nova terra special on the eu supported project ‘connected cities’ / june 2006
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Special Edition
connected cities: the sequeL discovering a neglected backyard ‘free’ public transport accessibility for all – eliminating barriers across europe paratransit systems supporting sustainable urban planning and development: three approaches the mobilien high-performance bus network
Nova Terra Special on the EU supported project
Content
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‘Connected Cities’, June 2006. http://connectedcities.net Publisher
Nirov, The Hague, The Netherlands (www.nirov.nl)
Editorial Board
Jan Hein Boersma Evelien Brandes Yttje Feddes
Huib Haccou
Frank van der Hoeven (issue editor)
Derek Middleton (English editing)
Michiel Smit (editor in chief) Josja van der Veer
Athanasios Ziliaskopoulos (guest editor)
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by the European Union
A case study for the Mount Pelion region in Greece
3
18
connected cities: the sequel discovering a neglected backyard
4
Berry de Jong and Frank van der Hoeven
9
‘free’ public transport
initiative
Ziliaskopoulos
supporting sustainable urban planning and development: three approaches
23
Robin Seijdel, Pieter Bots. and Anne Dullemond
accessibility for all – eliminating barriers across europe
the mobilien high-performance bus network
Thomas Wagener and Stefan van der Spek
magazine is a Habiforum
paratransit systems
Christine Mastrogiannidou, George Kozanidis and Athanasios
Michel van Hulten
14
The regular Nova Terra
,M
Editorial
Frank van der Hoeven
Project part-financed
D58!IP
Cover photo: Ellen Houtman, The Hague, The Netherlands
31
Sophie Labbouz, Youssef Diab and Michel Christen
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 3
Connected cities: the sequel Frank van der Hoeven, TU Delft/ Faculty of Architecture, Lead Partner Connected Cities At the time of writing we are well into the second
urban projects, no plans for urban transformations
semester of the EU Interreg IIIC Connected Cities
centred on the station. And the station itself does not
project. In each semester the major events take place in
reflect such ambition. Transport development is
a new location. This time we will be at Mount Pelion,
nowhere to be seen at what we would expect to be the
east of Volos in central Greece. The topics and issues
main public transport hub in the country. Before starting
shift as well. The first semester focused on Dutch
a delicate discussion on what stations to prioritise in
practices. As lead partner, we invited experts from the
Zuid-Holland, we could have started by explaining the
province of Zuid-Holland to organise a showcase
main idea of the Stedenbaan project from the very
workshop. They organised activities in which the other
beginning. But we should not refrain from exchanging
partners were invited to learn from and contribute to
our ideas because of the tectonic differences that may
their own policies and design tasks for linking
exist between our cities. These hiccups are bound to
sustainable mobility and urban (or rural) development
happen and might just be part of the learning process.
within a complex urban network. What Zuid-Holland demonstrated was the Stedenbaan project. Its aim is to
In this Nova Terra special edition we report back on
concentrate much of the new housing demand in close
some of the showcases and lectures held in Brussels.
proximity to existing and new train stations in the
Berry de Jong reflects on Eindhoven’s backyard,
province, closely matching the Transport Development
discovered through our Connected Cities project.
Area (TDA) philosophy advocated by the Royal Institution
Michel van Hulten advocates the benefits of the Flemish
of Chartered Surveyors. Our colleagues at the provincial
practice of ‘free’ public transport, which began in
council wanted to discuss which station areas they
Eindhoven’s backyard. Thomas Wagener addresses
should prioritise in the development of the network.
another obstacle to users of public transport: physical barriers. Christine Mastrogiannidou looks ahead to one
It was only when I travelled for the first time to Volos
of the showcase workshops in Greece with her article on
that I became fully aware of the complexity of that task.
paratransit. She addresses the social dimension of
Of course I was somewhat worried that it would not be
sustainable mobility. How can we prevent social
easy to grasp the difference between station areas in
exclusion caused by inadequate transport opportunities?
Leiden, The Hague, Delft, Rotterdam and Dordrecht.
Robin Seijdel discusses various ways to support
And it could prove even more difficult to say we should
sustainable urban planning and development. His tools
prefer a station area in Capelle aan den IJssel over one in
will be deployed in Magnesia’s harbour workshop.
