sixteenthcentury. period.Ca. sixteenrhccnrury.

in iact possess.These too were added to rnany already existing templcs. Often, they obscure thc basicplan ofan older temple and overwhelm the viewer or devotee, The architectural irnpressivenessof multipillared halls and tor.veringgatewaysfrequently overshadowsthe sculptural decoration of many Vijayanagar-period monunents, yet sculpture was an irnportant part of the ovcrall decoration and iconographic prograrn of virtually cvery tenrple of the period. Ptllars tn uandapas,for example, arc invariably carved with a rich variety offorms, many ofwlich arc cye-catching and sorneeven amusing. A typical Vijayanagarperiod sculptor's device was to create a motif in which prrt of onc objecr or figure is incorporated into the design of another. A pillar decoration from the Virabhadra temple at Lcpaksi in Andhra Pradesh(Fig.23.9)showsthree figures who share four legs, yet eacl.rfigure may be

viewed as being complete. This device, known throughout the range of South Asian art,?is not new in this pedod, but it is nowherc more ubiquitous rlor lnore fully exploited with variety and ingenuity than during the Vijayanagar period. Another common pillar decoration is a forwardfacing squatting lion (Fig. z3.io), which is seen virtually without variation on pillars throughout the Vijayanagarterritories.In this and thc prcccding example,it n.raybe noted that thc figures are carvcd in very low rcliefand give tire appearance of being little nrore than linc drawings rather than fully three-dimensionalcarvings, and often this is true, especiaily in halls where litcrally hundreds of pillars have bcen carved. Some, howcver, are quite elaborate, such as a represel1tatiol1 of Ma]reivara in tbe kalya\a uapdapa at the Lepeksi templc (Fig. z3.rr) in which the rnultiarmed deity standsin an claborate architectural construct.

562

LATXR SCHOOIS OF THX DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

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tem- z3.Iz. Baby K1;4a,on rvell of Haz,re Rlrrra lemple in kalya\!ntd44apa,ytabhadra 23.rr.Mahelvara pl€. Lep,ksi, Andhra Pradcsh,India. Vijayanagar Vijayanagar(Harupr),Kart,taka, India. Vijayanagar pc od. Ca. sixtecnthccntury(tcnple bcgunr5r3). century. period.Ca.sixrccnth

Temple ,,rrllr of the Vijalanagar pcriod also be.t ..i,lptures.As in orhcr soLrfhlndian srylcs. these often consist of dcsigns of single figures or motifs in nichcs or separatcdby pilasters.A fisure of baby KgSr.rafrorn the Hezara Rdn.ra teir.rpleat Vijayanagar is an examplc of this type of dicoration (Fig. z3.rz). Carvcd in deep relicf asainsr the pl.,in brckground .tnd scr off by ,li.or.,r"d pii.r.ters.thc-chubbl figtrre i' lively and finely carvcd. Such carvilgs tcstify to the fact that Hindu art traditions were hardly in a dccline during the Vijayanagar period, although so often this period is describedas being decadcnt or of diminished vigor. Also at the Hezera R-ma tcmple are at least two walls of sculpturesin a fornat that is quite t p p c a ri'n p a i n t i n g u n , r s r * il n 5 o u t l tA , i a t l. ' r tb L r a a n d s c u l p r t t r co f t h e V j j a y a r r a g aprc r i o d ( l i g . 2 3 . r 3 ) .E . s e n t i r l l y, p i c c o r i r lr : r r h e r J l . r n' c u l p tural concePtion, this cxanple shows rows of

figures and animals in a procession,single file, ,.parated into distinct registersthat scrve also as sround lines.This forn.rat is somewhat similar to ihat secnearlier in Hindu art (for example, it is used at the Kailasanathatemple at Ellora in the 2;rrdMahanarative carvings of the Ramayar.La bhanta), brt here, the evenly spacedelements secn.r subservient to thc overall scheme and lack the livelinessof thc earlier rePresentations. Typical of Vijayanagar-period sculpture are a nurnber of largc monolithic carvings found at various sites.Thc reclining Nxndi located sone distanceto the northeasrof the Lepaksi tcmple, for cxample, is more than eight metersin length, morc tha; four metersin height, and is believed to be the largcst monolitlic Nandi in India (Fig. z3.ra). Even more impressive, pcrhaps, is a gigantic represenation of a seatedUgra Nrsirirha or "Angry Nrsirhha" (Fig. 23.r5) at Vijayanagar.A figure ofLaksmi was originally seated

T}Itr VIJAYANAGAR I)IRIOD

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2j.rJ. Lxsr rrr1l, crLerior,Hazrrir Rlnra rcnrplc.Vrjav:ungar (Hlr14ri), Krrn.t.rk:r, Lr.ti;r. \rijryrnagar pcriod.Ca. sixtccnthccntur,r'(terrrplc begLrnrrr3).

23.r4. N:Lndi, to rrortLc.rst of Vrrrbhadra rcrlrplc. Lcp.ksi, Andl)r.r Pr:rdesh, lnclia. Vrj.rl rLnagar pcriod. Ca. rirreclrth cerllurv.

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58I

IATER scHooTS oF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

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upon the deity's lap, as may be seen from the arm that remains around his waist. Dedicated in r5z8 during the reign of Klsnadevaraya, this monolithic imagc measures about six and a half meters in height, literally dwarfing in human worshipers. Thus, while Vijayanagar sculptors used carvings sparingly on their temples,at leastcompared to many Deccan and northern schools, independent sculptures such as this give testimony to their skills and the impressivesizesuggeststhe Vijayanagarpower in

Irdia.

the face of political threats. A number of othcr huge images were produced at Vijayanagar, notably a gigantic representation of Gane3a enshrincd as thc rnain deity in a Gane6atemple. Perhapsbecausethe Vijayanagar period is fairly recent in terms of South Asian history, rnany paintings have survived in a number of different temples throughout the forner kingdom and it is possible to samplesome of the trends ill this medium. The heritage of the painting stylesis rooted both in the Deccan, for example,

:::

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THE VIJAYANAGAR PERIOD 58J

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I ::5er of other Vijayanagar, ,i- of Galeia i::eia temple. ::riod is fair--,riOay,-"nY -,::r of differ:,:. kingdom I :: the trends : ;he painting --^- ^-- --l^

at Ellora, and in the south, as in Cola painting. In addition, vcry strong evidence of shared stylistic features with painting traditions of wesrem India. such a. in manuscripts "ccn Jain of the thirteenth through fifteenth centuries as well as with Rajput paintings of the sixteenth century, arc also to be found. These lattcr are a subject not covered in this volume, for they are better left for a full examinarion of artistic developmentsof the Mughal period. However, it should be pointed our that painting schools of the south shared what might be considered to be certain pan-Indic Gaturesprevalent during this time. These include an emphasis on line, usually through black outlining of figures and other elements in the composition, use of a profile point of view for thc heads of figures (generallyshown with a full front representation ofthe eye, which is usually large and prominent, and sometimesa detachedfarther eye), little or no shading, use of exaggeratedposesand body forms suchasnarrow waists, swelling chests,and fully formed hips. Other characteristicsinclude lack of spatial depth, arbitrary arrangement and scaling of elements in the composition, use of fat, primary colors, auimation of the figures, and abundanceof dccorative detail. Paintings wcre probably used throughout ma1lapas,shrines,and other parts ofthe temples, especially on the ceilings. At Vijayanagar, a large composition on the ceiling of the ma4dapa of the Vir[p.ksa temple (Pl. 34) is divided into rectilinearcompaflmenrsof varying sizes.providing an abstract schematization of the narrative scenesportrayed. This format, like the sculptured reliefs at the Hezara Rema temple, is in strong contrastto the earlier painting tradition seen at Ajalta, for example, where one scene flows into another without constraint of such divisions. Although the colors are to some extent obliterated, red, blue-green, black, and white predominate. Figures are drawn in a black outline and color is applied in a flat marner with no modeling or shading apparent. The scenesshow Vidyararlya, a spiritual master instrumental in early Vijayanagar history, along with episodesshowing Arjuna, Rama (Pl. 35) and incamations ofVisnu. Typically, the figures are shown with faces in profile, large frontal

