The Art Of Ancient India_5

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CHAPTER TEN

The GuptaPeriod(Fourth to Sixth Centuries)

Under the kings of the Gupra dynasty, an empire was formed that, with tributary stares, dominated most of northern and north-central India for approximately two hundred years, fiom about a.o. 3r9, when the Gupta era was proclaimed,l until the sixth century.The political strength of the Guptas and the cultural florescence that they apparently fostered are often compared to aspects of the Maurya dynasty, and, indeed, it has been suggested rhat the Guptas consciouslylooked back to the Maurya period for a model upon which ro base their own empire.2 Candragupta I (ca. 3r9-335) was probably the first to attain significant power and fame for his line, partially achie.rred through a marriage alliance with the Licchavis of northeastern India and Nepal. Under his son and successor, Samudragupta (ca. 1.35176), the empire expanded to include newly conquered teuitodes as well as numerous tributary states in northem and norrh-cenrrallndia. Few works of art are known that may be positively assigned to the reigns of the early

Gupta kings. However, an unusual, larqer than life-sizestone scuJptureo[a horse(Fig. ro.r) is generally thought to be of this period, and, on the teruous basisof its very weathered inscription,3 has been said to represent a sacrificial horse used by Sarnudragupta for one of the aivamedhorituals he performed, an event also commemorated in lis aluamedhacoin tvpe. The horse is carved of beige sandston. *". "od found at l(iairigarh in Utrar Pradesh.very near che Nepal border, a region importanr to the early Gupta and Licchavi alliance. Its sryle rypifieswhar musr be consideredrhe rransitional phase berween the Kugana-periodworks of the Mathura and related schoolsand the develooed Gupta srylesof the fifih cenrury. A sriff qualiry pervadesthe work, and the articulation of joints and the transidonsfrom one parr of the body to the next seemabrupt, much like formulations of human figures at Mathure and other related sites during the Kulena period, and contrasting strongly with the naturalism of animal sculpture evidencedunder rhe Mauryas. Even rhough it

'88

DYNASTIXSOF THB MIDDTE PERIOD

ro.r. Horse. From Khairigalh, Uttar Pradesh,India. Gupte period (reign of Samudragupta?).Ca. fourth century. Beige sandstone.FI: about 2oo cm. SteteMu_ seurn, Lucknow.

is entirely free-standing, the horse is properly viewcd in pro61e.Its lack of implicit movement in spaceor torsion relatesit to the earlier Kusa4a formulations as well as other fourth-century examples. Three Jain images found at DurjanPura, near Vidi{a in north-central India, provide further important information about art under the early Guptas.They are datedby their inscriptionsto the reign of a previously little known Gupta king, Remagupta (ca. 37G38o),a and thus constitute an important document of Gupta history as well. All three sculptureswere nearly identical in their original state, although each is partially damaged. The best preserved (Fig. ro.z) shows a central figure sitting in vajnparyahkasana with his hands in dhyaxa nu&a, attended by nvo caurl bearers.A halo comprised of a scalloped flame morif around the perimeter reminiscent of Kugana formulations of the Mathura school and containing an open lotus blossom, appears behind his head. The pedestalincludes a wheel in the center and lions at the corners.In all, the conliguration is strikingly similar to that of Buddhist and Jain images of the Ku;ana period. But like the preceding horse sculpture, these late fotrrth-centuryimages representa transitional stage bctwein the Kugaqa works of Mathura and related sitesand the mature Gupta idiom. Abrupt, angular contours to the bodies and rather squat proportions recall the Kuqa4a idiom and yet, a movement toward what is consideredthe Gupta ideal is suggestedin the omamentation of the halo.

ro.2. Ttrthaikaru.From Durjanpura,Madhya Pradesh, India. Gupta period, rcign of Rernagupta(ca. a.oH: 66 cm. Archaeological 376-8o).Beigesandstonc. Museum,Vidiia.

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The Vidi6a region was an imPortant early GuPta art center, for in addition to the three Pieces from Remagupta's reign, numerous other remains have been located in the area,In particular, art seemsto have flourished there during

the reign of Candragupta II (ca. 38o-4r5), the successorof Ramagupta, who made imPortant military campaignsin the region. At Udayagiri, only a few kilometers from Vidi6a, twenty rock-cut chambers were excavated during the

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THE GUPTA PERIoD

169

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ts: Kusaqa t:-:r-ntury fF::r. near E:-:er imI -3 early !:--s rothe l::: king, | -- -ritute

L.-ory as Jr ::ntical !::ftlally

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ly a Pradesh, az (ce. A.D. 6-reological

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ro.3. Facadeof Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh,India. Gupta pedod. Gupta era 82 (A.D.4or).

Gupta period, two of which bear inscriptions from the reign of Candragupta II. These caves are yital documents since they constitute the earliest intact body of Hindu art in India, and demonstrate that by the early fifth century many Hindu iconographic flormulae were already well established.Securely dated because an inscription on the facade mentions Candragupta II and the year 8z (Gupta era), equivalent to A.D. 4or,5 Cave 6 (Fig. ro.3) consistsof a small chamber orecededbv a rock-cut veranda. The oFcenter doo.*"y i", decorated jambs and lintel, half-length pilastersat the sides,and representationsof two goddessesstanding atop makarcs above (Fig. io.a). These figures are precursorsto the depictionsofthe river goddesses Gairga and Yamun5, who standatop the maleara and tortoise respectively, Here, however, the udhanas are identical, although the apparent individualiry of the two goddessesis suggested by the use of the trees above the figures, for the one to the left is associatedwith a maneo tree,the other with an aioka vee.Two quardian

ro.4. Doorway of Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh, India. Gupta period. Gupta era 82 (A.D.4or).

190

DYNASTIES OF I'HE MIDDLI

PERIOD

rc.S. Dt)ardpal.t to r ighr of Cavc 6 cntrancc. Uder'' agiri, Madhya Pradesh, India. Gupt:r pcriod. CLrptr rr3 32(A.D.40r).

ro.6. I)urg. Mahisisurarnardirrron lacadc oi Cavc 6. Uda,r'agiri, Mrdh,ve Prrdcsh, I n d i r . G u p u p e r i o d . Guptxcra 32 (^.D.4c)r).

{ieurcs (draral,aias)l1ark the door, cech stxnding in a slightly ilcccntllatcdposturc with the arnr ncarcstthc door hclcl at dre hip, the other leanins upon lis rvcapon(Fig. ro.5). The husky boclies L r r d d i , p l ' . , r r o . lr o. t ' . , : . ' r n r c n r .t y p i f i r h c early Gupta style end clen(rrtratc a stylistic progressionfrom the iruagcs of the reign of Rtrnatlripta sone tl'enty-five ye:irs errlier. In spite of the nuscular physiqLres relnilllscent oi l{us-1ra pr-ecedcnts,thc figurcs show a new snloothnessto the fonrx oi their boclies,Iorcshndou'ing the rrore graceful depictions oi drc latc fifth ccrrtury. Thc claboratc coiflurcs :lre also cheracteristicof developeclGuptx forns, crr.iplusizirrgclclicrte iocks of heir rrrangecl in Iuxuriant profilsion atop the hcad. Othcr Iisurcs sculptccLinto thc front rvalL of ,t.- -.... .. . . . . r : . .L r d r l l l L . ., . n . 1 the earliestsurvivinq exlmplc provide perlL;rps of l uniliccl rconogrlphic program in Hinclu rrt (Fig ro.3). A reprcsentation of Garc(il, thc

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iurageof Durqa in her Mahistsuramerdiniforrn - r . 5 e . , r \ .r' lr' r r i o l t rl l i o . t o . ^ \ .L J ( r \ \ c (C l ..lc... r . . . - J . . . . , t .. . c . , l , c C o . , ri , . . rcprcscntatiolr of Visnu, :incl thcrc is anothcr inugc of this god Lrct\\'ccnDurga ancl the riglrt gLrardiu.ThLrs,in spiteof drc sp.Ltixlirnbxlince b c r r r , c nr l r " . l i f 1 . , r h , l . f t ' J r r 3 1 ' r r h . "[ l.., ,. ,. Lt. . .tt .,' (..rnc.. l . , . , . . , . r ,. . , , , r 1 . , ., - . . ' . - r n . l r r t r c l t i , , ' y r r r r .r r i .- L G,rnc(a,rvho is thc sonofParvati (Sive'srvife), rs casily rccognizc.l by liis corpulcncy ancl , 1 , .J1' . ' r 1 r , . . . r .l , l . , r rr, . u p o o . . dl c , rrr.rl . ,.,, \,\ . . ,., l , ^ ' . | ' f f L . r r, . . . r ' s "1. hcacl ancl rcplaccd it rvidr drc hc,rclof drc first crciltrlrc hc happericclr.rporrll-tcr drc Lrnfortlrnate inciclenr.As the "Overconcr of Obstecles"in IIindLr tliousht, Ganciais jnvarieblyinvokcd ar the beginninq of rr'orshipto hclp thc devotee

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THE GUPTA?ERTOD 191

G of Cave 6. uPra period.

ro.7. Vigr.ruon facadeof Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh,India. Gupte period. Gupta era 8z (4.o. 4or).

trto the left ;ave and an Erdini form reen Ga{resa e door is a r is another nd the right rl imbalance right of the r of Ga4eia rent itself is

along his spiritual path. As such, his image usually occurs at the entrance to a shrine or temple, on the side where the devotee begins the circumambulation rite. It is likely, then, that the worshiper at this cave was to begin his devotions at the left of the facade. In contrast, Durga in her Mahisasuramardini form symbolizesthe conceptof religiousattainment or victory and normally appearson the side of a temple that the vieq/er encounters after worship is conplete, that is, after the "victory" is achieved.In the MahiSasurarnardini story, an 4sut4,a type of demon, named Mahi5a was destroyed many times but kept reappearing in new forms until he was finally defeatedby Durga while he was a buffalo. The buffalo is a symbol associatedwith death in Hindu thought, for Yama, the god of death; rides a bufalo. It may be suggested that Mahisat numerous incarnations symbolize the realm of sahsdra, the cycle of rebirths from which the devotee

srva s wrte). 'ulency and Llv acquired s rn bar-resa . of the first unfortunate )bstacles"in r invoked at the devotee

seeksrelease.Dtrrga's deGat of the asura, thet, in the buffalo form, might indicate the victory o.ver solhsaraand the defeat of death, that is, the achievement of immortality. Her placement opposite Gar1eia, whose worship enables the devotee to begin this process, is therefore fitting. Indeed, the pairing of these two deities at rhe beginning and end of the circumambulatory path in later Hindu temple architecture is comnon. That this symbolism was apparently already present in the earliest extant corpus of Hindu art suggeststhat, asin the caseofBuddha and bodhisatwa imagery, a lengthy period of development occurred prior to its appearance ln stone. The Udayagiri image shows Durga in a f,welve-armed form, indicative of the trend toward increaseduse of multiple body parts in representationsof divinities during this period. In her hands she holds weapons provided by various Hindu gods, who separatelyhad been unable to defeat the brffalo asxra, who is shown in this relief being upended by Durga. Her emergence as the supr€me goddess, greater than the sum of all the male gods whose borrowed weapons she holds, pre{igures the growing emphasison female goddessesand personifications that is prorninent in much of postGupta arr and perhapsindicatesa continujty with the prehistoric emphasis on the fenale. In style, the rather stocky forms of her body and the details of her costume agree with the early fifth-century date provided by the inscription placed nearly directly above her head. The two representationsof Vipr-ru on the facade are similar but not identical. Both stand fiontally posed with all four arms placed in a lowered position, as is comrnonly seenin Vi9lu representations prior to the eighth century. In the caseof the representationto the dght of the door, his two rear hands are placed on the personified Iigures of two of his attributes (ayudhapunsa) the gada (Gadadevl) and caba 'fhe (Cakrapurn;a) (Fig. ro.7). gada (mace) symbolizes the power of knowledge, which destroys all that opposes it, while the cakn (discus) connotes the universal mind. In both sculptures, Visnu wears a high crown and a uanamala(garland of the forest) that reaches

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his knces, both of rvhich erc st:rnderd clctucnts of Vaisnavitc icorrosrephl'. In st1.lc.drc hcrit:rgc oi I(Lrslrnr forrns is still prcsL'r1ti11 thc srock,v. muscul,rr treetnrcnt ot thc bodics. E,rch iigulc on rlr, ...'lc| -r r,ro I f ( ....ri].rr -..r..1', in thc c,rsc of (l.rnc!1, .u1(l suqqcstivc o[ thc latcr pr':rcricc of pllcinq lnrjor icorr on thc c-\rcrior ol tc-rlplcs il nichcs. hr hfi:l rcrnplcs. thesc nic]res s()Llctinrcs bccrnrc nunrLrLrrc vr:r siotrs of tltc wholc t.rnUlc. bLrr hcrc. onlr. thc conccpt of thc si'peletion of cech hqurc is Pfcsarii. Thc right

is lurprcccclcrtccl il cxtant rnonurlcnts. Horvcr.cr.tlre rcliqio,.rs conccptsscerl u.cll clcvclopccl br rhis nrrrc'lnd ir rltrst bc ,rssLrnrcrl tlut thc 1..rirl to

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rv.rll ,r.ljrccrrt to thc crrvc {.icrrlt: belrs l nichc llitlr im.rgcso1'thc "scvcn nrothcr\" (rrryrtnrriafrlar). consorl of scvcr:rlprincip:rl I Iinclrr gocls, u'ho hc'lpccl Sir:r (lcstro\ rriLrltiplc rcprc'I hcv lrc scnt.rtiolr\ of tlrc rrrrira ArrJh:rkl. fittiugll'locrLcJ ,rpposirc (irnc(r ibr. likc DLrrqlr M . . i - . r . r . r' . . r . . I r ' . . . .r , 1 1 . . v r ' t r r . r r r

rcigl of Cendlrquptl ll,rj is stroriq cvidcllcc thet C;rvc j, thc V:lrarlre c:lvc. wlis creitcd at t]rc semc :Lppro,\ir)ri1tctilrc. sincc thc rhrce sccln to f;rru .r clLrster'.Plopcrly speakltlg. tl-ris crcxvrti(rr js rrrorc.r nichc than a cavc, lts llrain

tliis cesc rher of spirittnl uisJorl (r,1111,a) o1'61 ignolarce (,rlir/1,a)- thc pl:rcc'mcnt of tlicsc figuli's. .,'u-li]r:quiti srenderd in leter Ilirrclu :rrt.

ing sccncs(Fig. ro.8). EvclLurllv, V:rralu clmc ro bc rvorshipc.l as ouc of thc tcn rlrljor illc:rrrl:1tions of Visuu. eech of uhich hlcl thc prrrposc

fi'ltLrrc bcing i1 lilr!!e-\celc rcplcicntrti(u of V.rrahe.rlic boer lir ur oi-Visnu. *'idr acconlpxrly-