Zoetermeer. Moreover, the representatives of the
Finally, Sophie Labbouz reports on one of the largest Bus
European New Town Platform might have an opinion –
Rapid Transit projects in Europe today, le Mobilien.
after all, Capelle and Zoetermeer are two members of their organisation. But for someone who has just arrived from Patras in Greece? Yes, we expected that the local context would be confusing. So I stood for the first time at Athens central station (Larissa Station), ready to take the next intercity to Larissa. Athens is a city of four million inhabitants, but Larissa Station is equal in size and number of train services to Delft in Zuid-Holland, a town of less than 100,000 inhabitants. Near Larissa Station there are no
Z
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 4
Discovering a neglected backyard
Location of SRE in The Netherlands.
Eindhoven has always kept its eyes on Randstad Holland, content to be a Dutch ‘brainport’. But in an era of open borders the region now
looks to Leuven (Belgium) and Aachen (Germany) for greater critical mass to compete on a European scale. For too long Eindhoven has ignored its ‘backyard’: the Belgian province of Limburg. Berry de Jong, SRE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands Frank van der Hoeven, TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture, The Netherlands + Connected Cities Illustrations: Frank van der Hoeven (unless indicated otherwise)
The Eindhoven region (700,000 inhabitants)
Forty per cent of private R&D investment in
the eindhoven-leuven-aachen triangle
is a major high-technology cluster. This
the Netherlands finds its way into the region.
(elat)
position is recognised in Dutch economic,
More recently, SRE has been working in the
innovation and planning policies with
The 21 municipal councils in the Eindhoven
Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen Technology
designations like ‘Brainport Eindhoven’ and
region collaborate in the Eindhoven Regional
Triangle (ELAT) with Leuven and Aachen.
‘Top Technology Region’. The region is a
Partnership (SRE) to promote their common
Their proximity on a European scale gives the
‘technology and innovation hotspot’ with
interests. The SRE coordinates local
cities the additional mass they need to act as
strongly developed R&D activities. It has the
government activities in the field of spatial
a single region. The main goal of the ELAT
highest patent density in Europe and a top
planning, traffic and transport, housing, the
project is to develop and implement a joint
quality knowledge infrastructure. The
environment, recreation and tourism,
innovation strategy for the technology
leading regional clusters of mechatronics,
education, health, culture and social and
triangle, using ICT to tie in knowledge
automotive, medical and information
economic policy. The purpose is to bring
institutes, businesses and public authorities.
technology have prospered, while new
about balanced development across the
The strategy is to make the ELAT an
technologies such as embedded systems,
region. But to compete on European and
internationally recognised top region for
nanotechnology and life sciences are
global levels the region needs to create
technology and improve the economic
evolving alongside a dynamic cluster of
economies of scale and scope. If Eindhoven
climate. Transnational cooperation between
design, business development, education
collaborates with other regions it can create
Eindhoven, Leuven and Aachen means a
and creative industries. It is due to the
a critical mass in research, development and
larger knowledge base, a wider urban scale
Eindhoven region that Noord-Brabant is the
innovation.
and greater urban diversity. Because
only Dutch province to meet the EU goal of
specialised companies in the knowledge
spending at least 3.0% of gross domestic
economy need to cooperate to develop new
product (GDP) on research and development.
products, services, techniques and concepts,
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 5
5NIVERSITY ,EADINGßTECHNOLOGYßINSTITUTE 2ESEARCHßCAMPUS ,EADINGßTECHNOLOGYßCOMPANY 3PARTACUSßREGIOTRAM (IGHßSPEEDßTRAIN 2EGIONALßAIRPORT
ELAT placed between the Regions of Excellence taking part in the EU sponsored PAXIS programme (Pilot Action of Excellence on Innovative Start-ups).
ELAT (including Liège): the regional distribution of high-tech industry, knowledge institutes and major infrastructure.
The ELAT-project is still driven exclusively by economic initiatives, but it raises questions about the wider benefits of cross-border development direct contacts are needed for the exchange
national borders hampered the development
diamond shaped region includes the
of tacit knowledge. This network economy
of these regions, now the open borders and
Eindhoven area (SRE), the Leuven area
and acts more and more like an ecosystem
new economics offer opportunities for the
(eastern part of Flemish Brabant), the
and ELAT offers the opportunity for its
economic growth and spatial development of
Belgian province of Limburg, the Maastricht-
further development.