eyes, and narrow waists, and in thi way, they are related to pan-Indic developments, seen particularly in dre miniature painting traditions of Cujarar. Raja.than,and neighboringregions of approximately the samc date. Perhaps the best prcserved and best known paintings of the Vijayanagar period, however, are those found at the Virabhadra ternple at Lepaksi. The temple is presumed to have been built during the reign of Kr;4adevaraya's half brother and successor,Acyutadevareya, who rulcd from r53o to rJ42. Yet a number of aberrant Gatures about the templc that arc not fully ascribableto the ruggcd, irregular terrain suggeststhat it may have been built over a ionger period of time. The painrings.at least t]rosein the rahgamandapa with which we shall bc concerned, however, probably date from rhe secondquarterofrhe sixreenthcentury. The ceiling panels of the ruiga matldapaare delirnited by the beams and pillars used in the construction of the building. A number of the narrarivcpanelsare as grearas elevenmerersin length (one is in fact eighteen meters). Often, painted borders with abstractrnotifs (pls. 3G-37) set the compositions of from their architecturai settings.Thc Lepaksi paintings are charactedzed by the earth tones of the palette and the nearly complete abscnceofblue (and in fact, the absence of primary colors in gencral). The femalc atrendantsto Parvarr(Pl. 3O)in one compo"irion are similarly conceived but are also notable becauseof their varied costumes and elaborate hairstyles. The forms of their bodies and the details of their costumes are outlined in black, and colors are applied in a flat manner, rn contrast with early painting styles, such as that at Aja+te. The faces are essentiallyprofiles to which a "detachcd" farther eyc has been appended, giving the suggesrionofa tbree-quartir view. One of the mo"r publishedsectionsof the rahgd mandapacei)ing is rhe nerrarive of Kitafirju iyan," Arjuna'sPenance."One episode (Pl. 37) shows a boar running through a stylized landscape while a number of male figures try to escapeat thc left. The figures and the boar are animated, but little emotion is expressed and all the faces look alike, Trees, rocks, and other elements of the landscape are arranged

J66

rATER scHoors oF THr DxccAN AND THE souTH

almost like textile designs,filling in the space and serring the scenc withour arrempring to capture the likeness of the physical world. As in earlicr Indic traditions, "realism" is not the maln concc[], In addition to the architectural, stone sculpture, and painting traditions of the Vijayanagar period, r.netalworking continued as an lmportant south Indian craft. A nearly life-size figure group of Krsnadevaraya and his two queens,Tirmalamba and Cinnadevi, eachidentified by an inscription on thc shoulder, has receivedjlrst praiseand much attention (Fig. 4$). In contrast to images of dre Cola period, which were solid cast,thesehollow statuesare executed in a rcpouss6 technique, being made of two beaten sections joined to give ,the figurcs a solid appearance.Each figurc stands frontally, with hands tn aijali murlra, obviously paying leverencc to J now losr irrr:rgeof a deity. The figures are extremely slender, as has been the general type seen since Setav5hanatimcs in the sorrth. Probably. rhese figrrrcs raere executed during the reign of Krs4adevareya or shortly after, around r5z5 35, yct they demonstrate that metal imagery was still vital.

23.r6. Kfgr.rad€var,ya and his clueens.Believed to bc ac Sri Venkarcivara terlple. Tirupati, Andhra Pradcsh, India. Vijayanagar pcriod, reign of K$lradevafya or slighrly larer. Ca. r5z5 35. Repoussdmetal. Nearly iife-

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Like other late Hindu traditions in India, the art of the Vijayanagar ernpirc has oftcn bcen ignorcd in the literature about thc history of South Asian art. Yet the presenceofVij;ryanagar art is felt virtually evcryrvhere in south lnclia and the Deccan, both becauseof tl.re usually grand scaleof Vijayanagar productions and thc near ubiquity of Vijayanagar-period structures throughout these regions. Oftcn viewed by earlier writers as despoilationsto earlier monumenrs.Vijayanagar-pcriod .rddirionsro exisring

rnoluments ]ravc oftcn bccn disparaged,though the art remains at the city of Vijayanagar i*elf, where the richnessand vigor ofthe Vijayanagar pcriod is everywherc in evidence, have been rightfully accorded their justly dcserved admiration. Reccnt excavationsat Vijayanagars continue to reveal the impressivenessof Vijayanagar culture and promise to assureVijayanagar period art its rightful place among the most inrprcssiveand domirant artistic traditions of South Asia.

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The Nayak Period : ..d lo bc at ::-: Pradcsh, r.:al araya or . \carly lifc-

eed, drough riagar itself, \'l.layanagar havc been ,- deserved iriayanagars s of Vljaya\-ijayanagar :-i most im:ns of South

Upon the collapse of Vijayanagar after the Batde ofTalikola in r565, the Nayak princeswho had been their viceroysl took advantagc of the power vacuum and assertedtheir political independence.Esentially, south Indian art under the Nayaks representsa continuation of traditions fostered by the Vijayanagar kings, but which the Neyaks pushed towards lurther elaboration, greatcr scale, and ambitiousncssof scherne.Like the Vijayanagar kings, the Nayaks added to existing monuments by building pillared halls, gopuras, ard other sttucturcs. During the Nayak rulc, many south lndian temples took their "final form," that is, the form that they assumed during their last major period of construction. These "living organisms," built over centuriesin many cases, were (and still are) imporrrnr. rhriving ccnrcrs within dre daily lives of the peoplc. Four branchesofthe Nayaks ruled respectivcly at Madurai, Tanjore, Gingee, and Ikkcri, thus establishing separate cente$ throughout the once polirically unified Vijayanagartcrrirories.

Many of the most important structurcsand art works of the Nayaks belong to the reign of Tirumalai Nayak (1623-59), the most famous of the Nayaks. A number of portraits of him exist and his personality is well known. Tirumalai's capital was Madurai, which he ornanented with a number of new temples in addition to expanding and adding to a number ofalready existing monumcnts. Sincethis whole period hasbccn scarcelystudied, littlc is known, from an art historical point of view, about Gingee and Ikkeri, and distinctive trelds among the four capitals have not been defined. However, it may bc assumcd that the geographic location of each capital and associatcdart sites was a determining factor in tlrc utilization of earlier traditions in the stylcs. Of the four Nayak ccntcrs, Tanjore and Madurai are most renowned for their art productions. An extremely fine example of a complete ternplc from this period, but one of modest scale,is the Subrahrnanyatemple in the north'west corncr of the compound of the Rajarajei-

587

J88

TATTR SCHOOTSOF THE DTCCAN AND THX SOUTH

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24.r. Subrahnraqyatenrple in northwest comer of RajartjeSvara tem?le conrpound, frorn south. Tanjore, Tamil N,du, India' Nayak period. Ca. seventeenthccntury

vara ar Tanjorc (Figs. 24.r, 2r.22). Its datc of creation is estimatedto be in the sevcnteenth ccntury, although there is no inscriptional evidenceto support this.At first glance,tirejcwellike precision of the carving and high quality of work lanship throughout the tcmple suggests that it could be a monument ofthe Cola period, contcnPorary perhaps to the Grcat Temple tn u h o . c , h " d o u i t s t . , n d ' .B u t c l o s cc r : r r t t i n a t i o t t reveals that the atchitcctural and sculptural decoration are clcariy of a later period. The temple consistsof a shrinc preceded on tlrc east by an enclosed nandapa ar.d a porch that is acccssiblcby stain on both the north and south sides(Fig. zr.zz). A torver ofabout sixteen meters in hcight riscs abovc the garbhagrha,its

basic shape and structurc being clca y derived from south lr,dian vinanas seen as early as the Pallavapcriod. However, much greetcr elaboration ofarchitcctural fcatures,suchasthe inclusion of rniniaturc shrines,pilasters, and nicbcs nay be secn, and there is greater three-dimensionality to n.rany of the elements. Il addition, figurativc sculptures, also highly three-dimensional, play a major role in thc iconography and form of the superstructure-The crowning elencnt is also elaborately treated with surface decoration.s The wall treatnent of the cxterior of thc tenplc also bears rescmblanceto earlier traditions, such as thosc of thc Pallavas and Colas, yet may be distinguishedfrorn them by a nurnber of features.Compared to the Rajarejei-

