Cell Cycle Regulation Hui Zhang, Ph. D. Department of Genetics Yale University School of Medicine New Haven, CT 06520, USA Telephone: (203)7371922 Fax: (203)7857023 Email:
[email protected] http://info.med.yale.edu/genetics/fac/HuiZhang.php
Cell Cycle Regulation: the mechanisms controlling cell growth, cell duplication, cell division, and their roles in development and diseases
development cell proliferation differentiation aging
cancer
All Organisms are Composed of Cellsthe Cell Theory •Microorganisms preliminary observations on unicell vs. multicell (Anton van Leeuwenhook, 1632-1723)
•Cork shreds box-like units (cells) (Robert Hooke, 1665) •Animal and plant tissues fluid + nucleus (Mathios Schleiden & Theodore Theodore Schwann, 1838-39)
•Cells dividing into cells (Rudolf (Rudolf Virchow, 1858)
Unicellular Organisms: bacteria, blue algae, single cell fungi (yeast), etc.
Multicellular organisms cells in an onion root
QuickTimeª and a GIF decompressor are needed to see this picture.
Involving complex programs to coordinate proliferation, differentiation, and functional specialization of various cells in an organism
Cell cycle under microscope
interphase
metaphase prophase
telophase anaphase
Life Cycles Mitosis Reproduction systems
Somatic cell cycle can be divided into G1, S, G2, M phases Mitosis (M): chromosome condensation
Gap1 (G1)
Gap2 (G2) 3 DNA synthesis (S): Hthymidine incorporation
Embryonic cell division Many embryonic cell divisions are rapid (1015 min) Fertilized eggs from Xenopus, Drosophila, sea urchin, clam, etc. Alternating S phase (S) and mitosis (M). Uses maternally stored proteins for mitotic divisions.
Growth factor signaling
Cell Cycle Regulation/Differentiation
Developmental cell divisions cells divide asymmetrically Zygote (fertilized egg) Mitosis
Continued cell divisions with different cell fate Nerve, muscle, blood, endocrine, epithelial, stem cells, etc.
How cell cycle regulation can be studied?
Different systems offer various ways to identify and isolate cell cycle regulators Cultured mammalian cells (Rao and Johnson) Budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiaeLeland Hartwell) Fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombePaul Nurse) Frog Oocytes (Xenopus laevis, Rana pipiensYoshio Matsui) Sea urchin/clam eggs (Joan Ruderman and Tim Hunt)
Xenopus Oocyte Maturation and Activation
Maturation (Meiosis)
Activation (Mitosis)
Assay for MPF (Yoshio Masui)
Maturation Promoting (MPF) Factor is Transferable and Autocatalytically propagated
MPF is an universal regulator of mitosis and meiosis
MPF from mitotic embryonic or somatic cells and mature eggs behave the same.
Properties of MPF:
promotes oocyte maturation common in all mitotic or meiotic cells from different sources activity oscillates in the cell cycle, low in interphase and high in mitotic/meiotic cells
Nobel Prize Winners for Cell Cycle Regulation in Physiology or Medicine, 2001
Leland Hartwell
Paul Nurse
Tim Hunt
Lee Hartwell: isolated a collection of celldivision cycle (cdc) mutants using yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Isolated various conditional budding yeast mutants, mostly temperature sensitive (ts) mutants that arrest the cell cycle with growth or morphological defects
Isolate yeast conditional mutants
High temperature mutants: Grow at 25 oC but not at 37 oC
Cultured yeast cells Mutagenize with EMS or other chemicals Classify mutant Replica plating terminal phenotypes: small bud, dumbbell, no DNA Grow at permissive nongrowing mutants at synthesis, 25 oC 37 oC. etc. (permissive temperature) (nonpermissive temperature)
Isolation of cdc mutants
cdc mutants arrest with a single cell morphology at a defined cell cycle stage
Cdc mutants in budding yeast G1 (Start) mutants: cdc28, cdc4, cdc6, cdc7, etc. S phase mutants: cdc21, cdc46, etc. Mitosis: cdc5, cdc14, cdc15, etc.
Isolate the genes encoding yeast cdc mutants
Yeast genomic DNA in a plasmid library (yeast selection and E. coli drug resistant markers) Transfromation (Li acetate, etc) Introduce into interested cdc mutant yeast cells 37 oC Isolate plasmids
Grow at permissive temperature oC) and yeast selection media (25
25 oC
Paul Nurse: isolate cdc mutants from distant fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. S. pombe has a short G1 but a long G2
Cdc mutants arrest in G2/M were isolated: cdc2, cdc25, cdc13, etc.