Eindhoven, Leuven and Aachen. But renewed
Aachen area and the Liège urban region.
regional growth will not automatically mould The relatively young ELAT project is still
these three regions into a single new urban
There is even a historic precedent for
driven exclusively by economic initiatives,
network. They need to strengthen their real-
including Liège in such a scheme. Between
but it raises questions about the wider
world ties as well.
1866 and the Second World War a direct rail link between Eindhoven and Liège did exist,
benefits of cross-border development. The regions of Eindhoven, Aachen and Leuven
connected cities
providing direct connections between
have always looked away from each other.
Making these physical links is the aim of the
Amsterdam and Liège three times a day.
The Eindhoven region has strong economic
Connected Cities project launched by the
It was shut down gradually during the
relations with the nearby Dutch city regions
SRE. The idea is to create a sustainable
second half of the century. Although the rails
of Tilburg, ’s-Hertogenbosch and Breda, and
connection between Eindhoven and Hasselt,
have gone, the routes are still there. Recently
with the Randstad (Amsterdam, The Hague,
the capital of the Belgian province of
they have re-emerged as key components in
Utrecht and Rotterdam). The Aachen region
Limburg. Hasselt lies in the very heart of
the Spartacus plan by the Belgian transport
traditionally looks to the Rhine-Ruhr area,
Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen Triangle and
authority De Lijn, an ambitious new plan to
and the Leuven region has links with the
could become an important public transport
improve the quality of public transport in the
Flemish Diamond (Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent).
hub connecting these cities. Liège cannot be
province of Limburg.
Their traditional ‘backyard’ is relatively
excluded from this transport network, as a
underdeveloped. Whereas in the past, the
single look at the map confirms. The resulting
Y
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 6
The Spartacus regiotram lines extended into the Eindhoven region an Noord-Limburg (Lommel).
Linking public transport networks is just a small first step, but it could be a breakthrough in the cross-border thinking that Europe is all about more than eight times as many. Hasselt became a model for many other towns throughout Belgium. The ‘free’ public transport initiative was the brainchild of Hasselt’s mayor Steve Stevaert, who went on to become Flemish Minister of Mobility and Spatial Planning and in 2005 regional spartacus regional transport initiative
network in Limburg. And it is no academic
governor of Limburg. Public transport in
Like many other European regions Limburg
exercise, or one of those mobility plans that
Limburg clearly has solid political backing.
possesses a rudimentary rail network, which
regions love to develop but fail to realise.
In the case of Spartacus there is also a sense
provides connections to the cities of Antwerp,
The Spartacus plan rests on solid ground: it is
of urgency. The regional and national public
Brussels and Liège. These connections are
explicitly mentioned in the Flemish coalition
transport services in the province are in a
relatively slow and infrequent and make a
agreement and the necessary funds have
poor state and it is widely acknowledged
very modest contribution to the modal split.
been secured.
that something has to be done. It helps that Spartacus is not a mega project absorbing
There are no connections with the neighbouring Dutch provinces Limburg and
At first glance Limburg might seem an odd
billions of euros, but requires a rather
Noord-Brabant (Maastricht, Eindhoven).
place for innovations in public transport.
modest investment in the infrastructure
The Belgian province of Limburg (800,000
of between 150 and 200 million euros.
In recent years De Lijn Limburg has pursued a
inhabitants) lacks most of the ‘urban’
An additional 10 million euros per year are
successful strategy for attracting new
characteristics experts would consider
needed to operate the network.
passengers. They have made deals with the
necessary for developing a successful public
local authorities in several towns and cities
transport network. The urban area is very
The Spartacus plan proposes a network of
to provide ‘free’ public transport for all their
dispersed and densities rather low. But in
improved rail links with the larger cities in
inhabitants or selected target groups. Local
1997 the regional capital Hasselt launched a
Belgium, supported by regional light rail and
bus lines in particular have been used more
unique experiment with ‘free’ public
regional connections. Public transport hubs
intensively. But it has not stimulated the use
transport. It resulted in a significant increase
tie this network together. In essence,
of public transport over longer distances.
in the use of local buses. Whereas in January
Spartacus consists of four main components:
This is what the Spartacus plan sets out to
1997 only 32,000 passengers used the bus in
1
achieve. It involves no less than a
Limburg’s capital, in January 1998 the
connections with Brussels, Antwerp, Liège
restructuring of the entire public transport
number of passengers had risen to 269,000,
and Leuven. Frequent and direct services
De Lijn plans to upgrade existing rail
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 7
High Tech Campus Eindhoven, in future serviced by Spartacus? (source: High Tech Campus Eindhoven)
will eliminate the need to transfer and cut
bridge the remaining half. The Connected
between Limburg (the neglected
travel time significantly.