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244. Dvarcpalaflanking cnrranccon east, Subrahrna4yatcruple.Taljorc, Tamil Nadu, hdia. Nayak period. Ca. seventeenth century. Black stonc. H: ca.I5o cr1.

vara tenple, by whosc sidc it stands,anclrvhich must have influenced thc later Nayak artists to some degreeat least,this templc, alsoornamentcd with niches and pilasters,appearsmore dclicate in its trcatmcnt. While this efi-ectmay be due in part to its decidedly less nassivc scale,it is also duc to the rows of decply carved n.roldings of the base,thc cxtren.rclyslenderpilasters,and the tidy arrangemcnt of vcrticxl and horizontal e l e r n c n ri ns r or n e a . i l 1d i ' c c r n c dp : r r r e rcno r t r i n g thc surface of thc structure. Instead of the blockish piiastersend nichesof the older tcmple, hcre round pilastcrs and more sleuder proportions create a lighter appearancc-Each of the principal niches on the three sidesof the rfurana contains an image of Subrabmanya(Karttikeya),

to whotr thc temple is dedicated(Fig. z4.z). As in thc cascof the niche figures on the Rajaraje(vara, thcsc are carved of a diifercnt type of stone than the tenplc itself, and luve been inserted into the niches. Abovc the niches on the exterior of the temple arc model temple roofs of thc barrel-vaulted(jala)typc that occurs as thc crowning elemcnt in the typical south htdiar. gopura, A pair of black stotc ilvarapalasflanling the d o o r J e , d i n gi n r o t l r c i n r r r i o r o [ r h c r c n r p l e . onc of which is illustrated here (Fig. 243), n y be comparcd to the Cola-peiod guardians on the Rajarajeivara tcmpie (Fig. zr.z5). Similar in pose, the {igurcs share a number of fcatures, such as bcing full-bodied and animated. How-

5OO LATER SCHOO]-SOF THT DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

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THE NEYAK PTRIOD 591

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24.J. View of Great Tcnplc fron sourh. Madurai, Tanil Nrdu, India. Neyak period, nrainly rcign of Tirunralai Nayak. Ca. midsevcntccnthceD!urv.

ever, the Nayak-period versionsarc much more detailcd and ornate in $e carving of drapcry, jewelry, and hair. It is clear that the Nayak imagesgrew out ofthe eallier traditions yct thcy are also distinctivc in their own right. One of the major artistic achicvementsof the Nayak age is thc crcation ofthc Great Temple at Madurai. This titanic project, largely cxccutcd during thc rcign of Tirunalai Nayak in the mid-scvcnteenth centrun stands as thc prime example of Neyak architecturai schemes,and indeed, is one of the grertest tcr.nplecomplexes in all of Sor-rthAsia. Trvo tenples are erclosed rvithin tl.re walled compound. (Fig. 2,1.,1);thc primary shrinc is dedicatcdto Siva as Sundareivar:r (Bcautiful Lord) and thc second temple (in essence,an An.rlnan slrrine) is dedicated to

his wife in the forr.n of the goddess Minaksi (Fish-Eyed one). Often, thc cntire conplcx is called thc Minaksi tenple aftcr the consort of the god. The irlrer sanctuariesof these two structuresmay bclong in Part to an early period of the tenplc's history but thcy wcre razed to thc ground in r3ro during Malik Kafur's cxpedition to the south and wcrc later rebuilt on a vast anclambitious scaleby thc Nayaks. The outer rectangle of thc tcmple encloses the Minaksi and Sundarc(varatemples, a huge tank (Tank of thc Golden Lilics), nLrmerous pillared lnlls, and great lengths ofcovered walkways (prakarus,Figs. 24.4, 24.5). The fout oLrter gop rds arc the largcst of thc eleven at the temple (that on thc south measuresabout fortyfive rrctcrs in height), and arc aligned on axis

I-ATIR SCHOOlS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

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24.6. Wcst loylrds of Grcat Temple, ftonr southeast.Madurai, Tamil Nedu, India. Neyak period, maitly rcign of Tirumalai Neyak. Ca. nid-sevetteenth certury.

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with the Sundareivara tcmple rathcr than the center ofthe respectivesidcsofthe enclosure.By Neyak times, the entrancewayto a tenPlc compoun.l had bccomc visually the most inportant elenent in tl.re south lndian ten.rplc and this tenple was no cxception. Rising from a high gr"oit" bnt", the brick and painted stucco ,=,,p"r,tru.,ur., o{ thegopurcstaper with a slight c.orr. and end in rhe barrel-vaulted (!ala) roof ( F i e . , r , l . o ) .N o r v t n o r c n L r n l c r o t l 5t l l r n e v e r . r r n i r i s lirn s i z e" ' t l t e y . r s c e t l d ' b c 6 r c , r l r es r o r i c d The structurc nolv srvarrnsrvith sculptedfigures; virtualiy cvcry space is fillcd r'vith surface carviugs of niches, pilasters, and othcr forr-ns The ifonographic program, still not "nalyzed, undoubtedly rellccts tl,c highly structured pantheon crystallized in Hinduisn by dris

tir.nc and probably adheresstrictly to canonical tcxtual lnaterials. Thc large tank (Fig. 24.7), set slighdy off axis to the main tempJe (Fig. 24.4),is atrothcrinpressivc featureoftJris tcrnplc. Surrounded by stepsand a pillared portico, the tank was uscd for ritual bathing; its grand scale is a pronourccmcnt of thc ambitious schemcs of the Nayaks. Thc interior corridors, pillared halls, and shrine arcas of the templc complex present an almost bewilclering array of heavily ornamcnted, monumentally sculpted forrns to thc devotce. Ternplc oficials cstinate that there arc a3 urillion sculptures.t the tenple, although this may be a gencrous estinate in spitc of thc elaboration of tlrcgopurasor the detail secnin the interior (Fig. 24.8).The enornrousstonepiers are eachsculpted

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wirh numerous larger than hum.an-sizefigures, primariJy depicting forms of Siva. that ovepwhelm and dwarf the beholder. Concentrated in this one area alone, there are more individual sculptures than exist from sorne other major periods of South Asian art; yet this ternple and others of its type have barely begun to be studied. While this is in part due to tte fact that many such temples are still used for worship and are therefore inaccessiblefor scholarly study, it must also be ascribed to a feelins of defeat almost before one even begins due to the enormiry

_-.

THE NaYAK PERIoD

of dre task tbat has led to such neglect. Detailed photograplx and architectural drawings of the two main temples remain to be made before the architectural forms can be more fully studied. The uimatta towers, however, suggest that the temples may resemblethe Subrahmanya shrine at Tanjore or a similar structure, although they are much larger. Virtually no atternpt to deal with the stylistic; historic, and developmental aspectsofthe sculprrrraland architecturilforms of this temple and most other Nayak pedod monunents has been undertaken. Instead. thev

nonical 24.7), e (Fig. remple. co, the d scale chemes s. and ient an oented, evolee. million rlbea rion of rrlpted

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24.7. Latge tank at Great Temple, frorn sorthwest. Madurai, Tamil Nedu, India. Nayak period, mainly reign of Tirumalai Nayak. Ca. mid-seventeenth century.