THE GUPTAPERIOD T9J

Dt5. Howdeveloped ti rhat the elationship documents patern of Udayagiri rlhich was mdragupta rnscrlPhon tiuring the I evidence created at the three zJ
of carrying out the god's role as the preserverof the universe, Here, Varaha appears in his NgVaraha form, with tle body of a man but the headofa boar. He lifts the earth (personified as the female goddess,P4hvi) with his tusks, thus saving her from submersion under the ocean. The precariousnessof her position as sculpted in rhis example reinforces the dramatic aspects of the moment. Beneath Varaha's left foot is a ndga whose submission to the deity is shown by his aijali mudra,a gestureof respect.The body of Varaha shows the same husky muscularity that may be traced to Kuga{ra precedents of northerl India, especiallyofthe Mathure school, and yet correlates fairly closely with textual sources(which may be later in date) that describe Varaha's broad shouldersand smooth, beautiful body. Varaha wears the uanamala cha:.acte:rLsnc of Vispu, and a lotus appearsabove his head. The iconographic schemeis completed on the back and side walls of the niche, although Varaha remains dominant due to his large size and three-dimensionalityin relation to the others. Water, that is, the ocean,is portrayed by a series of wavy lines on the three walls, and the sages who praised Varaha and acknowledged him as the supreme deity appear in rows on the back wall. The river goddesses,Gange and Yamuna, are depicted on both side walls. This impressive relief may be read on a number of levels, as is generally the case in religious art ofSouth Asia. In one sense,it might be taken literally as the story of the timely rescueof the earth by Vareha. However, Varaha is also the namc of a type of Vedic ritual. Thus, the sculptural representationmight be an allusion to the perforrlancc of thc Varaha rite as a means of extricating the world from a "dcluge of iniguity"? as opposed to an actual food. The suppiication of the earth goddess, Plthvi, to Varaha upon his descentinto the ocean,as given in the Vi54u Pufi4a, resentblesthc words an individual devotee might say in worship, such as "elevate me now from this placc, as thou hast upraised me in days of old,"8 further suggesting such a parallel. On srili anorherlevel.rhe Varaln conrposirion may be seento have associations with the secular realm. The Ganga and Yamuna figures on the

right wall of the niche are shown on their respectivevehiclesagainstrepresentationsof the two streams that meet in a confuence. It has been suggestedethat this may be a graphic representationof the region of Mad\ade{a, the heatland of the rising Gupta empire, through which the two rivers flow. In their role as protectors of their lands, symbolized by the GaigaYamuna relief, the Gupta kings are similar to Varaha, the rescuerofthe earth, and it is possible that such a conccpt is inherent in the popularly shown Varaha images of thc Gupta period. Perhaps Varaha here symbolizes Candragupta himself. These various interpretations of the Varaha relief should not be viewed as contradictory or mutually exclusive.Multiple levels are often intended by the creators of South Asian a!t, who use this type of allegory not only to distinguish the exoteric from the esotcric, but also becauseeach individual worshipcr is at his own stageof progress toward the religious goal and, as such, a single meaning might not be appropriate to all. Panllel consrrucrionson mulciplc levcls cxisr in Sanskrit lirerarrrrcand are used in religious texts and dramas with an identical purpose. A one-faced liirga (ekanukhalinga)is the main object of worship in Cave 4 at Udayagiri (Fig. ro.9), obviously a Saivite cave, but the date of this work is not ca.ily fixed. as rhcrc is no inscription associatedwith it. However, the simplicity of the treatnent of the facc, thc careful depiction of the separatclocks of hair, and thc relatively modest alnount ofjewelry suggcstthat it was n.radcin thc first quarter of the fifth century. The round face with rathcr heavy features is reminiscent of Kustna types rather than suggestive of the urore fuid, subtly modeled {brms of the late fifth centLrry.Thcrc i: pcrhaps.no m o r e d r a u r a t i cs y m b o l o f t h e p o w c r o [ S i v a than the irnage ofthe /iiga, or phallus,j uxtaposed with a rcpresentation of one or more human heads,for it implies thc unification of the sexual encrgy, represeniarivcof the entirc crcatjve energy of the universe, with the intellect. It becomes,in a varicty of different forrns, one of the most cxpressivesymbols in Hindu art. The varietiesof Hindu subjectssecnat Udaya-

,94

D\ NASTITS OF IHh

MIDDIE

PFRIOD

ro.9. One-facedlingab Czve 4. Udayagiri,Madhya India. Gupta period. Ca- fust quarterIifth Pradesh, century.

India.Gupta ro.ro. Hai-Hara. Fron MadhyaPradesh, H: period.Ca. early 6fth century.Beige sandstone. New Delhi. Museum. r 57.7crn.Nationai

early Gupta-period date. Iconographically, the image,is of interest as it shows the god who is half Siva (proper right side) and half Vis4u (proper left side). Not only are the two halves of the headdressdiferentiated but presumably the attibutes originally hcld in the handswould have been appropriate to each of the deities. The erect liiga charactedstic of Siva is represented on the proper right side on1y. Such an image indicates not only a well-developed iconography for each of the gods. but a srage of religious developnent in which both had been reconciled into a syncietic statement-that have not survived. o f u l t i m a t eu n i t y i n s p i t eo f r p p a r c n td u o l i r y . rePresentation, humcn-sjze approximately An K1sr.ra, best known later as the eighth incarnaof union syncretic god the Hari-Hara, of the also appearsin sculpturesfiorn the ofVif+u, be tion may Pradesh Madhya fiom Vi;o.t, Sir," "oJ A representationof hin from early fifth century. the on century fifth of thc dated to the first Part asK;5qa Govardhanadhara, depicts him Varanasi securely the more to basis of its rescmblance in which the deity is of Govardhana, or Bearer Thc (Fig io.ro). dated Udayagiri sculPtures with his left Govardhana Mount shown holding and rather full face, muscular but smooth body, of inhabitants the to protect like a canoPy this hand, of indications simplc omrmentation are

gid are unusual among the early GuPta remains becausetheir contexts are preserved.However, isolatedGupta-period finds at a number of other sites reveal a vast repertoile of Hindu deities widespread by the fifth century. Most of these .onceptions reveal littlc of their forrnativc phasei.appearingas flully developcdiconswhen in stoncexamples.This ih.y *.r. fitt, preserved suggests that, like the Udayagiri sculptures, these works represent religious concepts that had been developing for a long time, and perhapshad been depicted in works of art that

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THE GUPTApERTOD 195

t- --tra. Gupta r:i-:ilone.

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ro.rr. Krtna Lifting Mount Govardhana.From Arra, Varetrasi, Ut.ar Pradesh, India. Gupra period. Ca. carly fifrh century. Beige sandstonc.H: 2r2 cu1.Bharat r\ara rlnJvlll,

6-::a1ly, the : ::i rvho is L ::lr vl5qu r :-.r-o halves t ::esumably -:ds would f :ie deities. i:-.: is reprec--'-. Such an r,Jeveloped . :ut a stage c:- both had !::::1ent-that :-: Juality. sl:rh incarna;., from the r -.i him from rihanadhara, l- rhe deity is ; ..i'ith his left L-labitants of

ro.r2. Nr-Varaha.FromEran,MadhyaPradcsh, lDdiaGupta pcriod. Ca. carly fifth ccntury. Bcigc sandstonc.H: r86cn1-SagrrUniversityMuscum,Sagar.

vata!4s1.

Vrindevana fron.ra dcluge sentby Indra, who had b e e n . ' n g c r cbdy t h e c o r r , r r r r r n i r iyn' r t t c n r i o nr o him in their dcvotions(Fig. ro. r r). Krsna'snamc (Thc Jllack One) is a probablc rcfcrencc to his Dravidian origin. His rolc as cowherd and protector of the pastoral pcoplc suggestsfurther aflinities to the cor.v-r.vorshipingpeoplc of preVcdic Indic society. His cncrgcncc dLrring the Gupta period as a popular god rcflects the resurfacing of an ancient conccpt rathcr rhan an irxlovation. In form, thc relationshipof this figure to early fifth-cenrirry images and Kusanaperiod prccedents, like those fron Mathnre, is cJcar,cspcciallyin tJrcbody forrns ancldctaiis of thc costulnc.lo At Eran, a Vaisnavite sitc approxin.ratcly cigl.rty kilometers from VidiSa, a grear couplcx of tcmplcs and accompanying sculptures was produced during thc Gupta pcriod. Inscriptions found at lran (ancicnt Erakaina) documcnt artistic activity thcrc fion the reign of Samudra-

gupta to the pcriod ofthe Huna invasion around thc beginning of the sixth ccntury.ll A large scuJpturcofVaraha ftorn Eran suggcstssculptural tics to artistic clevelopn.rcnts at ncarby Uclayagiri during the early fifth ccnnrry (Fig. ro.r2). The p o r n e ro I r l r e d e i t y i s c r p r c . ' c d i n r h c t i r i l . hcavy forrls offic body and the solidity of his posc, which lnust havc easily earncd l.im thc confidence of his human devotees. Latcr in datc is a pillar from lran bearing a double-sidcdiuage of Garudadrted in the ycar r6J (Gupta cra), ecluivalcntto A.D. 484 (Fig. ro.r3).12Thc specificdatc, sivcn as the twclfth {"y of d," liglrt fortniglrt of the nonth of Asadha (June-JLrly),indicatcsthat astrolosicai considcrationswcrc taken into accorultin sclccting thc timc of thc dcdication,sincc Asadhais associatcdwith thc srulmcr solsticc and thc Iengthening days, which are considcred to be auspicious, as is the bright haif of the lunar nonth. Although this aspect of thc dcclication

r96

D\NA\TlL\ul Illl MIDDII PrqloD

of tcruplcs and religiorrssctllptureshas becn virtually ignorecl, sincc scholarsare often more conccrncd l,ith the ycar (an.l heirce thc chronolotical implications) than l'ith the actttal clate (n,rdth.r, t"ligio.,t and astrologicalimplications), n 'r r ( i r i . u c l l l n o u r r t l ' u r' t r c l t , o t t ' i d ' r ' r t i ow apparendy a nrajor part of religiousclcdications, f.o,ri -r.ty carly time. The inscription furthcr " revcals that tl.re pillar u'as clcdicatedto a lorm of Visrlu. It is interesting to note-in light of thc' datc of dre inscription that both Visnu and Garuda arc considerec'lto bc solal dcities.Two front viervs of Garud:r arc :rddorsed atop the pillrr. onc facinq west towxld :r ro\4' of templcs, tl.r" oth., facing-east. Each represcntationholds a vrakc, a syn.rbolof Garuda, who is said to be the natural enemy of snakcs Such Garuda -rlarrllas n-rust have bccn comtrronly placecl beforc V:tisnevitc temples frolu en carly date as by the Heliodoruspillar of thc Sunga suggestcd peirod (Fig. 5.r), I Practicecontinrrcdto the pr"r.nt d"-t in India and Nep;rl. In srylc, tl.re ir.rsky fontl, of the body revcal closc ties to nuch carlicr carvings frorl north-central Inclia, contrxstins strongly rvidr thc slencler' dclicate hgurcs of the latc fifth century xt a nunbcr of oihcr sites(Fig. ro.r9) ancl possiblyinclicatinga regional stylistic prelerence

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An iuscriptior-raddecl to the castern lornna of tl.LcGrcrt SttlPaat Sanci rcfers to Canclragupta ll end thc year 93 (Gupta cra, cquivalent to a.o. 4.rz) and rccords i grant in favor of thc Iluclclhistcommunity by an individual r,vhorvas apparcntly an officer of Candmgupta lI s.13 Altho,1glt the 5;raut ciocs not specify altistic prtronagc (it simply providcs lor the lccding of ihc tren.licants ancl maintcnance of oii larnps), its dcdication coincidcs rvith x rcsurllence of artisticactivity in stoncat thc site.Thc neu'burst

INDIA (SINCi)

in p:Lrtmiqlit have bccn clncto rcucrvedirlperial p o r r c r . , t t Jr t , . , l t l 'i r r t h ( r , S i u l l' u l ' . i 1. , t t t t r ' r l,vc"Prltcno t f t\c i ' . u . . , . o ' t i r r r r t l . . r tcl o' c ncarby Hindu tnollLlnlents lt Udayagiri and other sitcsasrvell).Apparently,aftcr the Satavxhata peliod, artisticactivity tn dLrrablcmatcrials cinle to a virtual halt at Sanci sincethc only rvorks that sccnl to.lxte from rhe pcriocl of l{uslne rulc in tl-Lenorth arc a lcrv scttlpturcs obviotrsly importecl llrom Methnra rvorkshops.la The .cncrved cllort at Sanci durins thc fifth

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THE GUPTA PERIOD

h.:: been ft: more t ::onor::l date , ;&.---rions) i-:-s were t: rrently nc :urther tr a form b .ight of \-i nu and r-..:s. Two I :top the o: remples, rrion holds said to be i Garuda n1r' placed rlt date as rhe )unga ued to the L style, the iose tres to nrral India, er. delicate number of mdicating a

r:n, Madhya Budhagupta).

ici) ,;cd imperial ..hich must ncnt of the Lavagiri and r the Setavat ie materials r.e tl.Leonly re period of .t sculptures .r'orkshops.la ing the Iifth

197

century involved both the creation of new monuments and the refurbishing ofold. Certain additions, for example, were made to St[pa I that considerablyalteredthe iconographic program to more typical Mahayana forms. Since there is evidenccof Mahdydna pracrices at the site from earlier periods, tbese modifications may not refect a real change in thought but only in form. A pillar crowned by a representation of the Bodhisattva VajraPali was set up near the northern gateway of the ancient rftpa. Now detachedfrom the pillar, the Iigure is broken of at the knees(Fig. ro.r4) The main portions ofthe arms are alsolost but the damaged right hand Lolds a uajra, still vhible at the dght bry . Clad h a dhott that is carved with sonewhat irregular but delicate grooves representing the folds of the garment, the body is smooth and reflects a development toward the mature Gupta formulations of the mid-fifth century, although still reflecting Kusa4a-period precedents. The figure, though carved in the round, strongly relates to the depictions of the duardpalos at C^ve 6, Udayagiri, and a date in the ro.r4. Vajrapani.Capital of pillar set up nearnorth early Iifth century, perhaps slightly later than India.Gupta gateway,Stipa I. S,ffci,MadhyaPradesh, for may be suggested the Udayagiri materials, period.Ca. early Iifth centuly. Seici Site Museulnr this work. An interestingfeature ofthis sculpture H: r55 cm. Saflci.Beigcsandstone. is the halo behind the head with its twelve evenly spacedholes piercing the rim. Thesemay have becn intended to hold nctal tenons for lay worshiper named Harisvtmini to a Buddhist the attachment of a larger, morc grandiosehalo community (at Sanci) for keeping lamps at the whose metal spokes might have suggestedrays jewel house as well as at the "place of the four of light emanating fron.r the figure. Tiny holes Buddhas." This inscription may refer to the in the nccklace (which is strikingly similar to four Buddha imageslocated at thc entranceways that on the liiga at Cave 4, Udayagiri, Fig. ro.9) to th"' sttpa, providing proof that they were and on the belt also indicate that n.retal or r n e x i s t e n cb jewels had been addcd to enhancethe sculpture. c y a . o . 4 s o ( C u p t ac r a t 3 L ) , t } e date given in the epigraph.ls The best preserved Vajrapani signifiesthe power ofBuddha-knowlof these images (Fig. ro.r5) demonstratesthe cdge. His location at the north cntrance to the delicacy, grace, and tranquility of the sculptural stapo is significant, for it is through the north style, which is often said to characterize the side of a cosmological diagram known as a art of the mature Gupta period. With eyes cast ma4dala,in this case,the sfapa compound itself, downward and a gently smiling expressionon that accessto enlightenment is gained. his [ace.rhc Buddhr crnbodiesthc inrrospection As part of the refurbishing of Saiici during and harmony of Buddhist thought. An intrithe fifrh ccntury. four Buddha irrtagcswcrc cately carved halo, almost lacelike in eft-ect,is placed at the entrancesof the Great StuPa, one centered behind the head. In design consistsof facing each ofthe four directions. An inscription a rim of triangular rays reminiscent of Mathura added to a crossbar of the ground balustrade of the stupa recolds an endowment by a fen-rale or KuFta precedents(although not scalloped),