Cities network organised several expert
backyard) and the ELAT cities.
2 Spartacus proposes the introduction of
meetings and workshops on this task, which
2 The scales of operation have to be
regional light rail, or regiotram. Most of
generated a step-by-step approach that
determined. Initial studies show that the
these regiotram connections use railway
offers a ‘once in a lifetime opportunity’ to
travel time between Eindhoven and
lines that were closed during the second
make an adequate response that bridges the
Hasselt can be kept close to 60 minutes.
half of the twentieth century. Large
gap. The SRE would have to determine with
In that case the link can serve all
stretches of these routes are now used as
De Lijn Limburg how the link between
necessary scales: inter-regional, regional
cycle paths. The Limburg regional plan
Eindhoven and Hasselt affects the position
and intra-regional. Although this seems
identified such routes as lines that can be
of the Noord Limburg public transport hub.
contrary to generally accepted wisdom, in
converted back to rail with only relatively
The advanced public transport system
this case public transport services on all
light investment. Three regiotram lines
developed for the Eindhoven region over the
scales are lacking in this border area and
connecting Maastricht, Maasmechelen
last ten years is not a regiotram, as in Belgian
introducing one system will provide a
and Noord Limburg are proposed. The
Limburg, but the Phileas Bus Rapid Transit
significant improvement on all scales.
Noord Limburg line includes the option to
system, which uses dedicated traffic lanes
A link that bridges the distance between
reach into the Eindhoven region.
and futuristic vehicles. Somehow these
Eindhoven and Hasselt in 60 minutes will
systems, regiotram and Phileas, have to be
provide reduced travel times on long and
knitted together.
short journeys. It will improve the
3 Where passenger volume is modest, regional bus lines are proposed.
connection Eindhoven-Brussels, Hasselt-
Significant reductions in travel time are connecting elat
Amsterdam, Eindhoven-Leuven, Eindhoven-
All in all these are not easy questions to
Hasselt, Eindhoven-Noord Limburg, and
development of a number of public
answer. The steps to be taken in this process
even Eindhoven-Valkenswaard.
transport hubs where all these systems
are nevertheless straightforward:
meet and connect, including Hasselt,
1
foreseen. 4 Finally, the Spartacus plan includes the
3 The desirable and possible connections
SRE needs a vision that provides a context
should be determined. Working with a
for the sustainable link between
trunk line with branches offers a flexible
Eindhoven and Hasselt. The Eindhoven-
solution that fits the Limburg context.
For the time being Spartacus will reach into
Leuven-Aachen Triangle (Liège included)
This trunk line runs straight from
Noord Limburg, covering more than half the
can provide just that. The Eindhoven-
Eindhoven to Hasselt, with as few detours
distance between Hasselt and Eindhoven.
Hasselt link should be instrumental in
as possible to keep travel time close to
The question is whether Eindhoven can
strengthening the real world ties
60 minutes. The trunk can branch off in
Genk, Maasmechelen and Noord Limburg.