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]-ATERSCHOOTSOF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

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THE NTYAK PERIOD J9J

24.9. Fenale musicien, on pillar in "thousand-pillared hall," Great Temple. Madurai, Tamil Nedu, India. Nayak period, probably reign of Timmalai Ntyak. Ca. rnid-seventeenth century.

are sonetimes considereddecadentexamplesin comparisonro earber works. Yet it is certain that theseworks ofart, too, have a story in their meaning and religious purpose, and represent both a link with thc past as well as a distinct contribution to the art of South Asia in their own right. An incredible standard of craftsmanship was maintained in spite of the scope of the project. This may be seen in the carved pillars of the so-called "thousand-pillared" hall, which contains some 985 pillars and is located in the northexstcomer of the compound. Now servingas a museum, this hall seemsto be a .seaof pillars (Fig. za.a), many of which bear figures as great as three mete^ in height (Fig. 24.9). Virtually in the rouud and nearly free of restraint by their archirecrural setting.the figuresassumea variery

of poses.hr spite of the hardnessof the granitic stone, much detail has been rendered in the omamentation of the figures, for the garlands and sashesthey wear are generally deeply undercut. Thus, while still part of an architectural context (ashad been the caseas early as Pallava tirncs in the south where figures were dominated by pilastered niches or other architectural settings), the figure has now been released,nearly every image taking on the strengthand vigor that had previously been reserved for shrine or primary deities. Set at an angle to the main temple compound and outside of it to the east is the rectangular pillared hall called Tirumalai's ca ti (Fig.24.4). Built by Tirumalai Neyak betwecn 1622 ar'd i633, this hall bearslife-sizestatueson the pillars including portraits of the Nayaks of Madurai and Tirumalai himself. Tirumalai has, in fact, been immortalized in a number of portrait statuesat the temple, one of which is illustrated (Pl. 38). In a worshipful pose, the figure carries on the tradition of royal portraiture identifiable since Pallava times in the south. Tirumalai is rendered in a naturalistic manner; his distinctive mustacheand corpulency are known also from other contemporaneous portraits of him and thus the artjst apparently attempted to capture his actual physical appearance.In contrast, the female figures on the adjoining side of the pillar, presumably the wives of Tirumalai, are shown in a much more stylized fashion,resembling many of the more typical {igures of the I\ayaK penod. Even a brief glimpse at the Madurai temple revealsthat the temple in south lndia during the post-Cola period was nuch more than simply a piace of worship for a king or Gw chosen individuals, Built at enormous cost and over considerableperiods of tirne, the ternple was a focus of south Indian life and a.major factor in the economic and social lifc of the people. It nrs r city trnro irsc]f. somcrimcscontaining market placesin its outer courtyards and always activewith crowdsoI people.Suchan insrirurion needed constant rather than occasional sources offirnds, large permanentstaflsofpricsts, temple oiicials, and workmen to maintain the place aud build new structures. No longer simply a

506

IATIR SCHOOIS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

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personaioflering ofa king rvishing to gain rucrit or proclairn his night, the temple bccamc an institution greater than any inclividual or his single contributions. Thc sociological and cultur'.l aspcctsof sor-rthlndian tcruplcs arc subjects propcrly witirin the sphcre of the art historian's quest to understand the tlomrn-rcnts being studicd, {br :rlong rvitl.r traditior.Lalart historical 4reasof invcstigation slrch as style ancl history, thcse other areasnust elso be consdered.s Even more imprcssive in terns of size thau the MaclLrraitemple is thc Visnu tcn.rplc-city at Srirangam, thc largest soudr Illdian tenlple (Fig.z4.io). Its outcr rcctarrslcmeasures878by 7JJ rncters a[d it ]ras tlventy-or1c lolnrot) rrot all of rvhich wcre compietecl. Thirtccn of thcse . , r co n . L r .rr ' , r r 'l i r r e, , v i t i tr l ' c n r r i n . , r ' . L r r . ' r y . One r-rn{lnishctlgxteway on the south rvoulcl

have bcen about ninety rnctcrs high if comp l c r c d . l n . r l l . r l ' e r <, r e . t v t r r r o n c e n r r i cr r r tatrgular cnclosurcs, thc ollter tl-rrec of lvlich are norv buiit into thc sr-rrroundingtown arca.4 (The onter tltee prcikarcsarc not visible in the plan here; the tcn.rplcproper beginsat thc lourth praftara.)Constructed over a long periocl of tirre xs \v:rs the casewith many south Indian tenplc citics,important periods ofbuilding included the Pandya pcriod of the thirteenth ccntury, the Vij:ryanagar pcriod, ancl dre Nayak ascendancy. Thc tenple is peculiar in that it is built along a north sorrth a:
506

LATER SCHOOLSOT THE DXCCAN AND THE SOUTH

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THr NAYAK pERtOD

called Horse Court near the east sate of the fourth prakaru,wirh its rampant horsecarvings (Fig. z4.rr). Although the Horse Court is believed to belong to the Nayak period, the rampant horse motif was based on a model developed under the Vijayanagar kings whose own rnilitary strength depended on the rnight of their cavalry, especially Arabian and Persian horses,which they imported. The animals here, each with a rider and attendant figures, are executed on a grand scale for they are nearly life-size. More than simple architectural forms supporting a roof, these piers are dramatic expressionsof the sculptors' art as it reachedits culmination in south india. Like their northem counterparts,the southem artistsfeared nothing in the stone and boldly carved away the matrix, releasing figurcs fiom the qualried stone. No block seemedtoo large, too hard, or too unmanageablefor these workers. In addition to the new temples built under the Nayaks, and th e gopuras ," thoasand-pillared'' halls,and other structuresaddedto older temples, a major contribution ofthe Nayak artistswas the building of pfikaras at many temples. These roofed ambulatory passagewaysserved to connect various parts of the templeswhile enclosing certain areas.In addition, they must have created a dramatic effect on the devotee who walked along them on the way to worship. Typically, a Nayak prakaru has massive columns with elaboratecorbeled bracketsand exensively carved (and sometimespainted) surfaces.One of the most famous of thesepassageways fiom the Nayak period is at Rameivaram (Fig- z4.tz)Although this must indeed be one of the most memorableportions of the temple. rhe rest of the complcx is largely unphotographed and unstudied,and thus this corridor,which has received just praise,should not be thought of in isolation. The temple is built on an island now connected by a railway bridge to the mainland of India and was probably plarured and built in a fairly concentrated time during the Nayak period. Approximately r,ooo meters of corridor length are estimated to exist at the temole. with breadtlu ranging from five to .ix meters; the height from foor to roof, including pillars and their basesand capitals,reachesa height of more

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24.\. Mithu&a.Ftol'il Alagar temple,near Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. Nayak period. Ca. late sixreenth century. Ivory. F{: ca. rJ cm. Madurai Temple Museum,Madurai.

than seven meters. Each pillar is elaborately cawed with a great variety of motifs, Small objects,especially ones of ivory, frorn the Nayak period have also survived. This does not mean that ivory carving was a new or revived art in SorrrhAsia at rhis rime, sinceit is probable that the craft had continued since early times; simply, since the Nayak period is close to rnodem times, more exampleshave survived, many of them having been preserved among the belongings of various temples. One example from the Alagar temple, near Madurai, shows a traditional Indic theme fiom religious art, a flithuno couple (Fig. z4s3). Yet the treatment of the figures, especiallythe bo&es and the faces, suggests something of a European stylistic overlay. This is not at all surpdsing, for by this time Europeans were well established in south India for trade, religious, and other purposes.The unjeweled, unor:ramented, and naked, figures are unusual in the Indic context,