rg6

DYNASTTES OF THE MIDDLE PF.RTOD

these bear depictions of lotus petals. Flanking cach Buddha is a pair of attcndant figrres and above are uidyadharas bearing offerings. In tlrrce of the stelae,the attendantsappear to be calr!bearing bodhisattvas.(The figure to the proper left of the central Buddl.rain Fig. ro.r5, for exanrple, may be identificd asVajrapani because hc lrolds a njrc at his lcft hip.) Thc fourth sculpture,that at the south gate,bearsrepresentations of Indra and Brahn.ra instead. Thus, the carly link betwecn bodhisattva and Indra and Brahn.rl imagery seen in the Kusaqa period sccmsto havc pcrsisted. Rcncwal ofart production at Saici during the fifth century did not only include sculpture. Sevcral new temples wcre addcd and earlier architectural stmct[res were remodcled or rcfurbishcd, although thc Great Stupa rcmaincd by far the most dominating feature of the community and the esteen.riu which it was held docs not sccmto havc din.rinishcdthroughMadhya out thc ccntLrrics. By the fifth ccntLuy, the ro.r J. Buddhapaneloneastside,SrtpaI. Safrci, Prrdesh,India. Guptapcriod- Ca. Drid-fifthcentrrry. site had a complex plan including numerous Bcigesandslor1cH: 162.5cnr. stipas fron early periods, rlilaras with identical cclls surrounding a central space, and other brdldings. deeply undercut One ofthc rr.rostirnportant aswcil aspcrfcctly but thc intcrior is {illed with prcscrvcd of the Gupta-period structtres at cxcmpiifying the cxloliatc and scroll desigl.Ls, 5 : n . r i 5 t l r c . r r r : r l.l l r r i n , k n o r v n r . f e r r r p l ct r quisitc work emerging fion.r Gupta-pcriod sites (Figs.ro.16, ro.r7), whicl.ris uenerallythouglrt throughout northern and north-ccntral India to datc ftom tl.rcfirst quartcr ofthc fifth ccnttuy. at thxt til.r1c. The smooth contoLrn of thc form, and simplicity Buddl.ra'sbody, with in graccfully r.nodulatcd Its small size,r.rnpretentior,ls are ciraracteristicof early Gupta-period arcl.ritransitions, also mark thc dcvclopmcnt away l c (r r r r c . I l ) c r c r r r p l cc o r r r i r r ro f t w o r r r r i r . .a fiour tl-rcn-rore angular forms of earlier Gupta pillarcd porch (uundapa) aud a slrrinc (garllaformulations. grha). Each of thc two scctions is articul;rted Iconographically, thc four sculpturesare also of jntercstlor tlrcl nr.,1bc c.,rJyrcprcscntariont clcarly and there is no attcnpt to disguisc thc of llucldhas having directional significance. j o i n r b e r w c c nr l r e r r rT. l r i ' c l . ' r i L 1o f p a r t sc l t " r actcrizes this and otbcr carly Gupta-period While thc dircctional Buddhas orjlras (literally, "victors," rcfcrring to thcir spiritual achicvcteurplcs.Tbc structurc restson a Jow plinth wit]r stcps at either end of tl.rc porch. Howcvcr, a rlcr.Lt) popularized in latcr Buddhist art are g c n c r . , l l yr c c o g r r i z . r bbl .y' r l r c i r d i ' t i n c t i v cr r r r , - widcr intcrcolun-rniationbctwccn thc two ccnthat tl.retenple tral pillars of thc porch sLrggcsts /ras and thc bodhisattvaswl.ro oftcn accorrpany was propcrly approachedalong its longitudinal thcm, thc Sancr stclac arc comparativcly stanclaxis, as is the cascgcncrally iu latcr tct'nplcs,ancl ardizcd.lGln cach case,the Buddha is seatedin not fronl thc sidcs.Massivc slabsof stone, some ar,.ddrsphystlhyau nnrlra with uajraparyaikdsana as rDuch astwcnty-fivc centinrete{sthick, pl^ccd his hands, inclicating a statc of dccp mcditation. sidc to sidc rcross the sanctlrtrrand porch con-rThc figurcs sit upon cushions that rcst on prrst rhe roofof rhc .tnrtrlrc .rndcrcrtc cornices rectangular bascsand, in two of thc carvings,

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THE CUITA PTRTOD lgg

10-16.Temple 17. Sancl,Madhya pradosh,I11die.Guprapcriod. Ca. first quarccrfifth ccntury.

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that relieve the plain ashiar cxtcrior of the building.rz Although this temple appears to be solidly built, severai features inply that the craft of building in stone was still in its infant stagc; the sructrue totally lacks foundations, which resulted in buckling of the walls and partial collapseof the roof (both corrected by modern restoration). Furthcr, thc walls are made of rubble tl.rat has been faced with stone, both inside and out, giving tbe appearanceof wcight and solidity but not thc stability of solid stonc. It is aln.rostas though thc practice of erecting solid structuresllke *upas with rubble that was then faced with stone was bcing adoptcd for use in buildings such as this. Eventually, solid

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ro.r7. Plan of Tcmpte rZ. Safrcl, Madhya pradesh, l)dia. GuDraperiod.Cr. 6rrc quarrerfifth ccnrury.

2OO

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE

PERIOD

stone structures without the rubble core came to be used in lndic architecture, Simplicity and understatement characterize the de-.oration of Sanci Temple 17, for sculptural ornamentation is confined to the doorway and to the pillars, which have square basesthat ch"ns. into an eight- and rhen sixteen-sided form"rrr-ounred 6y bell-shapedlotus capitals' Certain Gatures of the pillars, such as the addorsed reclining lions, whjch forur the decorathe lotus bells recall tion of the capit"ls, "nd Maurya-period Pr€cedents. No' iiage w", found in the srnall cubical shrine, noi has any other clue come to light that can reveal the original dedication of the

Buolurst

A R T o F T H EF r r r n C r u r u n v :

The florescenceof Ku94a art in the Mathura reEion seemsto have ended by the late third ^.o. when the Kuqalraslost their hold "rirt,ry and were replaced by the Yaudheyas, Nagas, and other minor dynasties. Wlren Samudragupta defeatedthe Nagas, the Marhurd region into the Gupta domain The i""i it "o.por"t.d extent of Ntga infuence is little understood, that some conalthouqh rheir coinagesuggests art might of Indic rribution to the tnainstream heritage the havebeenn.radeby then.In addition, of Kugana art of both the Mathura and the Bactro-Gandhtuaregioqs remains visible in the Mathura GuPta style. On the basis of its strong similarities to a recently discovered Buddha sculpture frorr Mathuia dated to a.o. 434,1ea standing Buddha imaqe fiom Mathura may be used to de{ine the Maihura Gupta style of about the mid-fifth century (Fig. ro.r8). An inscription on the pedestalstatesthat the image was dedicatedby I mook n"-.d Ya{adinna.2oCarved in the red sandstonetypical of the Mathura region, the fiqure of the Buddha stands approximately himan-size, although the total height of the sculprure including halo and base imparcs a to it. Compared with ..nr-" of -onr,-.ntality of the Mathura style sculptures Kugaq.ra-period (Fig.8.z9). the contoursof the body rre more lluid gt"..ful and the body is slenderer'The "nJ

structure. Furthermore, the simple form of the buildine, with its ma4lapo and gafthag1ho, is general enouqh to relate to both Buddhist and i{irrdu -ooo-*.n,r. Its shrine and antechamber format, for example, is found in Buddhist arihitecture in the rear worship area of caves such as at Aja+!a, and a similar plan is also used in Gupta-period (and later) Hindu structures' Theseiactors have led some authorities to claim that the building was in fact a Hindu temple'18 It is likelv, however, that the structure was erected to ierve the needs of the Buddhist communiw. lts form, however, may be seen as containing certain essential Gatures of both Buddhist and Hindu architecture.

NoRTH INDIA (MATHURA AND SIRNATH)

ro.r8. Buddha.FromJamalpur,Mathure, Uttar Pradesh, India. Gupta period. Ca. mid-fifth century. Reddish sandstone.FI: 22o cm. Mathura Museum, Mathure.

relaxation, of the righ ment, for Gupta-pe unified th,

Jancr (rlg. depicted ir

ridges on were abse period Ma on draper the Bactrc garment r( not Mathr body is c that clings characteris period an the rwo b reconcilinl emphasizi love of th Mathur India wa Kusaga p sitesrose I Kugala (

)amattr, performe< of the le: Chinese t in the 6ft and two r but by * arrived, tl erably, fo a commu school lir tne oe justly far third qua by a seri is shown by a mor sculpture gupta II while th, yeer r57 Budhagu

THE GUPTAPERIOD 2O1 r:r of the lirc_.-rla, is iJ:ist and B::amber i loorust r :: caves I -l.o Used giclures. rs :,-, clairn i::nple.18 r:i:e was tL-t comE iaen as r :i both

t\iTH)

:.r: Pradesh, cr. Reddish L \'lathure.

relaxation of the pose, seenin the slight bending of the right leg, and the great delicacy of treatment, for example, of the halo, reveal that a Gupta-period aesthetic had developed and unified the art at distant Buddhist sites like Saf,ci (Fig. io.rJ) and Mathura. The drapery is depicted in a series of regular folds shown as ridges on the surface of the body. Such folds were absentfron.r the typical drapery of Kugar.raperiod Mathura sculptures,although an cmphasis on drapery folds prcvailcd in the Kusana art of the Bactro-Gandhara region. The style of the garment too is reminiscentofthe westem Asiatic, not Mathure, fashion. However, the Buddha's body is clearly revealed through the drapery that clings between thc ridges of the folds in a characteristicallyIndic manner. Thus, the Guptaperiod artists of Mathurd seem to have unified thc two traditions into a harmonious synthesis, reconciling the classicisticsryle ofthe northwcst, emphasizing garment depiction, with thc Indic love of the human form. Mathura's cultural dominance in northern India was virtually unchallengcd during the Kusaqa period. But under the Guptas, other sitesrose to prominence and eclipsedthe former Kusana capital's preeminence. In particular, Samath, the site where Sakyarnuni Buddha performed his first preaching, cn.rergedas one of the leading Buddhist centers of India. The Chinese traveler Fa-hsien,who visited Sernatl.l in the fifth century, noted only two largc stapas and two nronasteries(sathgharauas) at thc site,2r but by the sevcnth century, when Hsiian-tsang arrived, the establishmenthad cxpanded considerably, for he describeda vast cornplex in which a community of r,5oo monks of the Sammitiya school lived.22 The developed style for which Serneth is so justly farnous apparently emerged around the third quarter of thc fifth century, asdocumented by a seriesof three datcd in.rages,onc of which is shown here (Fig. ro.r9). All were dedicated by a monk named Abhayamitra, but one of the sculptureswas given during the reign of Kumaragupta Ii in the Gupta year r54 (ca. a.r. 473) while the other two, dedicated in the Gupta year r57 (ca. t.o. 476), fell within the reign of Budhagupta as indicated in the inscriptions.23

In each of the three inscriptions, Abhayamitra expressedthe wish that the merit accruedby the good deed of this gift should go toward the obtaining of extinction of worldly existence (the goal of Buddhism) for all sentient beings, includhg his mother, father, and teachers. Such wishes were. by rhis tinre, common in Mahayana Buddhist dedications,for they rcfect the basic doctrinc of the transfcr of merit frorn one individual to another. Thc elongated, slender, graceful bodies and the re{ined exccution of the details of thc halos, robes, and facesof thcseimages have long been considereda measureof Gupta art. Even in the period of their creation, the two images dated to about A.D.476 must have been considcred masterful works, sincetheir identical inscriptions state that they were madc bcautiful through drc scienceof cirra.In this context, cirl4 seemsto refcr to the technical achievementsof the artist as well as the artistic exprcssionitsell Thus, the acclaim that modem art historians lavish on theseworks is perhapsreflective of the renown they achieved in their own time. Part of the bear,rtyto thc contemporary eye lies in the pale buf-colored Chunar sandstone out of which they (and most other Sarnath sculptures) are cawed, although it is likely that odginally they were painted, likc n.rost othcr ancient Indian images. The sculptures pinpoint a moment in the stylistic continuum betwccn the stiffer KusenaMathula-type formulations and the more dynamic representationsof the post-Gupta pcriods. Each central Buddha stands in thc abhaiga posture with a slight flexion to the body, as indicated by the bent position ofone leg and the gentle thrust of the liip to one side. Thc forms appear to bc rhytlrmic and natural. (Tbis general senseof relaxation is also seen in the position of the right hand of the Buddha figure dating from abotrt ^,D. 473, as the abhaya uudra is considerably lowered in position from thc shoulder height of Kusar.ra-periodexamples; thus ell-ecting a less rigid, less commanding position.2a)A significant featlrrc of the latc fifthcentury Samath Gupta style is the treatnent of the drapery. Though fully dressed,the figures are clad in drapcry so clinging that it reveals

2'2

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLT PEIIIOD

io.r9. Buddha.Fronl Srrnath,Uttar Pradesh,India. Guptapcriod (reign of Budhagupta). Gupta cr. rJ7 (A.D.476).Buff sandsronc. H: r93 crrr.Sanfth Site /vruseum, Jarnrtn.

virnrally all of thc forn.rsof thc bodies bcncath, almost as if thc figures rvcrc unclothed. The drapcry is n.rostvisiblc at the neck, sidcs, end hcrr. Horvcvcr. .rs.rrrnirrg rhrr rhc irnges rvcre originally paintcd, rvith the robes in a color contrasting with that of thc ski[, thc prcscnr "invisibility" of the garrlrentq may havc bccn

i

obviated. Thc gxrrlcnt irsclf lns tlvo lxyers, at lcast from thc waist down, as may bc scen by thc two hems, and might rcilcct thc specific costunlc of a pxrticular Brlddhist scct rt Sernath. Thc faciai fcatures of thcse figcrrcs rcpresent what mLrst havc bccn an idcal typc in this sctlpturel school, charactcrizedby the downcast cycs, gently sniling cxpression,and refiuemcnt of the treatmcnt of d.rc individual elcments of the face. A feeling of quicsccnceand introspection is conveyed by the facc, cxprcssive of the pcxce and inncr tranquility posscssedby all Buddhas. A l r h o u g l r t l r c [ o r n r . r r so f r l r c r w o i r r r a g c s dated to abont 476 arc virtually identical, thcy diffcr fiom that of thc slightly carlicr ir.nagcof 473, but this should not suggcsta chronological dcvcloprhent. The 473 figurc stands atop a plain lcdge of stonc that is inciscd with a lengthy inscriptionand has.lrrge round halo, derived from Kusala types, centcrcd directly bchind his hcad, sin.ilar to that of tlic ir.nages placed at the four cntrancewaysto Seicl St[pa I (Fig. ro.r5). Tl.re halo containsthe scalloped ray motif around the rim, within which are pcarls,a garland, and floral motifs that according to Brrddhist rexlu.ll sorlrcesrre prrt of rlrc radiant splctdor of the Buddha. The pieces clating from 476 do not llave round halos, but insteadcachhasan clongatedaura that is rounded at the top (Fig. ro.r9).ThescBuddhasstandatop vcry thrce-dinensional lotuscs,and are attcnded by figurcs on cach sidc, flying uitlyatlharas abovc, and small dcvotccsbclorv. All figures subsidiary to thc rr.rrin Buddl.ra in each sculpturc are dcpicted in hicrarchic scalerclative not only to the Buddha but to each othcr, rcflecting textual descriptionsof the sizcsof bcings according to their rclativc spiritual achievencnt, not thcir physiques. Such hierarchic scaling pcrvadcs the art of Sorrt]l Asie, and is charlcteristic of most R r r J J l L i ' rH. i n d u . , r n dJ . r i r r. r r r i . r i cc o n c c p r i o n s . Undoubtcdly dating fror.n around the same time, about A.D.47j (althoughuninscribcd),is a rcprescnhtion ofa scatcclll[ddha t]rat epironlizes both thc high style of thc latc fifth ccntury at Samath and the Buddhological mcssage of Sarnad.ritself, that is, the First Preacl.ringof SakyamuniBuddha at thc dccr park at Sarnath

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Fig, e!Fecr

Kus-l Cu:r.r

lLr,lri.. :ir -..e eli

oi

!ctin-il

.ire ic ji.crpi,

:ane] i .-'irie r ro r5a rea'ra:a alea:]iJ

THE GUPTA PTIiIOD

2OJ

-: . irs. at

I ::-'n by ::r.'cific ' \::nath. r:::c'Sent : : - ahis i: .,.-ncast i:::inent = ::1!S Of L-_:-rjPccr-. -.i dre all i il r rrlagcs .. .t-^., ---,--l -:oP a | '.'' ith a r--:- halo, c rrlages

i.: Srupr ,--t^..^l

i:ch are c:crding : -,i the c pieces ;--.s.but r-'undcd -- I ^,^-

ro.zo. Buddha- From Samith, Uttar pradesh, India. Gupta pcriod. Ca. 47J. Buff sandstone.H: 160 cm. SamethSite Museum,Sarnath.