Y
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 8
Masterplan for Lommel, set to accommodate
40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. (source: gemeente Lommel, Belgium)
Somehow these systems, regiotram and Phileas, have to be knitted together Stedelijke drager Woonkern Woondorp Woonpark Woonlint Stedelijke open ruimte Te reserveren woonuitbreidingsgebied Erkende woninggroep Te verwijderen woninggroep Te verdichten knooppunt / centrumgebied Suggestie tot selectie van heide-heuvel als één woonkern Suggestie tot selectie als woonkern Uit te rusten regionaal bedrijventerrein Bouwrijp bedrijventerrein Bestaande industriezone KMO-zone (na gebruik te herbestemmen) (Toekomstig) Zandontginning Reservegebied grootschalige stedelijke ontwikkeling Stedelijke boulevard Kernwinkelgebied
Zoekzone overslagactiviteiten Station Suggestie toplocatie kleinhandel Zone voor specifieke voorzieningen Gebied met overwegend natuurfunctie Grootschalig bos-, natuur- of heiecomplex Toeristisch-recreatieve voorziening Toeristisch-recreatieve voorziening in groen kader Zoekzone uitbreiding toeristisch-recreatieve voorziening Beekvallei Open ruimte-verbinding Natuurverbinding Bufferstrook Primaire weg I Secundaire weg II (suggestie) Secundaire weg III (suggestie) Tracé n769 in onderzoek Lokale weg I Lokale weg II
Noord Limburg towards Lommel, a city
focus on the possibility of these systems
step towards a network that strengthens the
that is expanding to 40 – 50,000
sharing one and the same track between
real world ties between Eindhoven, Aachen,
inhabitants.
Eindhoven and Noord Limburg (Lommel).
Leuven and Liège and their central backyard.
4 Locating the Noord Limburg transport
Both regiotram and Phileas use guided
Linking public transport networks is just a
hub and related urban development
vehicles. If regiotram and Phileas can be
small first step, but it could be a
requires careful consideration in
combined, it would make ELAT the first
breakthrough in the cross border thinking
weighing up the different alternatives.
testing ground in the world for comparing
that Europe is all about.
This will take some time. From the
Bus Rapid Transit with Light Rail on a one
perspective of ELAT the capacity of the
to one basis. The results may surprise us.
hub to provide space for the next university, technology institute, research
real world ties
campus or technology cluster should be
Arriving from two rather different
examined.
backgrounds, the Dutch region of Eindhoven
5 The overall routing of the line is in part
and the Belgian province of Limburg are
pre-determined by the existing and past
looking for ways to connect to each others
rail infrastructure.
region’s by advanced public transport.
6 The final choice of system (regiotram or Phileas) is a tricky one. Further work could
Establishing a sustainable link between Eindhoven and Hasselt could become a first
Z
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 9
‘Free’ Public Transport Michel van Hulten
Many governments are willing to invest hundreds of millions or even billions of euros to improve public transport systems. But they usually fail to ensure that capacity is used to the full. One answer is to change how we pay for public transport.
Forty years ago, the Dutch used 100 m2 of
urbanised space per person. Now this is 400 m2.
Theoretical this means that the average distance from person to person has grown from 10 to 20 meters. It has doubled. This is the basic explanation for our growing mobility. The average person uses more space and the distances between destinations are growing. The expansion of urbanised space is caused not so much by our growing population, but to a greater degree by our increasing wealth. Richer people have bigger houses and gardens, greater assets and more cars. A reliable expectation is that our wealth and income will grow by an additional 45 per cent over the next thirty years. As people become richer, commuting and other journeys become relatively cheaper, while the average commuting time remains relatively constant. Now able to travel longer distances to work, people look for places to live, work and spend leisure time at ever more distant locations. Culture is changing too. The number of single households is growing. More people of foreign descent and more women are driving instead of using public transport. Travel patterns are becoming more criss-cross, reflecting the rise in multiple purpose journeys for work, childcare, shopping and recreation, for which cars are extremely well suited. Moreover, people continue to use their cars as they get older as long they feel healthy and fit enough. The attractions of the Illustration: Wendy Ramaekers, Maastricht, The Netherlands
private car are obvious.
Y
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 10
Private and public payments for transport in the Netherlands
to between 1.5 and 2.8 times present levels in 2030, possibly more if
amount to about € 25 billion (not counting freight transport, which
the trend towards fewer passengers per car continues. Car occupancy
accounts for an additional € 15 billion). Just a small fraction of this,
rates went down from 1.71 per car in 1985 to 1.57 in 2002. In the same
between € 4 and € 5 billion per year, is for public transport. Most car
period the number of vehicle-kilometres rose by 47 per cent from
drivers think that the state takes more from them than they receive
62.7 to 91.9 billion. This would not have been a problem, had the
in the form of roads and services. But just to park all our cars costs
available road length per car not gone down, and continues to fall.