6oo

r-l'ttx scHools oF THE DEccAN AND THE sourl{

Paintings fior.n the Nayak period have also survived at a nunber of temples. Again, these were sonetimes part of thc dccoration of new buildings, but oftcn, paintings were added to refurbish older structures. At Cidar:rbararn, paintings were addcd to the cciling of the nindapa preceding the Siva shrine in approximately the seventeenthcentury. Narrative scencsshowing Siva in his Bhikgaqana forrn and Vi94u as Mohim are arranged in strict registe$ of varying widths (Pl. 39) The subject is particularly apProPriate at Cidambaram, the site associatedwith Siva's cosnic dancc, for Siva wandered as Bhikgalana with Mohinr just prior to pcrforming his famous dance. And indeed, Siva is shown performing his dance in another section of the paintings. The figurcs and main eleinents of the composition, such asthe architectureor trccs, apPear almost as silhoucttes, ligl.rt shapcs being used againstdark areasand darker forms being placed

againstlight. To the devotee, sceingthesefrom bclow, the forrns are clcar and easy to discern. The minimal use of line, visiblc only whcn the paintings are seen close up, is lost to the naked eye of the devotee vicwing the paintings in the . re d . , r k e n e idn t e r i o ro f t l r e l r a l l .T l r c p a i n r i n g a also characterizedby a somewhat lirnited palette rather than a full range of colors, little or no shading, and quite anin.ratedand exaggerated posesthat are clearly PercePtiblcfiom a distance. Figurcs are actively posed and bodies appear :rs :r seriesof angtrlrr slrapes narrow waists. broad hips and shoulders, faces in profile ln thesc ways, the paintings sharecharacteristicsof the minirture paintings of Orissa,western India, Rajasthen,and othcr parts of South Asia of the samcperiod. It is an important arca ofinvestigation to attempt to understand the pan-Indic nature of some of thcse stylistic featurcs while defining what are indeed local traditions.

CoNcLUsroN

The story of Bhik;a1ana and Mohini, in which Siva disguiseshin.rscifas a naked beggar and Vi94u takesthe form of a beautiful woman, is not new cluring the Nayak period. Nor, for that mattcr, are most of thc subjectsof paintings and sculpture that dominate the temples and stnlctures of thc Nayaks. Most of the forms of

the sculptures, tenples, and paintilgs also do not representsignificant dcparturesfiom earlier styles. Thus, this period, with its abundancein of nun.rbersof things produced as rvell as terr.r.rs prcscrved,might be secnasa sort of culmination of earlier developrncntsand as a display of the n r . r n i f o la d s p e c ro. l ' s o t r t hI n ' l i . , na r t .

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Sep:rratecl {i-onr the rcsr of soudr llcli:r bt tl.Le u.esternGhet mountains.thc rcgion of Kcrela corrsists of r r.thcr nxlrorv strif of llrcl aionq the Arabian See. l'hc clrl-ilLtc in this rcgion is tropicel,rvith firtilc soil conclucivcto -qro$.inq spiccssuch:Lspepper,c,rrclernon-r. end nurrur:q. ancl nrorc then 6oo varictics of trccs. Mxhl' p - o r , t . . i r r , r r r l i r r qi r u r r . , t . l . u ' . u , i , c\poftcd by thc l(c'rrl:r people, rvho l'crc in trlclc contectat v:rriolrstinrcs rvith thc Phocnici:Lris,Roman.s. Arabs. Chinese, l)oltuqLresc, Dutcb, Errqlish,encl otliel non-Indic pcop1es.1 Extcrnalinlhenccsresultingfrorn suchcontects erc i.lcntifiablc in tl.rc ert of Kerale. :rlthouirh inveriably, these wcrc cluickly rrrcclificrl to sLrit thc local trstc. In acldition,I{crrlr ert cxhibits associatiorrs rvitb both the treditions of thc Temil soutir(irrcluclirgrvorksin the sn.lcsol the Pallava,Pandye,Coia, Vija,varuerr.arLclNayJi peliocls)and sorlthemKxrnataka.cspccirllr'thc arr o{ t}rc Ilovsalas.,Tics to othcr wc\r co:rst Indic stvlesuly also be noted, possibll rrisrng lrour scacontect rvith (ir5:irat :rict otller: rrcrls.

Yct, in spitc of :rll its associ:rtions,"r,itb othcr artisticschoois,l{crlle ut cleveiopecl into rvhat cen onlv bc considcrcde hiqhlv disrirrctivclnd oricilriiL idiom. fhc prcscrt cliscussiorr rvill ''. r ' . o f l . . . . , .1 :rrr anci lrclrifccnrrc rvhilc irrcluclingninirnal ,:liscLrssiotr of its tics to othcr schools.lMost ol' the nlorrunrortsto bc r:l-.iarlitrcrl arc rc]ltivclv Ie(jrt in dxtc comp,rrcdr.,ith tltc lrt stLtLlicii[ othcr pilrls of South Asil, higcl\'- rs ,t rcsuit of drc prob:Lblcloss of eerlicr-rcneins. but eLso chrc-ro thc pcrsist.rlc.of :r strong. vilblc .ut traclitiouitto urockrn timcs. Tocler. Kn'lle is notccLlbr thc stricmcssof tirc FlirrclLr lcligious obscrt'enccs practicedby its pccplc 11 rts rllo,:c than tto thousendti:ruplcsof ectivc rvorship. Ilol.evcr. ruost of thcschayc not bcen stuclicrl sincccntry is folbirltlen to xnv(rre othcr thll r c l r . r o r I' r . r L r ' r . .r . : . i l l . 1 . , ) ' f l . r . r 1 r o r " i ing ercalbr firtnre rcseerch. The Cere pcople,as thc inhrbrturtsof Kerrle arc gcncr:rllykrrc,rvnirr Inclic historicel docurnents.ilrc lnclltior-icdis cxrlv e! the Maurve

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2J.r. Krgta ternple complex. Vertikkavalla, Kela]a' India'

oeriod. However, a contiluous art tradition ir-rn-n frottt extant exanPles has not been traced back that far' The megalithic burials found in significant numbcrs in-Kerala indicate that stone, at leastin relation to tunerary monurnents, may have bcen used tnore than two thousand years ago in that region' Apparently' ho*"t"t, it n"rr"i b.."-" as popular asin other regions, perhapsas a result of specific religious' or aesthetic concerns Early rnonuori.ti""l. 'm"nt, in easily perishable materials havc disnot appeare.l almost without a trace end it is art tlle that century the eighth ,irrj,il "roottd apobscure' less traditions of Kerala become parently through contact with thc Pallavasand the resultantincrcasein the useot stone' The tcmples of Kerala generally consist of several buildings unified into a single conplex a by a walled cn;losurc. The main shrine, called including shapes, liikaril, cnr be of various square, circular, rectangular or apsidal' .Often' te'mpleswere built uPorstone basemcnts,but the

rcst of tlle structure was made of wood, brick, or other materials. Sonetimes, the stone bascnr.entis all that remains of an early tcmplc while the walls and other Pxrts are later replacements, and in son-recascsmore rccent shrineshave been built to enclose the entirc shrine of an earlier structure. Kerala temples are notable for their dramatic roof shapcs,which may have evolved as a rcsponseto the heavy rains of the region, ,r,,1 *itich were made of various materials including copper or brassshceting,wood planks, or tiles. The K19r-ratemple at Vettikkavalla shows a t v p e o f " r r r n q " m " n t c o m m o n l yf o r r n di n K e r a l o (Flg. :5.r) .A rccrrngular ,lirpl" .o-fl"*.t encloscsrhc central nalnn,bilan' cloisrcr,colleda is square in plan' case in this sanctuarv, which tradition of a Tamil in the In cootr"rt to temples does complex comparable date, ihe Kerafa-stylc thoogh oot i"ve tall, cornmanding foPuras, gateways rnark the entranccs to the various 'enclosures in a typical temple lnstead, ivalled

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THE KERAI,A REGION

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2j.2, Siva temple complex. Ponneri, Kerala, India.