::rendcd

ro.zr. Life Events of SakyarnuniBudclha. Frorn Sar_ 'rath-Unar Prrdcsh.India. Cuptapcriod.Cr. rfurdquar_ L e rl r t t hc e n l u r y .B r f f . r r r d s r o n H e .: 7 o . r . N a r i o n a l Muscnm, New Delhi.

u ibovc, r'rsidiary tr:re arc

.,.'] ." I rc\tual !'i thcir -:.:es the .-: nrost ::fnons. :: sllne ::.1), is a l:.rIl1tzes

l.rrnatn

(Fig. ro.zo). Although several hand postures (especiallyabhayamudra) were used during the Kusana period to signify this event, by the Gnpta period, variations on the dharmacakrQ mudra, one of which is shown herc, bccame by far the most common indicators of the event and of Buddhist teachingsin general. Also characteristic of scenesdepicting the First Sermon a r e l h e p a i r o [ d e e r . f l r n k i n gt h c w h e c l, n d t h e disciplcsto whom Sakyarnunipre.'chcdin rhc panel beneath the main figure.2t The treatnent ofthe ccntral figure and its halo is nearly identical to that of the 473 ir.nage. The throne bears rcpresentations of rarnpant winged lconine creatwes (ladilas) supporting the makarq-end.s

of the

crossbar, both

presumably

auspicious

syrnbols. Several stelae recovered from Sarnath and stylistically relatcd to works known to date from the late fifth century stresswhat had comc to be considered the major events in the last life of Sakyamuni Buddha. One examplc shows a serie-sof events, arranged in chronological order frorn the lower ro the opper rcgistersand l i o m l e f r t o r i g l r r( F i g . ' o . r , i . A , , h " b o , r o , , . , l e f r .Q u e e nM a y a r e c l i n c so n . r c o r r c ha, r r c n d c d by maidservants,while the elcpl.rantthat heralds her- conccption of thc Buddha-to-be appears to her. At the lower right, Maya gr"rpr th" jal tree while thc Buddha-to-bc emcrges fron hcr

2'4

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLT

PERIOD

righr side.ln the cenrerof the lower register. the infant bodhisatwa stands with his right hand in the abhayanudra while being given his first bath by two nagas.The secondregister shorvsthe bodhisattvaatop his horse,Kanthaka, in the GreatDepartureepisode,then cutting his hair when he takesthe vow of the ascetic,and finally, at the right, he is in the final meditation

ro.zz. Khasarpa4a Avalokite(vara From Samath, Uttar Pradesh,India. Gupraperiod. Ca. 475. Buff sandstone. H: r37 cm. National Museurn, New Delhi

leading to enlightenment. Here, his greatness at tJfs stage of his life is distinguishedfrom the earlier events by the relative increase in scale in his depiction. The upper scenes show the victory over Mera at the left and the First Preaching at the dght. A fourth level may have depicted thc parinirva7a at the toP. The rather free arrangement of sceneswith one blending into the next is characteristic of fifth-century life-scene stelae,although by about the eighth century and later it was replaced by a rnore ordered arrangement with separate comPartments for each scene. A particularly fine cxample of the Sarnath treatment of the bodhisattva (Fig. ro zz) shows Klasarpapa Avalokiteivara standing in the slightly relaxed abhaiga pose. In accordance with textual descriptions,this form of Avalokiteivara is decked with ornaments, has a smiling face, apPearsto be about sixteen years of age, and holds a lotus stem in his left hand, while lris right displays the uarada (gift-bestowing) nuilra. Adorning his jotlnukuta hair style is a representation of Amitabha/Amitayus in his characteristicdhyana mudra, signifying the family from which the bodhisattva emanates. Beneath the right hand of Avalokiteivara are two preta figures, ghosts of beings who were greedy in past lives and whose doorn it is to be hungry forever. Avalokiteivara's cornpassionfor all crcaturesis dcmonstrated by the nectar that flows from his gift-bestowing hand to feed these ravenous beings. A somewhat parallel generosiryis cxpresscdin the donariveinscripofferingrhe Ion ^t the bottorrrof thc scttlpttrre. the image of the giving merit accrued from for knowledge for the attainment of supreme body elegant all sentient beings. The slender, garbed in diaphanous draPery suggeststres to the three late fifth century Buddha figures, and probably indicates a similar date for this image. Lik" thir. Buddhas, the gentle countenanceof this in.rage with half-closed eyes suggests an inner calm that makes the Gupta idiom at Samath one of the most appealing of Indic art styles. A relative sinplicity in terrr,s of adomment parallels the treatnent in Gupta temple architecturein which a balanceis struck between the rnain forrrt. and surfacedecoration.

O$er b€dd€s and sir cailf p nnF.er Brcrra

isEcro: flfe

t

EIi:L u.i rt Sgrco iE

i!. loEre (

iil*-r ' :iut ir H:dd2iooeir l(fI o[ Bo.ldh

fu-r

C'andh de Bu

TIII ::l !-s\ :

B U D D H I S TA R T I N

TIII

CUTTA p!RIOD

205

N OR T I { W I S T

IC

..ilc lllc rlr\t :lrtc .iurg l:llr-I : tlrth ''tIt

:tllLl1l

thc -.:l1c:c

. .rlcr '-cilrs :.rn11. ' lvtc

:. iu

Othcr sitcs in thc lorruer KtLsanl tcrritolics b c s i . l cM . . r t l l r r .p, r o . l r . c , l , n J , r r i q r r l r , f r fh and sixth centuries, but thcse l'erc not spccifica1lypert of thc Gupta cnpirc. Thc histor'1of this pcriorlin thc northu,cstrcgiousof Glrrclhaue, Bectrie.end essoci;Lted ercesis still unclelr. but sccnrsto p:ltro[:rgc of tsudc]histr-stablishurcllts havc continuccl. lnstcacl of stoilcj 1r()wcvcrl rvhich hed bccn rvidcly nscclfir :rchitccrLrrc and sculpturcin thc sccolclnd thirrl ccnturics. stllccobecanc a major rrtistic mccLiurn. Pcrhaps the inerpensivencss this xccoLtnls of nnteriei to sonlc dcsrcc for its popLrlarity,although it is likely drar thc grcatcr llcxibilit,v aucLftcccloru thxt it 1 lolr'e.l the artist rvas also a factor. At H:rdcle,in Afghenistell,stuccofrcingsthat oltcu contaiircdclcea[t sculpttrralcol]1posrtlo11s were r r\ 1 ' d .O r . , \ r l . ) fl c . l t . \ i . r , l rl r U l . ) c | o r. 1 L \ . 1, 1 lSudclhe:rttcndctlby nralc enclby fcrullc clcvotccs (Fig. ro.z3). Clcer c'r'idcnccof thc BactroCiandhlra hcritagc is sccn in tirc clepictionof rhc Buclclha'srobc, his hail stvlc, and evcn in

the vely classicized iices of thc three |qures, qreetc'r a llnc] reltncment ere also softness Ict prcscDt,sugqcstirq drat thc Cuptr stylc hacl ' P u rr i r er ' c r r c p r r i f i r c rrl . r f t l r c c r l l l i r c . A r M . r ; , r r rl ( ' r ' i r r r i ' r ' 1 .P . ' \ i . 'rr ' . . ' . r , ' p . r lvas lodncl thlt hed numerous tcrr:l-cortl rcp r c . r r i.r r l - r .,.' f . , . . r ',r L l r, 1. r , . f r c r r r ' tr l . ' t . r k . sculpturesiionr Haddr. bctrrv a blcnding of northwest Kr-rsatraend Gupte idionrs. AlthoLrch thc cl:Ltingof thcsc filc1s rs lrnccrtilln, thc figurcsslLqgcst x (1atcaroun,l thc nridtllc to l r t c f i t r l r. c r r r rLl b c . . , . r ' o . f r l r ,i . l . n , l ,r r r , . r , the di:rph:Lrrous qu:rlitvof thc cLapcry(elthough B . ' c t r u - C . ' r r ' 1 1 . " r . , - *t ^r lll rcr r r , . r l l p r e . . r r r ) . and tlte ovcrrll dclicrcyofthc fomx (Fig. ro.z4). Thc style ol thc robc, rvhich covcrs botll shorrlclcrs. clc:rly rcletcsthis l'ork to thc cllssicisticB.rctro-Grriclhirastylcsof thc sccondanrl thirLl ccntllries. A lcmarkable sericsof caves that iitcrellv honcvconib 11 cllorrrroLrs clilliiclc r,ves cxcavatcdat ljdmivar. in A{gh:Lnist:Ln, arounclthc

the

:

iiltcs. :.1 lrc 1i ere .io

be : ,:1 for r tlLlt

r lcccl -:r:Lllcl .\.1]p_

-'

:rig fhc

:

:irilgc

:.'for :: body : L a s! o :'-':.:rnc] inllqc, .rcc of :. ':\ ln .aLrl nt . :,:ic ltt rcDrple _-t\\'ccn

.,; :-.

i-'

t o . : r . B u d d h : r a n d d c v o t c c s . t lrrlch, Aigh:urntrn. C:r. lifth sixth ccnnrrv. Snrcco-

to.-ua.Buddhr. Fro.r I4npur Kh:rs, Prkist:ru.Ce. nicl-to-lete lLfih ccrrtLrrl'.Terrr corr:r- n: /o cnr. Princeoi Wrlcs,Musclnnol Wcstcrn lndia. Bornb:rv.

Dw\A\lll.

Ol lHr \

DD|I lt.RlL)!

li

4', '*' . ..4.' _:..:

,i; l: ..

r o . r \ . l J L . . l d. l , \ . J " . 1 r . . : , .l j r r . r . . . \ I r f r l tr ! r r ) r | \ . H r r . ) r , r .

: r r r r rr , l

fifth ccntrrry. Onc oi thc uost imprcssivc clrvings is thc cnormous Budclha tlrlrt stands ncarl) flfty-five mctcrs tall c^rvecr :lr orlc cl1cl ofthc vrllcy (Fig. ro.:5). A sirrilrr figurc on r sliqhtly slrrallcrscr]cis locetcclat thc othcr si.lc of the groLrp of clvcs ebout a kilornc,tcrancla l r r l i . , r r , v .l r r c c o l o . . , r j . . r r . . ,l.rr,r. r ei . n . , rj r r . r e siqn of grruciioscconccptiorrbut is a clclibeiatc xtlcnrpl to cxpressin :rs litcral lrtntlcr 1ls " possiblcthc spiriturl sizcof a Budclha comparccl to thilt of iitr orclineryhuman. Thus, t]rc sm:rll sizc of thc clevotees shorvn acconlpllylrlq

L']uJdhasin nranv snr:r]lcrerristic conccptions (Fig. ro.r9) is sivcn e lircrriucsshcrc as thc lrunrur t'orshipcr finds hirusclf drvrrfcd by thc gi{:irrtic im:rgc. Thc creltion of such cnorrnous inegcs is associ:rtcrl u'ith thc cu]t of thc Brlrol ((lierutic) Brrdrlhn,rvhich rvas prcvalcnr in South Asia ls rvcll ls in othcr rcqronsrn:rt wcrc iuflucrcc-cl by Incliln Mahayana liucl_ -Ihc
Ht r,rl u TE I,rp rr A t t c H l t t c t u n t As part of tirc grorvingpopuhrity of Hinduism, tcrnplcstlcdicetcclro veriousHindu clciricslvc-re corlstrLlctcdthrotqhout nortjrcm ano norttr_ ccntrrl lnclir.clur.ingthc Gupre pcriod. Usuxlly, t l r . . ,' r r . r r, r r r . i . r - c, rr 5 , r l - l ( , J . r rl icno: rr , ,c e r r, i n phvsicelchar:rctcristics as rvcll as thelr rctatron_ ship to latcr forms. Regionalpxttcrnsrnry luve :rccouDtcclhlr sorne of thc clifcrcuces betu,.ccn rcmpic rypes. but, in adclirion,rirurl necdsof

thc grorving Hindu relision, ls rvcll es scctlriln rirttcrenccs, ucccssitatcd thc dcvcloprncut of indiviclLr.rit ) P \ 5 ^ r r ( ^ [ r h . . l o r r . r . r . . r ] c , r stnlctrlres t]rar ntust hevc existcd prior to thc fifth ccntury but l,hich hlvc bccn lost, atd o r l t c r ' r . t . r r 'l r . r r r .b r r ' n c , , n p l , r . . l y r r r n n r . r t i r , . A. I rr ,.,'.r;,i.., .,g:crr ,,cl"crcd ot tlre Llcvcloprnq lorrr\.

r 1 . , .r i c l . r r c . ,

Siirci Tcnrplc r7 (Figs. ro.i6, ro.r7) servcs as

THE GUPTA PEP.IOD 202 :- a:ftlons ::: .1r d1C , -,-I 1., i:, - !-nor::-: ..[ the :::r'elent = :ri rnat

i.

B.rd-

!::iJcrtP-

rl..ll.,

s.: rrn thc

j

,rl rvas .rf the ::a soft

L::i|

was

e nn

tl1c

. -_ovcrcd

r.1'folds :_-:: were ir::l the i::]rancc :-- oi thc :--.ir and :: errher

:--: Bud!:.r'!e tlle r r:ahwest :: art of : '.r'hat is I l:1.

,iictarlan nlnt of :. rellect r: to thc -osr. and :oYattvc. richness lr-MS aS

** *":-' ..--..'Y',

.:-.a:,;r:,.

10.26. Vig4u templc, frorn sourhwcst. Deogarh, Urtar pradesh,

India.Ca.eat)ysixthccntury.

an examplc of one charactcristictypc_of Gupta featurcs in this rcgard,.sinccits tall, apparently tc'rple. Although its ties to Buddhism arc curvilinear shapc a'ticipatcs tlr" j"',r"lop"i evident, structurcs si'rilar in form, size, and northcrn-style ir[,Lar,l. Its danage.l st"t", hiwdecoration from the G'pta period are found in ever, precrudesfulr anarysis,,ni rho, rrr" pr".c a Hindn contcxt as well.z?whilc the issueof of thii tcmple in thc devclopnrcnrof rhe nirrhwhctlrer or not this ty-peof tcr'plc originally etn-style likharc rnay nevcr bc knorvn. ludasuPerstILrcturc-ofcphenrcraln-ratcria]sorThemains1rrineoccupresthcccnterofa onc.that was planned but never cxccuted is not squareplinth (Fig. ro.z7) tirat is accessibrcon arl scttled, by the cnd of thc fifth ccntury or the four siJes by rt"-i.c"r", witir senricircular bases bcginning of thc sixth, a type of templc with sonetiurcs rcferre,r ro asrDoonsroncs.orisina|va tot'er (-i1fr/rara) was r,vell developcd. four smallcr subsidr:rry ,hrir,", *".. i..r"ri, Onc exarnplc is dre Visn'tcr.nple at onc at each .or,,.. of thc plinth,,o ir"r,h" _such Dcoglrlr (fig ro.z6). corrrrronly irnd rrrisrernprci" of rhepanrayaraaa (i-rvc-sJrrrne) variery. takerrly) called .],1eDaia^tarc bccarse it was Each shrine w", proirbJy dcJicrtcd ro a di'foriginally tholght that the iconographicprogram fercnt Hindrr deity, although their iclentitiesare referred to tlre ten incarnatio's (daiauataru)of unknown beca'se rhe si'ctrrrcs arc corallv visnu. Although thc patronsand donorsinvolvcd destroycd cxcept for rheir bascs.Further, it i's in its ercction arc not kno*'n, on stylistic imposibrc to dctermine the origi'al forms of grounds,. the structurc may be dated thc thc buildings, although thcy nr"ay havc bcen -to carly sixth ccnt'ry.28 In many ways, the for.r of miniature vcrsions of the nr"i' t"rrroi". thc templc shows considcrableadvancemcnt in The tcmp]e is oricntecl to thc ivcst, whcre the deveiop.rcnt of.Hindu tcr.nplearchitecnrrc, thc i'rprcsive, decorated doorway to thc a factor tl.t has lcd somc to conclude that its shrinc is locatcd (Fig. ro.zg). In contiast to the datc is much later. Thc forn.r of thc tower is carly Gupra-typc enrraIrce sccn at Udayagiri one of the most intcrcsting and highly dcbated (Fig. ro.aJ, th.-D"og"rh ,loorw"y i, g."""tly "

r , i ii ]

ll

2Od

DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

0525 05

10

elaboratedensemble.The lintels and jambs have been multiplied, and these are replete with well-oldered foliate motifs, mithunas, guardian figures, and the river goddesses,Ganga and Yamuna, placed respectively at the top left and right of the doorway and clearly defined by theii nahara and tortoise vehicles. At the center, above the entrancCway, is a panel showing Visr.ruin an unusual form, seatedatop the coiled body of a serpent with the open serpent hood behind his head while Lakgmi, Vi5gu's consort, massageshis foot, and two other forms of Visqru hirnself appear, the man-lion (Nrsirirha) and the dwarf (Vamana). The multiple figures in this small relief demonstrate the growing complexity of Vaisnavite iconography, and perhapsprovide a clue to the original dedication of the temple. Before entering the single-celled shrine through the decorated doorway, ritual practice

to.2j. PlalJ of Visnu temple. Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, India. Ca. early sixth century.