The S. pombe cdc2 mutant G2 cells
G1 cells
Mitosis
S phase
Cell division
G2 cells
Cdc2 mutant is defective in both G1 (start) and G2 phases
cdc2ts CDC2 plasmid
cdc2ts
WildType Cells
cdc2ts Cells + Human CDC2 plasmid
cdc2ts Cells
S. Pombe CDC2 encodes an evolutionarily conserved serine/threonin kinase the fission yeast CDC2 gene by recovering the gene that rescues the cdc2 G2/M arrest phenotypes. S. pombe cdc2 mutant can be rescued by introducing budding yeast cdc28 (S. cerevisiae) which is primarily defective in G1 (Start) in budding yeast. human CDC2 was isolated using the same rescue strategy. CDC2=CDC28 and regulates both G1 and G2/M.
CDC2 is part of MPF activity Xenopus MPF
Inject Oocyte
Oocyte matuation (meiosis)
Xenopus MPF
Inject Oocyte
Oocyte matuation (meiosis)
Absorb by p13SUC1 beads
Bound p34 = CDC2; another protein ~ 5060 kDa?
SUC1
(yeast p13
binds yeast and human CDC2)
Discovery of cyclins (Tim Hunt) sperm
Sea urchin egg
1st 1st 2nd 2nd Sphase Mitosis Sphase Mitosis
fertilization
Protein synthesized:
A= cyclin A B= cyclin B
A B C
Cyclins behave the same as MPF MPF activity fluctuates; cyclin proteins fluctuate MPF has a kinase activity MPF contains CDC2 and another component MPF= cyclin B (cyclin A) + CDC2
Cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) Replication Cyclin A/B CDC2 Active CDC2 Kinase
Chromatin condensation Nuclear envelop breakdown Mitotic spindle formation Activation of Anaphase Promoting Complex/Cyclosome (APC/C) Chromosome cohesion, etc.
Proteolysis of cyclin A and cyclin B in late mitosis inactivates CDC2 and causes the exit of mitosis.
Wee1 and CDC25 Cell size wildtype S. pombe
A. B.
cdc25, cdc13, cdc2 loss of function mutants
C.
wee1 and certain gain of function cdc2 mutants CDC13 Inactive CDC2
CDC25 WEE1
Active CDC2/CDC13 CDC13=cyclin B
Y=tyrosine; T=threonine
CDC25 and WEE1 couples CDC2 activation to S phase in S. pombe WEE1 kinase Y15PO4 WT
CDC2
Y15 CDC25 pptase
Inactive CDC2 S phase cells Y15 Y15F mutant
CDC2
F=phenylalanine
Cells divide only in mitosis
CDC2
Active CDC2 G2 and mitotic cells F15 CDC2
Insensitive to WEE1 Cells divide in S phase
Active CDC2
Regulation of CDC2 (cyclin dependent kinase 1, CDK1)
CDC25 is regulated by phosphorylation and protein degradation
Budding yeast S. cerevisiae CDC28 regulates G1 and G2 but most mutants arrest before G1 start G1
CDC28 S How?
G2/M
Budding yeast S. cerevisiae
CDC28 regulates G1, S, and G2/M by synthesize distinct cyclins in each phase of the cell cycle
G1
CDC28
G2/M
S Cln1 Cln2 Cln3 G1 progression Nutrient & cell size a/α factor
Clb5 Clb6 S phase progression S phase checkpoint
Clb1 Clb2 Clb3 Clb4 G2 and mitosis
Yeast G1 cell cycle regulation Cln1 Cln2 Expression:
α/a mating factors Nutrients (carbon, nitrogen, lipid, etc.)
G1
G1/S Cln3 constant
S Clb56
Cln13 accumulation leads to the progression of G1 phase Overexpression of Cln3 promotes S phase entry at smaller size Clb56 starts to synthesize at late G1
G2/M
How Sphase starts in yeast Cln1 Cln2 Expression:
α/a mating factors Nutrients (carbon, nitrogen, lipid, etc.)
G1
G1/S Cln3 constant p40Sic1
Clb56
Clb56
p40Sic1 is a CDK inhibitor
cdc28
S
Inactive Clb56/CDC28 kinase
How Sphase starts in yeast Cln1 Cln2 Expression:
α/a mating factors
G1
G1/S Cln3 constant PO4
p40Sic1
cdc28
S Clb56
Clb56
PO4
SCFCDC4
p40Sic1
SCF Ubiquitin E3 Ligase (SKP1, CUL1/CDC53, Fbox proteins) E1 & E2 enzymes
Ubiquitin(ub)
ub ub ub ub
ub ub ub
26S proteosome
> 10 Fbox proteins found in yeast
Substrate proteolysis
26S proteasome proteolyzes polyubiquitinated proteins
Clb56/CDC28 in S phase Cdc28 For G1
Clb56
For G2/M
For S Phosphorylate Cln1/Cln2 Clb14 expression Regulate replication Other events for G2/M SCF binding initiation at origins Degradation of Cln1/Cln2
Turnoff G1 events