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perhaps the most distinctive visual feature of the complex is the form and arrangement ofthe roofs ofthe jrilaril, which extend beyond the walls of the temple building and seem to dominate it. In this case, the irtfrolil has wvo roofs, Also square in plan, double-storied, and cnclosedby a nalambalamis the !fika1)il of the Siva temple complex at Ponmeri (Fig. z5.z). As is generally the casein multistoried Kerala buildings, the upper level is smaller in areaand height than the lower story, providing a senseoflightnessto the structure, though the diminution of the upper story is much more pronounced than in the Klsna temple at Vettikkavalla. The walls of the temple, like many others in Kerala, are articulated in a typically southern fashion, wirh pilasters,niches,and other architectural elements constituting a major decorative motif, creating an evenly punctuared and systenraticorganization on the wall surface. Apsidal-shapedtemples, rare in the surviving

architecture of other regions of South Asia, are well known in Kerafa, as seen in the famous ir*atil o{ the Subrahma4yatemple at Payyanur (Fig. 25.3).The apsidalshapehasa very ancient history in Indic architecture; it is first preserved in the rock-cut caitya halls of the Buddhists of the second and first centuries 1.c,, and those monuments in turn must have been modeled after wooden structuresof an even earlier date. A few exampleshave been preservedfrom early periods, such as the small hall at Chezarla (Fig. 9.28) or the "Nakula-Sahadevarutha" at Mamallapuram (Fig. 14.28), indicating that the use of this plan for temples in Kerala was not in-novative. The Subrahmanya temple at Payyanur faces east and is built primarilv of laterite and wood. The roof, along with othersin the temple complex, has been covered with copper sheets. The temple is of the sandharatype and is notable for having two enclosed circumambulatory passageways.Preceding the main temple is a detached, matl/apa, called a namaskaru maxdapa

604

LATERscHoots oF THE DEccAN AND THn sourH

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THE KERAIA REGION

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25.5. Stikoril of r llrndu temple. Cochin fort, Kerala, India.

ia Kerafa (Fig. z5.a). Although there are no inscriptionsremaining that shedlight on the date of this temple complex, on stylistic grounds, it may be assignedto the seventeenthcentury. Though the square and apsidal temples of Kerafa easily find counterpartsin other South Asian artistic traditions, the use of a circular format for the irileouil is more distinctive to Kerala. A single-roofed example of a circular temple is tire examolefound at Cochin fort near the Jewish ry*"go^gr", which is visible in the background of the photograph illustrated (Fig. 25.5).As in the caseof shrinesof other shapes, the roof overhangsthe walls by a considerable margin, protecting what must have once been richly paintedwall surfaces. One of the most imDortant of tte Kerala templecomplexes is the Vatakkunnathan tempie at TricDr, which housesthreeltiLauils,two a{ which are circular, and one of which is square (Fig. 25.6).Possiblyfounded errly ai the eleventh century, the present"scomplex, like

many others in Kerala, underwent reconstfuctions at least into tte nineteenth centurv. The three shrinesfacewest and are aligned.in J single row rdrc|unthe nalambalam that deftnesthe inrrer enclosureof the temple. Although the extemal shapeofthe three .irtkauilsvaries,allhave square gafihag1has.Each temple is precededby a detached,pil1arcd, ndmaskara ma4(apa.At the northem end of the series,the circular ternple known as Vagakkunnathan is dedicatedto Siva; that at the south is dedicatedto Rama.The central of the three remolesis dedicatedto SankaraNarayaqra(Hari-Hara),rhe combinedform of Siva and Viggu, and is an excellentexampleofa double-roofedcircdr lrihbvil(Fig. zj.;). The diminishedsizeofthe upper story createsan almost caplike effect over the swelling form of the lower story roof. Though the walls of the lower story have been protected by a modern enclosure,the general appearanceof the structure may still be discerned. The smoothsurfaces of the roofs contrast with the walls. which are

606

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THI KERALA REGION

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j/t[oril at VarakkuDn,than telnp]e. 2J.7..Saikara-Narayana Tricur, Kerala, India.

enriched by sculpted pilastersand other forms, and painted surfaces. flte VataIkururarhanrenrple i. :rlso fanroLrs lor one ofits subsidiarystnrcrures. a holl especi.rlly createdfor theatricalperfornances (Fig. z5.S). Called a kuuanLtalarr, srrchbuildings consrirure a major clement in many Kerala temple complexes.aThe kuttaflftalamwas used foi the perlormance of a type of Sanskrit drama called Ki faryatt. Theatcrs of this sort were usrally n.raintainedby privatc patronage. Perfornanccs took placc on festival days or for special purposessuch aspetitioning the gods that thc blessing of children might be given to a childless woman. The Vatakunnathan thcater, the largcst and one ofthe finest knowl, hasa dramatic roof that alnost seems to hover above thc pillars and thc open, r,voodcn siatsof the walls; it dorr.rinatesapproxiraately two-thirds of the total height of dre building. Thc interior of thc hall is open and airy, sincc the high ceiling pro-

vidcs a feeling of spaciousness(Fig. 25.9). A separateroof covers the stage arca, which consists of a raised platform with three lacquered teak pillars at cach corner supporting the rool The inner sidc of the entabulature above the stage is richly carved with representationsof deitiesand other motifs (Fig. z5.ro). In a general sensc,the stage is similar to what is oftcn thc fornr of tlre central par of a pillated nn4dapa in other tenple stylesofsouth Asia, although the specifictreatrncnt of the roof and pillars and the surrounding room is different. Comparisons to the architcctural fornx of Nepal, parts of SouthcastAsia, and cven China andJapanhave becn made by scholarsdiscussing tl.re architecture of Kerala. Sone contend thai the forns dcvelopcd in this southern regron are unique and that such resemblancc is trcrcly s u p c r 0 c i a al n d c o i r L c i d e n t aOl .t l r c r , n r . r i n r " i n that these styies are variations on what must havc once been a widely current tradition

60.( rarlx scHools oF THr l)ECcANAND IIfE sourH

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Tricnr' Kerala'

THI KIRA+A I]ICION

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z5.ro. Carving on inner side of enrablature above staqe iD krl/arr6alarn, Vatakkunnathan temple. Tricrlr, Kcrala, India. r/r'ood.

throughout ancicnt India and India-rclatcd countrics. Thc ansrvcr to this conplcx problcm rclnains to bc discovered, and au'aits a fullcr smdy of thc I{crala idior.n in particular. In sculptural stylc, Kcrala's individuality as rvell as its rclationship to othcr art traclitions is casily seen. Sculptures in metal, rvood, ivory, and stone are found ir.rKerala, with rvood being the most popular mcdium untloubtedly cluc to thc abundanccof timber locrlly. In sty)e, there is a great clealof consistcncyfrom onc ncdium to another. As in tlrc discussionof architecture, exarnples founcl in Ker:rla of typical Tamil stylcs, such as Pallava, Panclya or COla-typc rvorks, will not bc ilcludcd hcrc. Thc indigenous type, lvith its characteristically robust and J L c .1, t f i g r r r e .' r n d. r b u r r . l . r n r- n r r n c n t . r r i . cr n. ' n be seenirr a '"voodenfigure of a tluarapala,orte

ofa pair from Kaviyur (Fig. 2J.rr). The fangcd gua(dian is relatcd iconographically to angry forms found in south India since PalJavatimes, but the hcavy treatrncnt of tl.rejerveled girdle, crown, earrings, necklaccs,and thc strands of gems tlut almost cloak tbe torso is charactedstic of Kcrala in.ragcs.A very strong stylistic association bctrvccn thc Kerala work and sculpturcs &orrr K:rmataka, espccirliy of the Hoysala pcriod, is seenin the treatmentofboth the body and the ornantentation. This relationship exists i r r w o r k r r n v r r r . , L r r. n c d i . t i.n c l r r d r n gp . t r n r i n g . and indicatesthat ilnportant relationshipsamtins r l r e r - t r r r d i t i o n .o f f l ) ,. . r i e i g ' r b o n r r r r e gg i o n . may have existed. Woodcarvings of Kerala consist both of . , p . r r r r .i r r r r g c s . ' nldr r l t i r e c r r r r o r lr n . r t ) l c I l r t i o n . including tlccoratcd pillars, nichcs, and ceilings.