probably required the devoteeto circumambulate the temple to view the three major sculptural panels on the exterior. lach of the three ieliefs decorating the main body of the temple is placed in a niche that consistsof decoraied lintels andjambs flanled by pilasters(Fig. ro.z9). The subject matter of the sculpturesreveals the order in which the devotee would view them. In this case, the viewing order of the major sculprures would be the reliefofVisnu Nareyaqa as Anantaiayana (or Sela:iayana)on the soLrrh (Fig. ro.z9), that of Nara and Narayana on the east (Fig. ro.3o), and the sculpture of G_ajendramokga on the north (Fig. ro.3r), thus moving the devotee in a counterclockwise direction (pra-yuya).This assertion,which is contrary to the commonly held belief that in Hindu worship circumambulation is alwavs oerformed in a clockwise marner (pradaksira), is based on the internaJ messageof the reliefs, their accompany-

TrrE GUpIA PTRTOD 209 ro.28.Doorway, or1wcsr, Viylu tcr)rplc.Dcogarh,Urtar h-adcsh, Lrdia. Ca. carly sixrh ccrlrury.

ro.29. VisnLrAuanta(ay:rn:rclicl on south, Vjsnu tcnrplc. l)cogarh, Uttar Pradcsh, Indir. Ca. early

... . l)cogerh, : .',lrl1 sixth

- -:::rrlrbulate : :hc three : decorated . Frq. ro.z9). :, :r-1'calsthe . .-rawthcm. : :h. rDajor .:: \irayana :: rhc soutir .. rla on the : G.r.jcndra:-:r nloving , -' .lirection ' - rnarxry ro :::r.'il in a .,.-I on the ,,:,)nlPany-

G

rl

,fY'

J3

2] d

DYNASI'IES oF

'I'I{E

MIDDLE PERIOT)

ing clcrucuts,ancl :rn an,rlysisof cit'cLurumbulazl) tion practiccsin Hindu ritutrls bcgen l-ris clcvotcc thc An inclication that ' ' c tr it' tltc . ' ' r r h ' l c " r r l y i ' u o r . ] t i n' r r t h , l r c ' d 'J q o ' l ' ( , . r n e i r . , n r r l t L. l c 1 ' h . 1 , p i c r i . rorf An:urta(:ryana the on- a pilester to thc lcft of ''Ovcrcortrcr of rclicf (Fig. ro.29). As thi-' of thc start rr t)Lrr".i"r,;' Geucie is ilvokcd rhc in clenrcnt rvorship. ancl bccxrllc a stendxrcl iconoe'.^phicProgr:rlrs of Hinclu tcmples ltcl p , . r l i i " . 1 , l . ' J , , o , , - ' ' o , , ': o r ' t r A s :r ' l l t e 4 , t " , , , . , i , r ' u '..,' r b 1 t , irr c l f i i r r i t i c 'r l " b e g i r r nine. loi it is cot,ccrne.l rvidr thc birth of froru the urvel of Vistru Sincc Brahmllr;r'irn-La is the crcator of rhc tlnivcrsc, his own birth signifies thc bcgimring of rhc bcgir.iuing or thc ..-""tion ,rf thc creltor. ln this fornr' Visnn is callcd Narayrna (Movine on thc Watcrs' or Abocleof Meu) rs hc rcstsor thc serPcntirl.thc orirncv"l .vatcrs,and hc is clcscribccles olclcr ih"n tlt" .,1.1"rt. ln thc rclicl the fottr-artued rclicl. orr c.rst, Vi94u tcnrplc ro.lo. N]rr-Nrri-vrnr Visntt sccmsto rcsr cou-rforttrblyon the coilcd l ) c o g : r r h . U t a r P r r d e s h .I l r d i i C r ' c r r l , v s r \ t h c t n t u r y bo,lv nf tl.t" scrpc[t Sesx(Rcm:rinclcr),rvho is rnd t'hosc hoorl also crllcd An,rit" (Endlcss). a halo Thc like s lreacl Visn bchinrl archcs god's wife Laksmi urassagcshis right lce' r r , , L or r r . c r r ) r r q t n fqr o r l lV r ' n u' n ' r c l ) r r l t c r r epito,,rizirte tl.re bliaArl tcaching in rvhiclt thc V i . n r r d , s r r u y c Jt l i n r ' I n r l r i ' r c l i e f ' t h c L ' r r r clcvotee sccks ref,.rgc rt tl-rc fect o[ Ntrayana' personificationsof Virndt *.capons (ayrrllaFurthcr, Laksuri (Gocldessof FortLrne) is cons'ith thc two dcruonsasif ,tr".1,ttt"p,rscd prr,,ro-r) sidcreclto bc tltc ruc.liator betrvecu thc dcvotec ageinstthc*r, althor-rgh might in,l,o"t Virnn', ancl drc lorcl. Glrudl stancisjttst to dtc vtclvcr s qrlcc of rhc figures aucl positioniug clcgant -rutg"ttt riqlrt of Llksnli, n'car-inghis sttlkc otnantcttts' thc bartlc From the inpcncling an h"r,llv -pc.ronificd 1 1 i 1 1r' c, r r r . r ,. h , . r i .l j t . l t t t t . 1 1 . l 'It' ' o ' r c tl l c ' are Gedaclcvi' wclpous right, tirc elso callcclNlrivene) cen bc i'lcntified b'v his cncrlilllg nrace b\-thc fthc fcnralc.rccoqnizcd :rntclope-skit't grrlllcllt, his thrcc laccs (the (recogCrkrrpuruse i-ronrt1.,.tot, of lier hc'r.l), fourtli is i,rrplii'.l) rncl his sittinq iltoP ,r lottrs ' r ' t t r o t t t' t r c t r t ) ,",,'l L, Ii,' ,alrn lr'lr.ill .rftcrhavingjtst eurergctitrortr Vistru's trlvcl tll",..''o.,r,,.',''i.l ll,' p"'rri""' l'r' rtqllt 'rltr Indrr of Hc is ll.urki by thc ri.boruc tigtrres rs if it'.ucr.i ,r bor"J. "nd I(hrdqap'''rusa(rvho anclKar-ttikcveto his riqlrt, rcsl'rcctivelyurottntccl prepxrcsto dralv his srvord)' on their rardl/.i-r,thc elcphant and pcacock' On thc cast.tbc ulrjor rclicf sho*'strvo salnts' his on :ro.l to his lcft, Siva, rvith his rvilc Parveti Nera (viervcr's riaht) and Nara,vena(vierver-s lzlrnna Neutli end lnothcr tlliLlcntificd frqLrrc' of clivinclovc ancl lcft). who b.ing tie nrc,,s,rqc Ilelorv, r scprrrtc slab bcers dccply carvecl .lcvotion rs an instrtttncntof spiritullizationto reDfcscntxtioln of fivc uulcs ltltl onc fcnrle' -fl.,"r" thc rvotL{ (Fiq. ro.3o). Thcsc trvo' rvho erc MrdhLr and KriLebh'r :rt thc lcit "r" cousiclcrcrito lrc thc foLLttlt of thc trvcnty-r*'o rvith thc fbrrr pcrsonificdattributesof Visurt ntinor incatnationsoi VisnLr,wcrc thc sorlsot at drc right. Medl.ru an.l Keitrbhe s'crc nvcr l)harlra (Ilighteousness)atd his rviFe Ahirirsi .l"u,nttr.i'ltn spranQfrottr Vivru's ctr u'hilc hc (Nonviolcncc).'fhcy pertormccl rtlstcrltresxs rves :rslccp. ^tt.l .u"," abotrt ro kill Llrahlna

T €

THE GUPTA ?ERIOD

Yitnu tenple. i:\dr century.

navel) when lieL thc four ons (ayudhar demonsasif em. although oi the {igurcs rle. From the Lre Gadadevi, ace emerging r'-rrnsa(rccogr omament), ris right arm ap.rrusa(who lrs two saints, ;:la (viewer's itinc love and ii..lalization to $ !r. who are L(-rwenty-two re rhc sons of '.',rie Anlmsa rs "ustcritics

ro.3r. Gajendramok;arelief, on norch, Vigqu ternple. Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh,India. Ca. early sixth century.

part of their devotions, and their ascettcnature : . ,. is indicatedin rhe relief by their lack ofjewelry and by the wearing of their hair in topknots (jatanukula)- Like other ascetics who have forsaken the comforts of society, they appear in a wilderness setting suggestedby the rocky landscaoe with deer and lions beneath and bowers oftrees above. The {igures hold peaceful attributes in their hands, including the rosary, as-symbols of their devotion. A female figure in the center above is Urva(r, who was created when Naraya4a struck his thigh to demonstrate that he could not be tempted by celestialnymphs, in his devorions. and tbat he was sreadfast The niche on the north depicts the story of Gajendramoksa, conceming a king who had been changed into an elephant (Cajexfua) by a curse (Fig. ro.3r). One day, while wading in a lotus pond, a water beast seizedthe leg of the elephant and a tug of war ensuedbetween them that lasted for a thousand years. Finally, the elephant invoked NaFyana and was saved.The moment just after deliveranceis depicted clearly

21I

in the relie{ for the water beast (herc a naga accompanied by his xagint) is depicted in .aiijali nxdra, payirrg respectto the victors. Essentially, the story is a parable about a devotee who had been cursed becausehis untrained intellect was like an elephant's,and his subsequentdeliverance through faith, which representsthe attalnment o{ nok5a ar.d serves as a model to the worshiper at the temple. A crown borne aloft by vidyadharasabove signifies this fiual achievement. The overall messageof the temple is thus clearly indicated in the sculptural program, revealed through a sequential arrangernent of the reliefs, for the Anantabyana rePresentsthe begiuring, Nara and Naraya4a denote the means through which rro&;a may be achieved, and dre Gajendrarnokga story expressesthe final result. In contrast to earlier Gupta tcmplcs, sculpture has a much morc important role in the overall scheme of the monument, including the major reliefs as well as the decoration of the doorway. Still, sculpture is conJincd to certain areasof the ternplc and a balanceis struck between ornamentation and the sirnplicity of the architecture. The rather largc blocks of stone used to construct the teraple are easily visible, as therc has been no attempt to disguise them with the ten.rpledecoration. The beauty of the monument is carried out in the grace and delicacy of the.sculpturesthenselves, which representa high point in the developnrentoflndic art, refecting what has come to be known as the Gupta ideal. Smooth body contours, relieved by moderate amounts of jewelry, peaceful facial cxprcssions,graceful poses, and elegant hair styles characterizethe figures. Each composition is carefully balanccd, and seerns to come alive with the deep, three-dimensional carvrng. The so-called Pervati ternple at NtchnaKulhara is approxin.ratelycontemporaneouswith the Viqru temple at Deogarh, ca. A.D. Joo or perhaps slightly later, and likc it, is a notable achievement of Gupta art. The name Parvati is undoubtedly a late apellation, for the temple was probably originally dedicated to Siva. Its form offers insight into a con.rpletelydifferent

212

DYNASTIXS OF THE MIDDIE

PERIOD

ro.33. Plan of "Paffar1" temple as it existed in r884-8j. N,chna-Krfhara, Madhya Pradesh,lndia. Ca. early sixth

:::-_i:::

0r030 o5

temple format in use at the time, howcver, for it is a double-storiedstructure resting on a plinth the with an enclosedcircumanbulatory P:rssagc, norv lost (Figs. ro.3z, of which are outer walls ro.33). This buiiding is apparently the earlicst surviving examplc of a structural temple with an cnclosedcircumambulatory passage,and th.rs

it is the oldest known temple of thc sandhara class of Hindu tcmplcs that are in fact characterized by this feature. Light was admitted into the ambulatory by three windows, one on eachside cxccpt that of the entrance,which was opcn, and some light was also admitted into the main shrine through windorvs in the am-

THE GUpTAPERTOD 21'

ro.34. Doorway, on west, "ptrvatt,, temple. Nachna_ Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh,India. Ca. cariy sixrh century.

I

I te sardhara iact charr admitted I'S, One on rvhich was rined into n the am-

bulatory passagewall. The secondstory covered only the temple shrine (not the passageway) and may have contained a representation oi a deity. Perhaps specilic ritual needs necessitated the double-storied form. No signs of a iikharu or other fugh supersrrucnrre exrst, "forms although the original of the roofs of rhe temple are unknown. The doorway of the structure.which is orienredto thc west.is Jmong the finrst in all Cupte an (Fig. ro.34). and ii general, rhe rrcllislikc carved windows and miscellaneoussculpturesfound at thc site testify to a high quality ofworkmanship. An intercsting Gature of the plinth is the delibcratelyrusticate; blocks ofstone that have beencarved io resemble a rocky landscape,complete with animal life (Fig- ro.3z). The depiciion of such stylized landscapes,although unusual in this location, is also seen_in the paintings of Ajanta (pl. 8) and in carved renditions of stylized landscape,for example,in the Nara-Narayana reliefat Deogarh (Fig. _ro.3o).Here, a rcGrence to the tempi-eas a replica of Kailasa, the mounrain abode of the god Siva, secmsto be implied.

Brrcx Truprrs ANDTERRA-corrAART Although brick and terra corta have been popularly used since the eariy discovery of pottery t€chriques in ancient India, the fragile nature of the material has led to the destruction of nost early examples. However, during the Gupta period, interest in brick and terra cotta led to the construction ofa number of important monum€nts, some of which have survived. The brick temple at Bhitargaon (Fig. ro.35) o one ol the besrpreservedcxamples.in spire of the lact that it was damaged by lightning in the .lastcentury. Its date is difiicult to fix as therc is no inscriptional or other evidence of its dedica_ lion. but on stylistic grounds. a datc of the firsrhallofthe fifth centurymight bc suggested. Burnr bricksjoined by mud rnorrar were used in the conshuction of the building, and the walls reached a thickness of -ore than two meters. The temple faceseast, as may be deter_ niTi by the remains of a portico on rhat side, and rt rests upon a square plir.th (jegati; Fig.

ro.3o). Eachside of rhe remplehasa projecring tay. creatrngwhat is known as a triratha(three rutha) dcsigtt.Thc number three is obtained by co-untingthe two sectionsto the ]eft and right of the bay, which form the wall of the str"ucture itself, aswell asthe outer surfaceof thc bay, whiclr run. parallelro tl:cm. (ln five rarftn,seven rathd.anCtothcr systemswhere addirionalbayr extend out from the centcr of each preceding bay,..the count cxpands to include tbe lengti of all new parallcl wall sectionsformed.) S;h ofiietting of the walis of a tcmplc bccame a standard feature in many later schools of architecture. A secondary shrine chamber is present above the main shrine, although this feature is not readily apparentfrom the e-xterior because of the rising, vcrtical shape of the iikhara, which is one of the earlGst extant examplcs of a northem-style tower. Niches on the exterior of the body of the temple and the supersrructure contained sculpted panels,

2-1I

DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PTRIOD ro.3J. Brick temple from southeast. Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh,Indii. Ca. fust half 6fth century.

some .o are ?art the con true

d

10.36. Plan of brick temPle. Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh, Lrdia. Ca. first half fifth century.

all

preferer Froqr e ancient date bu sroDs.P lhet a ,temp. terra co temples rmPr€ss slze re G,;'g, rle ent probab dxth ( besn h, o'hich I $one (

THE GUPTA?ERIOD 2'5 some .of which are missing and rrany of which are partially destroyed.An interesting Gature of the constiuction in this building is the use of ffue arches in the shrines and the porch in oreference to rhe usual Indic corbellid vauft. From examoles like this. it is evident that the ancient Indians knew of the arch at an early date but elected to use it only on cettarn occasions,preferring trabeatedforms, The type of sculptural decoration usedin such a temple is perhaps best seen in a number of teira cottas that are better oreservedfrom other temples, such as that ai Ahicchattra. Most impressive among them are the nearly humansize representations of the river goddesses, Gairga and Yamuna, -which originally fanled the entrance to the Siva temple (Fig. ro.37), probably dating from the late fifth or early sixth century. Although these figures have been heavily restored, their original animation, which perhaps exceedsthat seenin contemporary stone carving and nay be due in part to the

nature of the tera-cotta medium, is preserved. Their positions, tuming inward toward the devotee who would enter a doorway between them, provide a sense of immediacy to the viewer. The costumes, with the heavy drapery folds and tight bodices, and the very fully rnodeled facial featuressuggesta departure from the more tranquil, delicate forms of Gupta stone sculpture. Each goddess, now easily recognizedby her respectiveuahana,the mdkard and the tortoise, holds a water vessel and is anended by a diminutive figure holding a thattra alofcOther terra cottas recovered from northem India hint at what must have been the widespread and highly developed art of terra-cotta sculpture in the Gupta period. In contrast to the surviving terra cottas from the prehistoric and early historic periods (Figs.2.6, 5.39), Gupta terra cottas are often large (though not always as large as the two river goddessesfrom Ahicchattra). Many formed panels that were used

ro.37. Gaige (left) and Yamuna (right); much restored. From Ahicchattra, Uttar Pradesh,India. Ca. late fifth or early sixch century. Tena cotta.F{i r7o cm (lefr); r7J.2 crn (right). National Museum,New Delhi.