national, provincial and municipal government € 5.5 billion each year
At its present level, if all the cars in the country were on the roads at
(excluding parking costs on private land or privately owned garages).
the same time, traffic everywhere would grind to a halt. Luckily, on
In return, car users pay the authorities about € 1 billion in parking
average the Dutch drive only about 16,000 km per year. Even at a
fees and parking tickets. On average each car owner receives a
low average speed of 50 km/hr, this is less than one hour a day.
public subsidy of some € 600, double the amount we pay as a subsidy for the whole of the public transport system. This is rarely
The road length available per car is diminishing year after year.
mentioned when politicians and transport researchers discuss the
In 1993 each car could claim 17.47 m of road. In 2002 this had shrunk
subsidies (around 60 per cent of costs) paid to public transport by
to 15.25, despite the construction in this period of 12.599 km of
the state.
roads. To have maintained this 17.47 m per car, an additional 17,089
On average each car owner receives a public subsidy of some € 600, double the amount we pay as a subsidy for the whole of the public transport system
km or roads would have been necessary, or 1,700 km each year, at a cost of at least € 4 million/km. Annual costs would have risen by an additional € 6.8 billion, if not more. None of the political parties in Parliament, not to mention the Government, has been or is inclined to do this. This picture is familiar to all who live and work in circumstances that resemble those in the Netherlands. A rising population, increasing wealth, changing habits, greater use of private cars, more daily trips and multipurpose journeys of ever increasing length, and a road network that provides a decreasing amount of space per car. On top of all this, costs per vehicle-kilometre are falling in relation to the passenger-prices per kilometre by public transport and growing personal incomes. The pattern is familiar to anyone from any urbanised area in the Western world. Car parks and roads everywhere are overcrowded, while many public transport services run with empty vehicles, the logical precursor to the closure of lines
grim future
and stops. We need a way to reverse this trend.
If we look at the mobility and urbanisation problems in the Netherlands, we face a grim future. The 16 million people in the Netherlands use in total 6,400
km 2
of urbanised space (including all
infrastructure) out of a national territory of 36,000 km 2. The rest is
agricultural land, forest and water. We have 200 cars per km2,
the road pricing stick The most drastic remedy is to stop funding public transport and spend the money on road widening schemes and the construction of new roads and car parks. This would satisfy the continuing call by
or 7 million cars in total (not counting the million lorries). In 2000,
politicians (in response to public demand) to build more roads to
the Dutch had 423 private cars per 1,000 inhabitants, far less than
solve the problem of the diminishing road length per car. The latest
the 785 in the USA, which passed 423 in 1970. The picture from
proposed remedy is road pricing. In essence, the aim is to make room
America backs up the forecasted rise in the number of cars in the
on the roads for those who need to drive and can afford to pay.
Netherlands to 630 per 1,000 inhabitants in about 20 years from
It would force others (including those with similar needs) who are
now. With a population growing to 17 to 18 million in 2030/40, this
less inclined – or less able to pay – to use other roads, or travel at
will mean more than 300 cars per km2, with less than 3.500 m2 of
different times or to other destinations.
the national territory available for each car. Few can imagine what it will be like, in less than 25 years time, to have three cars parked or
Road pricing sounds like a healthy economic proposition. The price
driving for every two now.
put on the use of roads and car parks can be increased to the level at which the demand for space balances the supply of space.
Given these expected numbers of people and cars in the near future,
Free market competition will do the rest. Raising the price of using
it is no wonder that reliable sources predict road traffic to increase
private cars will be more effective in limiting the use of cars than
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 11
Perception costs disappear... (photo: Justin Jin/ HH)
Relative development of public transport in the Netherlands and Flanders. 1997=100. (source: Frank van der Hoeven, TU Delft)
any other measure and will end congestion. Those who can pay,
Other people, particular in heavy urbanised areas, will view the
or who can make the tax office pay, or their employer, will be the
rising density of cars and conclude that the car is no longer a useful
private car drivers of the future.
mode of transport. A second quarter of Dutch households have a car available, but it leaves in the morning when (in most cases) father
Whether this is the best choice for society, is another question.
goes to work. Mother stays at home with the children.