610

LA'IER scHools

oF THE DECCAN AND THE sourg

zS.\\. Dvarapala. Kaviyur, Kerala,India. Ca. seventeenthcentury.Wood.

A fine example of a carved rvoodcn ceiling is in the nandapa of the Anandavalliivara ten.rple at Quilon (Fig. z5.rz). The rich carving and elaborate ornamentation of the figures are charactcristic of the Keralr style. The ceiling is divided into nine squarc cofrpartrncnts containing a central image of Brahn.rasurroundcd by thc crght dikpalas.Thc nilrc-sqrure design,while popular in Kerala, is cornnonly found in other architectural traditions of South Asia, includiug northcru, Dcccan, and southern styles, fiom at l.'"r rh".i.tl' r '' ^ , "." Metal was also popularly r:scd as a sculptural medium in Kerala. In gcncral, the stylistic progressionofrnetal imagcry p:rrallclsthat of r,vood and otlrer n.redia.A striking pair of tlu7rapalas l r o m l r a n i k r r ] . r n ri -. , r o b r b l yd a r i n g l r o n r r h e seve[teenth century, reveals t]re samc lovc of detail and richly ornan.rcntcd surfaccs sccn in

woodcarvings from Kcrala (Fig. 25.13). The full-bodied figures are typical of the Kcrala idiom, as is their enhancementthrough the almost lacelike cncrustation of jervelry over the figures.The bulging eyes,fangs,and lines around the mouths give thcn-r thc allgry countenancc so well known in south lndian fuarapala imagcry. In Kcrala, many of the craftcd objccts used in religious cererlroniesand performancesare preserved, providing a glirnpsc into aspectsof the Kerala traditiol of a type that is frcqucntly lacking for other Indic subculturcs. A beautifully carved exarnplc of a clancer'sheadpiecercveals the same richncss seen in otl-rcr contexts m Kerala art (Fig. z5.ra). Such claboratcand enormous headpicccs,ancl other dranatic costumc clcncnts, are virtual hailmarks of the dance and dranu idions of Kerala. Thc central motif of this carving is a hcad of Bhairava, a ficrcc form of Siva. The god's bulging cyes, long, curved tusks, lnd serpent ortlaments rcveal l-Lis i r n g r yn . r n r r eT. r a c r . o I r ' c d r n d g r c c r rp . ' i n ro n the mask, which nay have bccn nade ascarly as the iate sixtcc[th or early seventeenthcentury, suggest its original appearanceand scrve as a rcminder that thc wood sculptures of Kcrala wcre all undoubtedly oncc polychroned. In aclditionto elaboratccarvingsthat dccorated thc interion and extedors of temples and other buildings in Kerrla, rvalls l'ere frequcntly cor.nplctcrl by painting. The exterior walls of thc jriftoril rvcrc often painted, so tLat a complicated array of arcbitcctural,sculptural,and painted forns conliontcd thc vicrvcr. as sccu in a detail ofthe jriAalll wall ofthe Thirunakarratcmple at Kottayar.n(Fig.25.r5). The ellicst paintitgs yet discovcrcdin thc Kcrala rcgion arc on the rvell of t n(ddpa xt thc Siva cavc at Timr.randikkara. O n c f r a g r r r e n' ltr o r v .r l r eh c r , {o I r f i g r r r eq e a r i n g an elaborate hair style and jcrvcled nccklaccs ( F i g . : 5 . r t ) . D - t r n g f r o r r f l r e l . r f f c rp . r r (o f ! l r c eighth or early part of thc ninth century, the painting bcarsa striking rcscmblanccto exan-rplcs ofthat approximateperiodin other partsof Asia. In particular, compxdsolr may bc macle wit}r paintings fron.r T'ang-dynasty China, Japan, and Inner Asia. The very full, roundcd facc dcpictcd in three-cluarter view witli thc hcad slightly

THT KTRALAREGION 611

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nandapa of Araudrvrlli6vara

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oF THE DEccAN AND TIIE sourH

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tiltcd, the elegant usc oflinc, and the absencc of nodeling or strotg coloration suggesr assocra_ tions wirh Inncr and East Asian foim,. Su.h relationship nust be more than n-rercly " coinci_ dental. It is known, for example, that tle T,ang L l n c \ c \ e r u p . r i n l p o r r . r npf o r t : r t euilon ii \ e r , t . r . \ v h r c hu r s , p p n r c n r l yi n r r , c G r scverrl h r r n d r . dy c r r r . r l t l , o r r g l rt h . f r r l l r r r u i f i c a r i o n , ot srlch contacts and thc direction of artistic influerccsren-rainto be seen. A significant gap cxists betr,vecnthc scant earry parntrng r.emainsalcl tlic large body of nltcrials that survive from thc sixteJnth ."rrtnry and later,. inciuding murals in ternplcs and p a l . r c e .T . hr Mrrr,rr.heri prtrce in Coclrin, u h r c h w - r \ b r r i l rb 1 r h e p o r r l r " 1 1 . .i n ." i557.rnd l o V i r . , K n r . r l r V . , , r n : . t t r c C o ,J r i n Prc\cItLd nrler ol the tine, coDtains fbur rooms rvith paintiogs. Most of the paintings do not ciatc tron thc original pcriod of construcion; rhey are estinated to range in date fron thc jate srxteclth seventecnthtlrrough the ninetecnth -or ccnturlcs.t

TIlr KTRALARXGTON 6lji T l r c R o l a l C h r n r b c r ( y a [ l i y a r a ci )o n r J i n \ rn . r n t p r r \ s t v c - 5 e r r o( \1 f o r r l _ c i g J r pr ; i n t i r r 3 . . rl,c nr{ont\ ol $ lrrcharescen(\frotn tl.teRittttdyana. Thcse paintings may be the oldcstonessurvivins at the posibly dating from thc lat! ,palace,. slxrecntit or early seventccnthccntury. A section af Ra filana sccnedepictillg Rama, Sita, aud .a, J , a r : l ) t r n ar c l r t r n _ u trgl J A y o d l r y ai n l r r r e r i . r l c n : r n ^ 1. r b o v (l r r d b c i n gr c c c i v c db 1 r h e c r r i z , rrs ot Ayodhyd below shor.vsthe typically crowdecl, rrlcss. composition uscd in Kerala paintirrg of r h i s p l r . r . e( P j . 4 o ) . l i g u r e s. , , c p r e s .d, r o g c r l , e r c r o \ r t y .J \ t t w o v e n i n f o . r l r c , ry f , b r i c . r t r d rll availablc spacc is fil]ed I,ith orDancnrs or decorative elementsin vivid colors. The figrires l r . r r cr , ,i d e - o p c rcr l e s r n i r n r e f , , l l _ b o , J i . , l . p',.r;_ l c I r n S l l L c . r y l c [ n L r r r d, r b r r r r d . r n Li n ll KcrrJa r , . u l ; , t r u er r r dr e L t i r r gr o r l , e o r r l r eH o i _ "Lyler \ l l . , q . ( l r i r p o . . r b l , .r h . r r t h e Hoy,rl.r, h.,d a rclatcd mural style, although exarnplcs havc not survived.) Vivid reds, dcep greens, ancl orangcsprcdominate in the composition. Ofterr, c o l o r i \ t r 5 ( dl o \ l r e , g c , r .k,i n d or l l l l l r l r ) a f t o n. r (r o \ \ l l l c , t r r. - c c n f r"hf .cl.Lk "r ,r iri r r g oi rJre f i g L , r " ' .r r . L ' r l l yb 1 L r s i r rrg , l . , r l c r . , r r , l hglrr.r c o r o r c o l ) t b l ) a c t o nH . o u l e v e r . r l r i . d"o e . r r o r cielte the eFcct of a specific Jight source, bot grvcs the impression of an imrer glolv. :1tr1c1 Line is tsed to denarcate thc figurcs ancl cletails o l I I r ec o D t p o \ i t i o n . r n d , c r v e se ,