216

DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PERIOD -i-j:

F-r sPDr Or irn!1 T--.

rr.-n .-:

in:rc, eI:];a ::i, 5S(

:ierc, ro.38.Vitnu on Garuda.FrorrrnorthernIndia,probabiy Uttar Pradcshregion. Ca. Iifth century. Terra cotta.H: 3r crn.BrooklynMuseum,New York (Gift of Dr. BertraurSchaffner).

ro.39.RarnaandLak;ma4a. FromnorthcrnIndia,probably Uttar Pradeshregion. Ca. fifth century.Tena cotta.H: 40.6cln. Asia Society,New York (Mr. and Mrs.John D. Rocke6ller3rd Collection).

I

t€ ci r:e (

A-E-a -.osr as decoration on temples,One such architectural fragment shows the god Vifr.rrl riding atop his winged vehicle, the bird-rnan Garuda (Fig. ro.38). Only Visnu's two left arms are preserved; one holds a bow while the o-ther brings his characteristicconch to his lips, as if the god is blowing it like a trumpet. The conch, whose fleeting sound sometimesservesas a symbol of the transience of the physical world, here probably indicates a war call, for the god and his companion seem to be in battle-ready positions that suggest that dre relief representsan attack on an unseen adversary. Although its findspot is not knowr, the piece is of a type generally identified with the Uttar Pradesh region, and such works are generally attributed to the site of Ahicchattra or, alternatively, to Bhitargaon, two of the most well known and well preserved sites that have yielded Guptaperiod terra cottas in northern India. But it is likely that the monuments at these two centers were not urique at the time of their creation, and that sculptures like this may document a broadly basedstyle and art forrn current throughout north-central India. The curly hair style of Garu{a suggestsaestheticassociations with stone art of the Gupta period, though the techniques used by the terra-cotta artist differ considerably from those of his fellow craftsmenwho worked

in stone. The outlines of the eyesand eyebrows, for example, have been createdsimply by using a sharp tool ro incise in wet clay. crearinga senseof dynamism and calligraphic line that is not apparent in works produced by the slower and more painstakingprocessof stonecarving. A secondterra-cotta sculpture, also probably intended to be used as architectural adornment and also probably from the Uttar Pradesh region, shows Rama, the hero of the Ramayatla, and his yorurger brother, Lakgmana, as if in conversatioll (Fig. ro.39). Rema came to be considered the seventh incarnation of Visnu, and stories narrating events involving him are commonly included in the repertoire of subjects adorning a Vaigqavite temple. However, as a cult deity, he never acfuevedthe statureofother incarnations of Villu, such as K1gqra.When depicted in art, he is generally showr, as here, in a two-armed form that stresseshis hunan, rather than his godly, characteristics.The panel apparently records the period narrated in the Ra rayqltdwhen, after Rama had been banished from the kingdom to which he was rightful heir, he lived in the forest, for the two brothers are dressedasforest dwellers,rather than princes; their earlobes,stretched from years of wearing heaq' ornaments,are unadorned, and their hair is tied into simple topknots. The figures are

"*t'

6rou iifrcr

5s.el 5 CU ani r eleEe

_ -- : _

uons .-'rign As cdDfr: tlllrot

&oug aldot

Fnor at De( -uller

P)-raf curse( ie re brick . n€ger iuced

r:+I_ \-aiot

THE GUPTA PERIOD 217

E:- India,probI

:k (Mr. and

md eyebrows, nolv by using t\-. creating a Lic line that is tv the slower stone carvrng. also probably d adornment --:--ar ?radesh t:- Ka|tfiyqt|a, r.a:a. as if in ,-:ine to be on of Vi9nu, lsing hirn are ri: of subjects Iolvever, as a r:rure ofother I\r!na. wnen har", ,o..rr, ", es his human, ics- The panel rrated in the t'een banished : .r'as rightful : trvo brothers r rhan princes; rs of wearing ird their hair re llgures are

strikingly naturalistic and lifelike, an impression perhaps partly created by the freedorn and spontaneityaccordedby the terra-cotta mediurn. One of the most dramatic and realistic of all the terra cottas surviying fiom the Gupta period representsa Saivite deity (Fig. ro.4o). The relief, broken at the waist of the figure, is from Sahegh-Maheth,Sravasti, Uttar Piadesh, and shows an ascetic whose divinc nature rs indicated by the presence of four arms. His emaciated body, matted locks, and piled-up hair style (jata), as well as his lack of jewelry (especially noticeable due to the distended, pierced earlobes that conspicuously lack earrings),all signify his asceticnature. A very problematic monument that may be discussedalong with terra-cotta remains of the Gupta period is the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaye (Fig. ro.4r). Since it is one of the most sacred of all Buddhist shrines, this brick temple has been repaired numerous times throughout history and its form is therefore difticult to assessin terms of the art of any given period. Much of its present appearance is due to renovations as recent as the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, although the essential elements may have been determined as early as the late-Kuge4aor Gupta periods..The relationship between the present structure and the original building erectedby A6oka is unknown. As it now stands,the temple consistsofa large central shrine surmounted by a high tower, surrounded by four smaller shrines. These are thought to have been added fairly recently, although certainly, the concept of the paficayatana format was well developed by the Gupta period as demonstrated by the Visnu temple at Deogarh. The presenttower is probably much taller than the original superstructure,and its pyramidal profile, which differs from the typical, curved, northern-style iikhara, is possibly also the result of later modifications. The type of brick work and useofcertain vaulting techniques suggestties to Iranian methods, possibly introduced into the Indic region by the Ku9a4as.

ro.4r. Mahabodhitemple.Bodh Gay:, Biher, India. Variousperiods.

3,:;*

ro.4o. Saivite dcity. From Saheth-Maheth, Sravasti, Uttar Pradesh,India. Ca. fifth century. Terra cotta. H: 30 cm. StateMuseum, Lucknow.

?]8

DYNASTTTSOF THI] MIDDLE PI1RIOD

Mrr.tr IuacEs Although some metal images are knorvn frour carly periods of South Asian history, few have survived, and thcrefore they providc only a very incon.Lpletepicture of this art. Even Guptapcriod remains arc scant. Howcvcr, a hoar.l of metal images found at Chausa, Bihar, contained examplesthat cierrly sccnr to be of Gupta date. One reprcsentatiolr of !.sabhanatha, the Jain tirthahkart, espcciailyreveals the grace of form and naturaiism associatedwith Gupta art (Fig. ro.4z). Certain fe"turcs, such as the arms that

reach to the knees,are dictated by iconographic considerations.Yet the scnsitivity to the anaton-ical forms is remarkablc, although not controlled by an adhercncc to rules of anatony ot a scientific approach to thc hunlan figurc. Some srlggestion of thc later Jain preference for abstract, gcometric forrns is seen in thc chest, which, fiom the front, aln.rostanticipates the trianguiar form so charactctistic of latcr Jain exan-rples.

to.tz. Trrthaikara Riabhanatha.Frorl Chausa, Bihar, Iudia. Ca. fifth century. Mctxl. H: 2I.2 cul. Pahu Mlrscunl, Patna.

Corqcrusrox Works of art surviving fron.r pre-Gupta pcriods provide an inconrplete picturc of thc n.rajor artistic trcnds in style and iconography. In contrast, the Gupta period is rclatively rvcil rcprcsented by architectural :rncl sculptural renuins. Although cphemer:Ll n:lterials must have continucclto bc used for art production

clurinq Gupta tirncs, the usc ofstone had bccorne so rvidcspreadthat it mry be essurnedthat thc surviving lnonuments provide r fairly dctailed ovcrviclv of the rnajor lrtistic trcnds. Yet thc survivilg rvolLs, especiallv from the early be viervcd Gupta period, shoulclnot necessaril,v es narking rvholly ne*' developments,partic-

THE GUPTA PERTOD 219

onograplnc he anatorut controlled lomy or a zure. some ierence for r rhe chest, icipates the f later Jain

had become rei that the :.v detailed .is. Yet the ; be viewed ::1rt. Paruc-

ularly in the Hindu religion. For just as the earliest survivins Buddha and bodhisattva images of the Sak-a+"rthi"n and Ku;dga periods may not represent the initial formulations of such icons, early Gupta-period Hindu works, like the examples at Udayagiri, may reflect the crystallization of trends that had been developing for decades,if not centuries. By

the Guptaperiod,however,thereis little doubt that all threemajor Indic religions,Buddhism, Hinduism,andJainism, werenot only foudshing but were also fostering the development of significant artistic creations, though they are perhapsunevenlyreflectedin the survivngart works.

t CHAPTER ELEVEN

I

E

The GuptaAftermath

Tur DrsrNrrcnarloN The Gupta king Budhagupta probably lived until around a.D. Joo. This date serves as a convenient,althoughnot absolute.turning point in South Asian history, for it marks the beginning of the disintegration of the Gupta political state, after whiah northem India wai fragmented into numerous principalities. The turn of the sixth century also may be seen as a kind of watershedin the history oflndic art after which regional developmentsbecameincreasingly well defined, undoubtedly as a corollary of the decentralizationthat occurred upon the breakup of the Gupta empire. Although intemal problems, especially the disputed succession after Bu&agupta, may have accounted for some of the weakening of the empire, a rnajor factor wastheadventof the Epthalires.orWhire Hdnas (Huns).who had begun to make incursionsinto the Indic regions in the mid-fifth century. Skandagupia(reigned ca. 45s-467)is reputed to have been victorious in holdinq back the Hu4as

v-

o F T H EE M P T R T

in India, while another branch of the Hu4a family, led by the famous Anila (d. 453), was wreakins havoc at the courts of Ravenna and Constantinople. But in spite of Skandagupta's defeat of the invaders, the difiicult military efforts must have drained the royal treasury, as suggested by the fact that fewer eold coins were minted under him and the lold employ.d was lesspure. BudhaguPta,who ruled in the last quarter of the fifth century, also managed to hold the empire together althoush he faced the extemal threat and internal difiicultles as well since feudatories and minor rulers in the eastemportions of the empire and in the west were gaining strength, and the Vakagakaswere already a strong political factor. By the closeof his reign, it was evident that the Gupta enpire was past its glory. Evidence of the Huqa incursion is found at Eran, where a large image of Varaha (Fig. rr.r) bears an inscription dated in the first year of

Tonm: Fdhi.aj The de(

ooce et

s,tro. q up Se Budhag lDe

tlr

gu]rr s r$a.ra < colossal

ro,tf+ IlreErS

h€!- R srating his brn

and qi on rle r lEg- r oi &e r on de

THI GUPTA AITIRMATH

?27

rr.r. Varthx. Eran, Madhya Pradesh,India. Ycar r of reigr of Toraufna, dre Huna (ca. lete lifth or carly sixrh century).Sandstone. H: 34J c111.

:::1! Hina :_i:), was Lavenna :

Skanda-

,. Jiilicult : :-:i royal : : _,rfewer : .rnd the r r'-rl, who _: aencury, - ::rher al.: - internal :.-l minor :::ire and , ,nd the , :.1lactor. : :hat the : Irnd at r-1,I r. r.) - : r'ear of

Toramana, the Hur.ra,who is called a Maharajadhiraja, indicating his rulc in thc region.l The dedication ofthc boar and the templc which once enshrined it was n.radeby Dhanyavisr.ru, who, with his elder brother Matrvisnu, had sct up the Garuda pillar at Eran in the rcign of Budhagupta sonre years carlier (Fir. ro.r3). The templc, now in ruins, was a small rcctangular structurc prcccded by a portico w'ith a torana on tltc cast. Once cnshrincd rvithin, thc colossal representation of Varaha, sirown as a fourJeggcd theriomolph, is morc than lour nleters it1 length and stands ovcr three nletcrs high, Rows of figures cover his body, representing the sages who sought shelter anong his bristles, as dcscribed irt the Visnu Purdna2 and which arc comparablcto the figures arrangecl on the rear $,'all of thc Var-ha cave at Udayagiri (Fig. to.8). As in anthropomorphic vcrsions of the subject, the carth godclessis borne aloft on the tusk of the boar.

Toramlna's first rcgnal year, the datc given on the inlge, rurst have occrirred around the end of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth centriry, at lvhich time the donor Dhanyavisnris allegianceapparcntly transfcrrcd fiom lludhagLlpm to Torandna. Such shifts arc not unusual in South Asian history, and were it not {br the common belief that thc H[na incursion had a dran-raticallydestrucrive impact on the culturc of ancicnt India, this dcdication lvould sccnl p e r l e c t J yn o r r n . ' 1l.n r d d i t i o r r .' i n , , r h e i r r a g c and thc tcrnplc (as nuch as can be determincd of it) easily fall within thc paranctcrs of Indic iconography lrld style of the late fifth :rnd carly sixth centudes,it is not possibleto suggcst an inflLrenceon tlle art that is specifically ass o c i a r c Jr v i r - r t l r c H u n . r s .5 i n . p l 1 . t l r e r r u c c f f c c ro f H t r r ' . ,r L r l ei r r ; n c i e n t I n J i . ro n . L r r i . t i c devclopr-ncntsremains to be cxaminccl, but it is likely that rnuch untruth surrounds the conrm o n l l I L c l d v i c w r h a r r h c . c L , r e i g n e r sr v c r e

222

I I

I

DYNASTIXS OF THE MIDDLT

PERIOD

intolerant of the Indic religions and that they in sysrcmaticallydestroyed tenples and images iconoclastic fury. -Torarrlan^ continued to rule until around his son' a.l. 5r5, when he was succeededby individual an But around 53o, rttl.tii"["t". and named YaSodharman rose to prominence region freed the north-central Indian Malwa lasting from Hona control. This king's briefrule' a decade,did rrot succeedtotally in Lnlv "bout pose desiroying the Hu4as, who continued to ttr..",J f"i some tirne. In sPite of the political diffrculties after the reign of Budhagupta until -the first rise of Ya(oclharman,the art produced in the part of the sixth century is the logical culminaiioo offifth-century trends.The site of Mandasor fancientDaiapura)in Mdlwa was an rmPortant ceniul,ur.l ..n,.r. during the frfth and sixrh glory.of the remains-o[ lirrle,"ri"t. ,t,ttougL "-entioned in the several lithic th. ,.rr-rpl., vicinity However' the from ,".o..ls r'e.ov"red architectural fragand ,ro*b., of sculptures "ments associated with Ya(odharman's reign ,n" artistic developments of the second "Utify of the sixth centurY' quarter ' dvarapalo(Fi1' rr'z), one of a pair A "olorr"l now at Sofrdni, sit" once part of the metro" Da6apura area, may have flan-ked the oolitan '.orr"o.",o a Saivite temple in the Mandasor area. The Saivite nature of thesealmost mirroris indicated by the trilala each i-"g" {igor", "well as the presenceof the diminutive hold"sas figure from which the trilila seems to emerge 3 tn style' rhe figtrres clearly (tTiirrlopuruso) seenat Deogarhand Nachndi.lrt. io.*r-p|., Kr:rhara a few decadesbefore' and the same refineurent and delicacy noted in late frfthcenturv art is present.An increasein the height .iaboratiin of the headdres, however' "nd suggests Progrqss toward the more ofnate periods' Further' the ti pir,-copr" {b;tt

F_:-t:\-

--: \le':r -(

:=afr\.

i:a

tr:l lN-;\

::a

Bc5-r . -..-..--'. ::lL1lTli ;l-<{o

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-....'-

::i aratr

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ci

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:E.LAEq

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t

51- . .': '--^'. i.2. Dtarapald sondni, Mandasorarea, Madhya quarlersixth century Beige India.Ca.second Pradesh, H: u6ocrn. sandstone.

relaxed but somewhat angular posture is suggestive of the exaggerated Posescharactedstic of figures in Post-GuPta art.