-.,ir.r"l .lemint, 1.",'.,-r,"i.., r,r"illti:l1lj

painting stylesof SoLrthAsia. In contrast to rhe prelcrence for lrofile lices secn in Ra.jasthrn, Gilarat, and othcr regional ,tyl.r, l,or""i,"r, t1r. t h r c c - c l u rc. r v i t l ( o r . p , r l L . , pn, r o r , . p r o p . rty. . i ' r v t - - 5 t \ r vl ti c. , w i)s .1 1,, 3 e n c r . r i l y - r .1et ,, l, , 'to 1r ordcr to add a senseof volurnc " r h the alrcadl robust {brn.rs. A grcat deal virality is crcatccl by thc t ^ n r p o . i r i o r r ,w . .of. l,iclr.puc.,r ro .pill rnro onc , r n o r F cr rJ L h ctrh t b . ( o n r . r t n cwdi r h i n ob,iorr; r r b t r t r r i p i . r o r i . r l, J e v i . . . .. , r c h r s r c ^ i . t c r , or other abstrxct units. The vibrancy ol this peinting stylc may bc seen in a cletail frorl t f r , c o r , r p u . i - i o n . h o r r i nl g r r.r, r pb e . r e r1 1 , 4 1 r. ) . r n \ ' tr c l ,r t l cn ( l l ( o i , , r. r i o t , r rd L r l l n c e bcrrn e ,r r t ' r . r r . s^, [ l i n . , n d c o ] . r a r e c . p c c i - l l y nor.rLle. l n v r n . r b l ) . r / ' c v : i c ly o f f . c i . r l t r P | e . , i o n s . Physrognornies,aud skin colors crcatc rcmark_

SOUTH 6 1 4 rATER SCHOOIS OF THE DXCCAN AND THE Another important repository ofKerala nural ably powerful images, as seenin a portrayal of palcceat rhe oeintingsis the PadrnanablLapuranr visnri lLoldine his four prirrcipalartributcs't]Ie nearly wherc .rncicnriapitalof Padmanebhaptrrr' .on.h, .1i..u.],,.t..". .nJ loru' (Pl 4z) Visnrr's room *'rlls ofa four frfrv painting,dccoratetltc qreen color, rather than his usual blue or black' building' fotrr-.toried on'the uppcr floor of a in i""rlr, to b" a peculiarity found regularly Gencrally attributed to the eighteenth century, Kerala art. thcse examplesshow a variety of Hindu deities, One of the dorvnstairs rooms of the Ma!cach separaredlrorn the othersby a rectilincar tancheri palacehas a seriesof large panelswith bo.rndaiycon'istingofe dccoratedborder' One individual subjects showing Kr;4a or Siva o[ th" ntotr renrrrlable composirions sltows geo"rally ascribed.to the eighscenesthat "rJ Vi94u on the scrPent Ananta (Sesa; Pl 46), a teenth centLrry.A fincly prescrvcd comPosltlon scen in Hindu art since thc s.rbiect shows Vignu as Krsna (again colored grecn) in a "ontmonly ro.z9) In this case,Vi94u Gupta period (Fig. o a v i l i o n .p l . r y i n qh i . f l u t e . ' n ' l s t t r r o t r n d ebdy is ioecificallv named Sri Padmanabha, since r n d i o p , s( p l .i l ) . ' , c t t h e : i d e so f t h e c o m P o \ i l i o n 'belo* the conrposiriondepicts thc principal deity of (prr,lrlly obscuredin rltc photograph)are svanti renlple' in Lh.t nr,rt" .rctlle Padnranablto ).rnd,.rp"rcc,ti, shoivingthe forcstsarld rnirnals 'l Trivandrum. The rcpresentationis thus an irnagc o f V r i i d " ' r " n . , . l r e n a t t r r a l t ' r i c o l o r a t i o no f of an image. The highly organized composition, rch rnd the ntorc naturali'ticappro tlrc lanJsc.rpe with the body of the serpent lorned ltrto conto piccorirl sPaccstrggest\rlrat Etrropcrn or cencric .qrrrred [orrns .-rndwitlr the row of othJr artistic modcs had been incorporatcd into figrr". .,tou". contre'ts witlr tlrc Ranayalta although the- robust forlns' vivid the painting, ""n,1 ,.ir", fro* the Mattanched palacc and other presetrceof rnodeling are clearly color"tion, c a r l i c rp n i n t i n q sH. o w c v e r .t h c a i r l c ' :a m b i a t l c e of the Kerala idion. Of thc same date xnd o l l i n r l l a v , i l a b l es p a ' ei s s t i l l a n d t e n d e n c y - rh in thc same roonr is a representationof Siva of shadesof rcd and grecn present, the use as is 'as ancl Parvati (Uma-Mahe6vara) accompanied by broad, full forms of thc the principal colors, Gancia and karttikeya, Si-t"'s dov"ttte' (gnla') creatcd by using shading of the usc bodi"r, N",tdi, rnd a nunbcr of other {igurcs ".rd color. "oi q a ) . of one U n l i k c r h c p r c v t o r rcsx r r n p l et.h c b r o : r d two totlcs (Pl. painting fron the PadnanabhaPuram Another t l r e l c o v i n g s p a c c in.utr'ntt rrp tlrc ,vrilable palace slroris ^ liigo uipott'a pedestalcrowned irrpression of littlc pictorial spaceand only the ]witl, ^ trokaro tota4a :tbove and attcndcd by a
THE KERAIA REGION 6TJ

CoNclusroN I he :rrt of Kerah n.ry be singledouc as perlrrps tures created throughout India aftcr about the th-enrost poorly known ,nJ poorly priblished tc[th cenrury extreme]y complex and difiicult of all the South Asian aristic tradltions. yet, to strrdyb . r r r t l r c r e . { r cJ ] s os o r n r n y s u r v i v i n g at the sametime, ir is one of thc richcst and most struct.rresthat it becolres a major task just tJ exuberant. The cnigma of Kerala art has been document and claxifi then.r.In Ker.l^, ,"iigious due to somc extent to the qatural insuladty of rcstrictionshavc limited scholarly accessro nany the region, though this doesnot fully explain the tcurples,rr.raking-itadditionally dillicuit to study lack of attenrion paid to it by scholari. Other t l r c n ra n d p l a c et l r c m i n r o r h e i rp r o p c r1 1 i s 1 e r j 6 3 l regions of South Asia, such as Kaimir, are c o n r e x r . r c i r n r 9 i r r n c \osl m : r r y a , p e c t so f r l t c equally isolated geographically, yet have been Kerala tradition, sccnfor examplc irrthe layout, regarded as "mainstrcam" devclopmcnts. To rool structure, and other fbaturesof the Hiudu somc extent, thc urinimal study of Kerala and r e m p l c .h o n c v e r , c l e . r r l y rhc rrrrporr.rnce its art forns is the rcsult of thc general ino l t l r c . r r t o [ t l l | . r c g i o n t "o. "cenryt , r t r d y o [ I l d i c attention paid to "late" artistic traditions in the art. subcontincnt. Not only are nuny of the struc-

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