O u r c s o w r n s o r r s t G u p r ' t I D I o M S( c A J J o - 7 o o ) The polirical unity imposed-by the Guptas on -ucli o[ no.th"m and norrh-centralIndia was emonly ternporary, for upon the collapseof the

t

c.-rsn-

pire. regionalPatternsalong Iinguistic' artistic' lnd culi.,r"l lines increasingly became the hallmark o[ lndic civilization. While such regional

;; sr:n:} -::aart :!a'.1efe

r;:- Ii =asel 6i'& d

Tbe \t oi hori =;

qq

regirJ h -,ie ,

TH3 GUPTA AFTERMATH

vadations have been identifiable in South Asia vinually from the earliest human remains known, the unity of the political state under the Mauryas and later the Guptas provided an apparent overlay of commonality that was quickly lost when the dynastiescollapsed.This

22'

was particularlytrue after the decline of the imperial Guptas in the eastem ancl western extremesof the empire,wheredifferentbranches after of the Gupta family ruled simultaneously the death of Budhagupta,and clearly defined artisticschoolsquickly emerged.

I e sr ; n x I l o r e

lf:.

ls sug-

l-::acteristic

The Gupta empire reached as far east as what ate today the Indian statesof Bihar and West Bengal and the nation of Bangladesh. Bihar, which includes the ancient Magadha heartland ofthe Buddhist and Jain religions, had long been important in the mainstream of Indic artistic and historical developments.But Bengal, further to the east, emerged as a force on the political and artistic sceneonly after having beenbrought furto the GuPta sphere primarily by Budhagupta during the fifth century. Aftet the cessadon of strong imperial control by the Guptas in the east, there was a scramble for power among numerous competing dynasts, many of whose only apparent claim to fame is the presence of their names in the lists of dynastiesin ancient history books. The situation became clearer duriug the seventh century when two notable rulers emerged, Sa{anka,who is reputed to be the Iirst king of Bengal, and Harga (r. 6oG 647), of the Vardhana family, who established hegemony over much ofnorthem India including parts of present day Uttar ?radesh, the easternPafljab, and western Bihar. These early seventh-centuryrulers are known mole through literary and historical sourcesthan through art, however, and much legend surrounds their rule. Hsiian-tsang, the Chinese monk whose travels throushout Buddhist India coincided with the perlod of Harga's rule, and whose

travel account4 is a main source of historical information for the period, assertedthat Saianka was a hater of Buddhism (he was a known Saivite),but that Harsa was partial to Buddhism, and in fact may have been a practicing Buddhist himself. While Har;a's capital was at Kanauj, in what is now lJttar Pradedr, his influence in easternIndia, especiallyMagadha, seemsto have been significant. Although archaeological evidence has not vcrified Harsa'sputative association with the artistic developmentsat nunerous sires, in particular Buddhist monasteries.in Magadha during fus reign, it is probable that the developmentsrhat occrrrredwere in some ways indebted to his tolerance and encouragenent. Saianka is also credited with artistic activities, as he is said to have founded the Lingaraja temple in Orissa,but he is alsoblamed for the destruction of some Buddhist rernains such as the Mahabodhi tcn.rple at Bodh Gaya, which has since been restored on nLrmcrous occasions. Harsa's association with Magadha was formalized in his assumption of the title "King of Magadha," an appellation possibly chosen becauseMagadha was famous outside of the Indic regions and thus such a titlc was perhapsusefulin the forrnulations ofhis "foreign policy," especiallyhis relationswith the emperor or t -ntna-

BUDDHIST Ant tN rur

sic, artistic, me the halloch regional

The Magadha region had remained a stronghold of both Buddhism and Jainism virtually since the time of Sakyamuni Buddha and Mahavira, regardlessof political situations in the region. ln the caseoI Buddhism,the region was materi-

Elst

ally helped by Buddhistsfiom other parts of Asia, such as China and SoutheastAsia, and thus the Buddhistholy land wasnot dependent solely upon the fortunes of local rulers to maintain itself. During the Gupta period and

THX GUPTAAFTERMATH 22' variations have been identifiable in South Asia virtually from the earliest human remarns known, the unity of the political state under the Mauryas and later the Guptas provided an apparent overlay of commonaliry that was quickly lost when the dynastiescollapsed.This

was particularly true after the decline of the imperial Guptas in the eastern and western extremesofthe empire, where different branches of the Gupta family ruled simultaneously after the death of Budhagupta, and clearly defined artistic schoolsquickly emerged.

EAsTIRN INDIA

:, Madhya rturl'. Beige

rre rs sugaracteristic

The Gupta enpire reached as far east as what are today the Indian statesof Bihar ard Wesr Bengal and the nation of Bangladesh. Bihar, which includes the ancient Masadha heartland ofthe Buddhist and Jain religioni, had long been important in the mainstream of Indic artistic and historical developments.But Bengal, further to the east, emerged as a force on the political and artistic sceneonly after having beenbrought into the Gupta sphere prirnarily by Budhagupta during the fifth century. After the cessation of strong imperial control by the Guptas in the east, there was a scramble for power among numerous comPeting dynasts, many of whose only apparent claim to fame is the presence of tleir names in the lists of dynastiesin ancient history books. The situation became clearer during the seventh century 'when two notable rulers emerged, Sa5anka,who is reputed to be the first king of Bengal, and Harsa (r. 6o6647), of the Vardhana farnily, who established hegernony over much of northern India including parts of present day Uttar Pradesh, the easten Pafrj-b, and western Bihar. These early seventh-centuryrulers are known more through literary and historical sourcesthan through art, however, and much legend surrounds their rule. Hsiian-tsang, the Chinese monk whose travels throughout Buddhist India coincided with the period of Harsa's rule, and whose

Buorltlst

rc, altlsttc, e the hall:h regional

travel account4 is a main source of historical information for the period, assertedthat Sa6anka was a hater of Buddhism (he was a known Saivite),but that Harsa was partial to Buddhism, and in fact may have been a practicing Buddhist himself. While Harsa's capital was at Kanauj, in what is now ljttar Pradesh,his influence in eastemIndia, espcciallyMagadha, seemsro have been significant. Although archaeological evidence has not verified Harga'sputative association with the artistic developmentsat numeroLts sires. in parricular Buddhist monasteries.in Magadha during his reign, it is probable that the developmentsthar occurred were in some ways indebted to his tolerance and encouragement. Sasairka is also credited with artistic activities, as he is said to have founded the Lingaraja temple in Orissa, but he is also blan.red for the destruction of some Buddhist remains such as the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya, which has since been restored orr numerous occasions. Harsa's association with Magadha was formalized in his assumption of the title "King of Magadha," an appellation possibly chosen becauseMagadha was famous outside of the Indic regions and thus such a title was perhapsusefulin the formulations ofhis "foreign policy," especiallyhis relationswith the emperor or \-nlne.

AxT rN rnr East

The Magadha region had remained a stronghold of both Bu.{j'lhism and Jainism virtually since the time of Sakyamuni Buddha and Mahavira, regardlessof political situations in the region. In the caseof Buddhisn, the reqion was maten-

ally helped by Buddhistsfrom other parts of Asia, such as China and Sorrtheasr Aiia, and thus the Buddhistholy land was not dependent solely upon the fortunes of local rulers to maintain itself. During the Gupta period and

224

DYNAS'fIIS OF THE MIDDI I IEITIOD

colsistins of a sqlrarc plinth rvith a rocky lanclscapedesign surmountcd by a round lotus into which the figurc is set, rnuch as if it wcrc a netal image placed iuto a base.Elegaut, monunental, and finely carved, this image docuneuts a little ltnolvt pcriocl of Indic art ticd to norMagaclhan sourccs but clcarly of local manufactnrc, as indicated by the grey black stone out of rvhich it is carved. One of the nlost rcnorrncd Bucldhist insritutions in eastcrn India aftcr thc Gtpta pcriod \r'as the rnonastic univcrsity of Nalanda. A number of modcrn villagcs prcscndy occupy 'I tirc cxtcnsivc arca of the ancicrt site, and only a smali portion of thc once hugc monastery has bcen revealeclby cxcavation. Ancient Buddhist tr:rclitior-rsknown lron eariy canonical rexts refer to Nalanda es a suburb of Rajgir ancl it is like1yth:rt thc sitc, rvhich was not historically associatccl rvith an cvcnt in the life of Sakyamuni Buddha, r'as not promincnt rrntil the Gupta rr.3. Buddha,fl:rnkingentranccro MahtbodhiteIrrple. period, although it was apparently founded Bodh Gayt, Bilur, Indie.Ca. sevelthccrrrurv.Black carlicr. stone. H: ca,rJocrn. Thc Nalancll cstablishurentis rlost properly r r r l r , r l . r r i d l , airl n r a ( g t c , t ra i l r a r n ). .i n c c i r w a . Although aD aqgregxtion of scverll n-ronastcrics. may bc latcr, ancicnt holy placessuch asBodh Gaya 'r''ere for this typc of cstablishr.rrcnt prcccclcr.rts refurbished or maintained and ner,v oncs were found in sor-ncofthc Iksr'tku remaitrs,in Bactrofounded. By thc Pala pcriod, bcginning in the Glnclhera and other areas, it is not until dre 4.o., so m:r1rylludclliistcstablish- Gtrpta pcriod t)nt nnlndharas, rvhich oftcn eighth ccntr.rry ments or tiharas dottctl drc rcgion that its c : r r r c r o b . ' c . . r r o I J t , ' r r l e . , r r r ig . ' r r Cl r L , c r . ' l n-roclcm nlrnc, Bihar, is a rnclnory of that schol;rrsl-rip, beclrDcthc norm. Hsiien-tsangtclls of tlrc fonnrling.ofthis nalfirilnra.i Supposcdly, phcnonrcnon. e king nrmcrl Sekraditya, u,ho hes bccn iclcnMost of thc sculpturc thrt nr.lst hAvc bccn tificcl :rs KLuraregupt.LI (cx. +rS-+ss), laid the procluced in the sixth end sevcnth ccnturics hxs lounchtions lncl built a nlonastery thcrc. Tliis been lost; possibly,stucco:inc1terrl cotta rvcrc is supportedin that Fa-hsien,trrveling il drc co1l1ll1or1lyused but rvere sir-r-Lp1y not strong carly fitth ccntury, onlv mcntions thc place :rs cllough to sulvive the centurics :l11c1 periodic thc birthplecc of Sariputra, tht' clisciplc of clcstmctiolls the r'egion sullcr'cd. Hou'cvc-r, an Sdkyamuni lluclclha.and rclers to a rttipa there.6 image of a strncling Uuddhe in abhoya nudrc flrnkirlg thc cnt|ncc to thc Mahaboclhi That grcatcr rloticc is not given by Fa-irsien prcsently sugccststhat indeeclthe eror,vthofthis monastcry ar Ilodh Caya sLrggests somcthing of ten.rplc . r p p c . r r . L r r r r J t l p r . t r c r t t . r d c occurrecl in thc l.lter Gupta pcriocl and aftcr. 111., L, tlpic,.l " (inpta Horvcvcr, since Fa-hsicu's clcscriptionsare freaftcr thc period, pcrlnps in thc scvcnth qrrerrtlyskctchy,tlis cal]rot bc takc[ as a ru]c. cennrry (Fig. rr.j). The debt to Sarnathidioms - t , . r ( . d ( \l ( d I n . T - r .. | . . . c T ,t Hsiiln-tseng'sstorv rcvclls that aftcr the kinq r h c , r . , n c c. ' r r db ^ d ) 1 ' p c . , , r r , l . r . t l r c r r L . r r l y Sakradityr, othcrs (some of r'honr are not knowr in othcr historical clocuments)sr,rches invisiblc clrapcry and snriling facc. Thc figute Buclhagnptn, T.thagrt., I3alaclitye, Vrjr,i, and a stands on an u[r]sLiel tlrlcc-rliruensionalpcdcstal

-'tr

c =! _l

I I

THE GUPTA AFTMMATH

rockt landC iotus into f it s.-ere a pnt. monuiocuments ied to nonocal manublack stone hirr institurpa period \alanda-

,1!

dr- occupy e- and only monastery rcient Budr canonical 'Ralgir and hisrorically Sakvamuni rhe Gupta v founded sr properly ince it was i Although enr may be . in Bactro,{ until the 'hich often ard liberal r-rsang tells iupposedly, been iden_;r. laid the rhere. This Iinq in the he place as iisciple of trga there.6 rv ra-nslen i fronastery :nJ after. ,n: are fren :-. a rule. :r rhe king t :re not Lt' such as ei:.:.. and a

king of central India extended their patronage to the site. According to Hsiian-tsang, Budhagupta built a monastery to the south of the first one; Tathagata erected one to rhe.easr of Budhagupta's; Baladirya erected a three-storied pavilion; and Vajra construcreda monastery to the west of that of Baladitya. Thus, according to tradition, within a span of about one cenrury, at least five monastic units had been built. The king of central India later erected a high wall and gate around the earlier structures,and thus the site becarne a truly unified aggregate. However, if Nalanda was patronized by the GupJas,it was brought to prominence during the reign of Harsa. Hsiian-tsangdescribeslife in the monastery during this period, saying that rules were strictly obeyed and that rebellion simply never occurred. Strict policies of admission were followed and prospective students were screened before entering the monastery

22J

by gatekeepers(an honorific position for highly learnedmonls). The most dominant structure at Nalandt today is the one designatedas Stupa/Temple 3 at the southem end of the complex (Fig. ri.4). This monument is the product of several dill ferent phascsof ionstruction. At the core is a sr,l.all stipa with a square base mcasurrng r73 centimeters on each side and a height of r37 cenrimeters.Tts dare is not known, nor is it known to whom it is dedicated,since no relic was found within, but it hasbeen suggested,due to the obvious care and expense lavished on this monument, that it rcpresents the caitya of Sariputra over which A6oka is reputed to have built a temple, Three more rather modest enlargementswere made to this core, but in the creation of the 6fth shell, the structure took on a ncw appearancc and form, Large in sizc. and having four corner towers, this layer was

rr.4. Stnpa/ Temple 3. Nalanda, Bihar, tndia. Ca. late sixth,early seventhcentr,rry,Brick and stucco,

?26

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE

PERIOD

rr.J. Figureson Stdpa / Temple 3. Nilande, Bihar, India. Ca. late sixth--early seventh century. Stucco.

!1_:Jer

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oi P.Jl 1.dage DINAT

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Bud&

lavislrly decorated with stucco architectural mouldings and niches containing figures of Buddhas and bodhisattvas (Fig. rr.5). Bricks with Buddhist inscriptions used in this phase are believed to date from the late sixth or early seventh century, around the time of Harga's reign or slightly earlier, on the basis of paleography. In style, the sculptures also fit this attribution, for while they still strongly relateto Gupta material from sitessuch as Sarnathin the slender,gracefully posed figures, their clinging, near transparent drapery, and the style of their costumes, the slendemessis perhaps greater than that seen at Samath. This is visible in the very thin faces especially, wbich anticipate the sryle to be seen in subsequentsculpture at Nalanda. This core, revealed by archaeologists, was not the latest addition to this monument, for two more layers were added, posibly not long after the fifth. Stucco, like terra cotta, n r highly frrgile medium. lts nse. as tllat of brick, was popularized during the Gupta period, both in the eastern and western outreachesof the former Gupta empire, possibly as an economic measure.The populariry oF stucco may be relatcd to Inner Asian practicesthat grew up where stone was scarce.However, its adoPtion at Nelanda and other sites in Magadha where

shors , rng inr AtM archire the sir

t rr.6. Buddha. From Sultengeflj, Bihar, India. Ca. seventh century. Metal. H: ca. zoo cm. Birrningham Museurn and Art Gal-

fl

{.. rr--- Ka .eveoth PaBla -\ll

THE GUpTA AETERMAT]J 227 npa / Temple '. lndi:. Ca. 'enrh century.

stone was abundant nust have been due to other considerations. Metal must have also been a popular artistic medium in eastern India, although it too is barely representedamong the known exarnples of post-Gupta art. However, an extraordinary image of a Buddha from Sultanganj in eastern Bihar indicatesthat not only was metal technology an advanced sciencein ancient India, but that craftsmen were able to use it to advantage (Fig. rr.6). The image, which is larger than

human-size and weighs more than a ton, was found during railway excavationsin the nineteenth century. Undoubtedly, it was not a unique creation and others of similar ambitiousness must have existed, but since metal corrodes and can be melted down and reused for other purposes, many of the rrnages presumed to have been produced have been lost. Stylistically, the figure strongly relates to the Nalanda stuccos and a seventh-century date may be suggestedfor its production.

HrNou Anr rN rnr last

In spiteof the fact that Magadhawasprimarily controversial inscription from Mu4de$ari gives Buddhist,otherportionsof the easrcrn regions the year thirry of an unspecified era,? often show evidencethat Hindu worshipwas becom- thought to be the Harsa era, which began in ing increasinglypopularin post-Guptapedods. A.D.606, thus giving a date equivalent to 636; At Mundefuari Hill in Bihar, for example, and it is possiblethat some ofthe artistic producarchirecrura] andsculptural remainssrrggest that tions found at Mundeivari date from this period. the site was an important Hindu center, A An image of Karttikeya (Fig. rl.7) and another

529,

GJ-

rr.7. Kartrikeya. Fron Mundeivan, Bihar, India. Ca. seventh century. Reddish brown stone. H: 68.5 cm. PatnaMuseurn,Petna.

rr.8. Surya. Frorn Mun{e(varr. Bihar. India. Ca. seventh century. Reddish brown stone. H:48,5 cm. Patna Museum, Paha,

226

DYNASTITS OF THE MIDDLE

PERIOD

of Surya (Fig. r r.8) from the vicinity of Munde6vari demonstrate the stylistic idiom of the severth century. These Hindu figures reveal sorneof the graceand delicacy of Sameth Gupta imagery, although the figurcs are nlore stocky and short in their proportions and perhapsrnore accentulredrn rheir posture.. In stylc. rhcy rcveal associationsn.rorewith north-central Indian Gupta modes, sccn,for cxample, at Eran and other sites, rathcr than the Buddhist Sarnath idcal. A t A p s a d h .a l ' o i n B i l r a r .a n i n s c r i p t i o twr a s found that tells of a king Adityasena of the Later Gupta dynasty who is tl.rotght to havc ruled in the third quarter of the seventhcentury, around a.r. 672. A lengthy genealogy of this family, which is also knowl as tlle Guptx line of Magadha but whose relationship to the imperial Guptas is unclear, is included, and the inscription further records the building of a Visnu temple by Adityasena, the erection of a rcligious college or r.nonastery by his mother, and the excavation of a tank by his wife.8 Although no trace of the religious college or tank have been identified in modern times, it is believed that thc large mound at the site i s t h e r e m . r i r r 'o [ A d i r y e . e n a . t e r n p l e .T h c mound has not been fuily excav?ted but one side has been cleared to reveal a nurnber of fine stucco sculpturesthat have becn idcntified as scenesfrom the great Hindu epic, the Rarrayana (Fig. rr.9). The san.rcfrcc stylc sccn in Gupta-pcriod tcrra cottas such as those frotr Ahicchattra is present here, and nust bc in sorDe part dlre to the rralleable natruc of thc materill. A numbcr of stonc sculptures have al,o bccn rccoverc.rfronr Ap.rdlr tlrat. for thc nost part, sccrn to datc fror-n thc period of Adity"sena as well. Oue of the most bcautiful of thcsc is a standing male figure, presumably Visnu, carved of the local black stone typically usedin the sculptureofthis rcgion (Fig. rr.ro).e The refinenent and delicacy of thc dctaiiing and the gentle colrntenanceof thc god owc a clear dcbt to Gupta art, but thc incrcascclomamcntatioll, and lesseneddegree of softnessand f l r r i d i t yi n t l r c r r . r n s i r i o b r re t r r e e r r h c p a r t . o f thc body sLrggesta departure froln the earlier idiorr.

.g. Ranaya'la scene.Apsedh,Biher, India. Ca. third quarter seventhcentury, Stucco.H: 96 cm,

rr.ro. Vittu. From Apsaclh,Bih.r, India. Ca. third quater seventhcentury. Black stonc. H: 9r.J clll. Mrs. John D. Rockefellcr3rd Collcction.

THE GUPTA AFTXRMATH

'Wtsrrnx

lia. Ca- third D.

ta. Ca. third 9r.5 crn. Mrs.

229

IltoIlt't DlvrropurNts

Certain artistic developments in the western regions of ancient India that arosein the wake of the decline of the imperial Guptas provide important insights into the earlier history of the region, especially the heritage of Western classicisticsyles. Probably the oldest surviving structural temple in the Saurasprapeninsula of Gujarat state is the so-called Old Temple at cop (Fig. rr.ii), which is thought to have been built between 575 and 6oo, when this region was under the sway of the Maitraka dynasty. Its form and style, while unusual in terms of the mainstream developments in northem temple architecture(nagara).is an inreresting episode in the development of westem Indic styles, deriving both fiom earlier traditions in the west, as well as from Gupta modes. Relationships between the Gop tenple and later Ka6miri forms, as well as earlier BactroGandhara architecture, have been observed by scholars,and the temple is usually classi{iedas belonging ro the "Candheric" type since it preservesa number of elementsfiom the northwestem tradition of the Kusana period. One of these is the so-called "penthouse-type" roof (actually a pyramidal roof rising from a square base), known as the phathsanatype. This forn is laterro bc seen in Kairnrr, suggesring an early widespread dispersalof the convention-10 The temple at Gop sits atop a high terrace (jogati) that ts squarein plan except for a projection on the east (Fig. rr.rz). Originally, steps at either side of the extensionwould have given the devotee accessto the templc. The increased plinth height, in comparison, for exanple, with the Visnu temple at Deogarh and the "Parvati" temple at Nechn5-Kuthara, anticipates later developments in northem temple architecture. The bold form of three false dornlcr windows (cadraiala) decorateseach slope of the peaked roof, creating a dominant motif on the monument. In general, relative simplicity prevails, perhaps indicating the early date of the temple, although in this casecaution should be exercised in making such a judgment, as numerous later templ€s in this region are also

rather stark and plain. Further, the use of large, heavy blocks of stone in the construction of the temple, often also seenasan "early" element refecting associationswith Gupta temple architecture, seemsin this caseto be a regional form, since later ternples as well maintain this type of construction. It is not known to whom the temple was originally dedicated, as no image was found in the shrine and most ofthc extcrior decoration is lost. Originally, thts sandhara shrine was enclosedby a circumambulatory passage, as was the "P-rvati" temple at NachnaKuthara, although, like that of the earlier temple, this enclosureis now in rurns. The Maitraka dynasty, which may have been ruling SauresFaat the time the Gop tcmple was built, forms a puzz\ng chapter in the history of South Asian art. One of the most durable ofthe new statesthat arose upon the ruin of the imperial Guptas, the Maitrakas seem to have been establishedby the late fifth century (their earliest presently known land grant is dated to around Jo2). Yet, in spite ofa rule ofover two hundred and {ifty years, little is known about the art of this dynasty. Over one hundred temples in Saura;ga have been identified as bclonging to the Maitraka period, although none can be specifically tied to the patronage of the rulers themselvesand none is datableon the basisofinscriptional evidence. This pcculiarity is especially notable becausethe Maitrakas in general left extensive epigraphic records, many of which describe their generosity to and patronage of religious establishnents. By all standards, the rulers must have been wealthy, since Valabhi, the now-ruined Maitraka capital, was at that time a seaport and a major tradc center linking ancientIndia with the Persianand Mediterranean worlds. Recordsdating from between about J3J and 7oo document donationsmade by individuals to specifically nan.redBuddhist establishments.ll Hsiian-tsang, who travelled to Valabhi in 64o, spoke of the flourishing of Buddhism in the area.lz And yet, virtually nothing has been recoveredfiom Valabhi and its vicinity to testify to its former glory. I-tsing, another Chinese traveler, who visited India during the Maitraka

rr.r2. PhD of Old T.nrpic. Gop, GLUar.t,Lrdi:r.Mritrrka pcriod.

THE GUPTA AFTTRMATH

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supremacy (although he did not visit Valabhr), mcntions that the two pron-rinent centers of learning in India at the time (lateseventhcentury) were Nalanda in the east and Valabhi in the west,13 Thus, an important chapter in the development of Indic art as known Gom historical sourcesis a virtua] blanl
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DYNASTIESOl: THr MIDDIE PERIOD

rr.r4. Sxivite kst,dpald.Ftot.lrSa rxl:ji, Gujartr, India' Ca. secondquarter sixth ccntury. Grey schist H: 93 J cln. Princeof WalesMuseurnof WcsternIndia, Bon1bsy'

rr.rJ. Vilnu VlavartPa.At Nilaka4lhaMahadcvatcDple. Samalaji,Grjarat, India. Ce. sccondquartcr sixrh centurl'. Blue-grcy schist.H: ror.6 cn.

appearance,undoubtedly based on crotes and oiher .hild depictions that had been freely incorporated into the western Asiatic rePertore' Yci clearly, these forms, lvhile indebted to Bactro-Gaudhara precedcnts, reveal the grace, chanr.r,and delicacy of the Gupta tradition, as doesthe dcpiction of the clinging.garments' At Samalaji in Gujarat, a nutnber of impressive stone sculpturcs wcre found- T}Leir datc remain controvcrsial However, and patronagc "they seem to bclong to thc sixth stylisticaily, ..lrarry, ,ttort probably thc second quarter of that century. A Saivite in.ragepcrhaPsrePresentrrtg a ksetrapalo(r kind of Protective deity)

shows thc rem:rrkably high quality ofcraftsrnanship of the westernIndian sculPtor(Fig. rr.r4). Thi hcavy drapery, like that of thc figurcs from Tarcsara-Mahadcva, revcals a classicisticheritage, but thc delicatecarving and graceful forlns d e r i v c f r o r n t l r e C u p t a r r . r d i r i o nl.h c ' t r o n g rclationship of this {igurc and other sir.niiaroncs to cxanplcs frorn the Mandasor region (Fig r t . . z )' r r g g e , tb r o . ' d t r r t . t i c t i c ' . r r l t o n gs i r c ' i n thc rl,'esternand northr,vcstcrnregions.Howevcr, the posc of the rnair-r{igure is even more exaggerltcd and thc entire configuration more orn'lte r l ' . r r rr h c M r n d : r o r . c t r l p t t r r cs. e c t t i i n gt o a n r i cipate more fully d.re stylistic directions of the

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THE GUPTAAFTERMATH 2,'

l:hadeva temquafter sixth

rr.16. Stele. Ar Baredeviche Deul. parel (Bombay), Maharasfra, Irdia. Ca. frst half sixth cenrury. Stone. H: 348 cm.

,f craftsman(Fig. rr.r4). tgures from icistic herirceful forms The strong siadlar ones region (Fig. ong sites in s. However, more exagrDoreomate ing to antitions of the

next centuries,particularly those to be seen in the art of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Thus, the Samalaji sculpture rnay be slightly later, and may have been made as late as around a.u. 55o. The trend towards increased elaboration is even clearer in a representation of Visnu Vijv_arBpa.also from Semaldji, which probably dates from around the same rime (Fig-. rr.r5j. Xight-armed and four-faced (the fourth implied at the rear), Vis4u sits atop the serpentAn-nta, wears an elaborate crown, and is accompanied by a seemingmuJtirudeoffigures, most ofwhom seem to emanate from his head. These fisures inclode the ayudhapttrr^, SiV" (.t th" top of th"

r'elief in the center), Brahma (beneath him), auata$ and tyuhas ol yisnu. himself, and India and Surya.r6As Viivarupa (Having All Forms), Visnu appears as the Universal in whom ail things are embodied and from whom all thines emanate.This form of Vi5nu, while known in a number of Hhdu texts, is describedperhaos mosr poignantly in the BhagavadGlr;, a woik appended to,rhe Mahabharai, which is basically a dialogue berween Arjuna and hjs charioteei. who is none other rhan Visnu in his Krsna in_ carnation.The dialoguerakesplaceon the eve of rhe great battie of Kuruk5eria, when Arjuna is overcome wirh doubt about rhe righteouiness of the.killing that will occur the ne"xrday and begins ro-questionKrsna. In responseto Arjrrna.. request that he reveal himself Krsga manifests himself in a forrn that embodies every asoectof the universe, and rhus fills Arjuna with awe. All various coiors. alJ moving ind unmoving trungs,many mouths.eyes,ornaments.weapons. marvelous garlands,garments, perfumes, and olntments are contained within Arjuna,s visionWhile such a vision would be impossible to porrray in a work of arr, the ard;rs of this carving. have clearly attenpted to suggest the multiplicity inherent in it. The stvli-of the figures, though somewhat dificult io discern. fall: wthm rhe definitionsof the sixrh-cenrury school at SamalaiiThe -regional styles developing rr vanous parts of westem India following the breakup of the Gupra empire were _highJ/dependenroi wnat must have been earlier artistic traditions irr each locale. Thus, while some general .,post_ Gupta" featuresmight be common to works of art produced *noughourthe region, Iocal peculi_ an esare atsolound. and thesein turn form the basisfor the highJy distilcrive sryles*ut emerged rn- arouncl.the seventh century. A huge stele (Fig. rr.16) found at parel in the Bomb--ayarea migk appearat first glanceto relare stron;ly to the Viivarupa image from Samalaji (fig. ilr5), but this is largely due to the coincidence of their emanarory iconographies a:rd the general similarities arising from rhe lact rhat bJrh are western Indian works ofabout the sixth centurvThe Parel stele,however, finds its closeststylistic counterparrs in the caves at Elephanta lFigs.

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D Y N A \ T I L \ O I T H T M I D D IL P I R I O D

rr.r7. Dratupald. Ltkharlrandal, Uftar pradcsh, India. Ca. sixth or seventhcentury. Illack stone.H: r78 cm.

r r . r 8 . B r a h r ) a . F r o r l B r a h m a n a b a d ,p a k i s t a n . C a . s i x t h ccntury. Mfial. H: 96.5 cnr. National Muscum, Karachi.

I

THX GUPTA AFTERMATH

r3.J-8) and related sires, indicating a regional style probably current around the Bombay area during the first half of the sixth century. In general, this style reflects the rather heavy, fullfigured body type prevalent in the sculptural stylesthat evolved in the westem Deccan "iound the fifth century, as at Aja+Ia, and contrasts with the figure types developed in Gr{arat and Rajasthan identifiable in. the images from Tanesar-Mahadeva and Samalali. ih" t igh hcaddressesand elaborate coiffures are also characteristicof this style. The identification of the subjectofthis reliefis controversial,although most authorities agree that it is Saivite rather than Vaig4avite. The three c€ntral figurcs apparenrlyreprescntmanifesrations or er)raflations of the main diviniry.lT lvidence of Gupta aesthetics affecting art production in outlying regions is found in a life+ize, black stone irnage of a duirapala, one ofa pair,18found at Lakhrmandal in the Siwalik Range (LesserHimalaya$ in the far north of India (Fig. rr.i7). Although the rmages are of uncertain age, the delicate forms, graceful poses,and diaphanousdrapery betray the penetration of the Gupta ideal into what rnay have been an isolated pocket of the Indic regions. A date of the sixth or posibly seventh century may be suggestedfor the figures, which are virtually identical, each showing a standing male dressedin a finely delineateJ//rori, with I simple necklaceand ornate crown. The articulation of the knee, the treatment and pose of the body. end the unu.ual rype of qarmint do nor find prrrlJelsin other styicsof ;dic arr ofposr Gupta ages, but instead, find ties with Cambodian sculpturesof the early seventhcentury.te As in easternIndia and Bangladesh,a number of metal images from the weit provide further evidence of sculptural idioms and indicate the supposedpopularity of meml as a medium, in spite of the paucity of remains. A very large statue of Brahma2o(Fig. rr.r8) found at Brah-

rr.r9. Tithaikara.Ftom Vasantagadh, Rajastban, Irdia. Year 744 Vikrama era (A.D.687). Mcral; grasseyesand eye _paint added lacer. H: r37 cn. In Jain temple at Pi4davad., Rajasrhan,India.

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