Road-pricing is a good economic proposition for all those who have the free choice to satisfy their individual mobility needs, either by
This combined half of the population depend on public transport for
walking, bicycle or private car, or by taking the bus, tram, metro or
all trips that cannot be made on foot or by bicycle. Unless we want
train. But not everybody has that choice. It is not a healthy
to isolate these people and exclude them from public life, we cannot
proposition for those who, for a wide variety of reasons, cannot
choose the most drastic remedy of dismantling all public transport.
make that choice between private or collective transport. Between 7 am and 7 pm this is true for about half the population in our type
Moreover, the total disappearance from our streets of all public
of urbanised areas.
vehicles would not save enough money to finance all the additional roads we would have to build. Assuming that mobility needs would
transport poverty Dutch national statistics show that for years about a quarter of all households have had no car at their disposal, 22 per cent because they are too poor and 3 per cent because they are very
remain the same, the result would be rising congestion on the roads, which is in nobody’s interest. Neither would it help us to lower ambient concentrations of CO 2 and particulates to meet our obligations under international treaties. Buses have a bad
environmentally conscious and do not want to use a private car.
reputation for pollution, but this is not justified by comparative
With a fast growing elderly population, we can expect that in the
emission data per person per kilometre, which clearly show that
near future more and more people will rely on public transport
even the cleanest car is more polluting than airplanes, buses and
because they are no longer physically or financially able to drive.
trains (in descending order) at ‘normal’ occupancy rates. The total
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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 12
The Belgian model takes an opposite approach: not the stick, but a carrot.
Vertical v horizontal. Why do lifts and escalators in buildings offer ‘free’ vertical traffic (paid for collectively), whereas we have to pay individually for horizontal trips between buildings by public transport? (Photo: Cote Maison / Hollandse Hoogte)
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 13
To be successful, ‘free’ public transport must be backed by additional measures surface area covered by traffic infrastructure would also expand,
social and economic policy
which is not exactly in line with our endeavours to save the
Discussions on ‘free’ public transport tend to treat this topic as a
environment. The number of traffic accidents would most probably
traffic issue. In my view it is social and economic policy. It is social
rise, with more dead and wounded.
policy because as it helps to prevent social isolation of the elderly and the handicapped, and it redistributes income and the costs of
the carrot – collectively paid transport Recent Belgian experience shows that another approach is likely
living. Under Belgian progressive income taxes (as in most other countries) ‘the rich’ pay relatively more into the public purse, from
to be less expensive and more effective: ‘free’ public transport on
which ‘free’ public transport is paid, and make less use of that
local and regional busses, trams and metro. First introduced in 1997
privilege; ‘the poor’ pay less and use it more. Free choice of transport
in Hasselt and in Brussels in 2002, it was extended the same year
mode is not harmed, as those who are willing and able to pay can
throughout Belgium for the elderly (65+), the recognised handicapped
still use their private car. There will even be fewer cars on the road,
and the under sixes. Their travel is paid for by regional government.
as others use public transport instead.
Any other contracting party, such as a municipality or a company, can make similar agreements with the public transport companies.
It is economic policy because it fills up the empty seats in previously
The Postal Service, Belgacom and the Federal Government have
empty buses and trams, for which all the operational and
already made such agreements for their staff, sometimes including
environmental costs have been made. Moreover, perception costs
their partners. The Flemish Government paid € 15 million for the first
disappear (normally between 10 and 15 per cent of the income
year of ‘free’ public transport in 2001 for the 1 million elderly.
collected from ticketing the passengers) and the very expensive
The Federal Government agreed to pay € 79 million each year for its
public transport infrastructure is more heavily used. Making the
65,000 employees (including railway workers), beginning in late
Brussels metro ‘free’ for the elderly was a very welcome input into
2004. Some private companies (the minister recently mentioned
the economy of the urban core, which received many more
‘1100 companies’) have already followed this example, including the
(spending) visitors. As vehicles fill up, more are brought into
offer of ‘free’ public transport in labour contracts with their staff.
operation, which in turn improves the public service and makes
The companies pay 80 per cent, the government 20 per cent.
public transport more attractive for new paying passengers.
About 100 of the 300 Flemish municipalities have reached
To be successful, ‘free’ public transport must be backed by additional
agreements with the regional public transport company ‘De Lijn’
measures such as restrictions on parking in central and inner city
covering additional segments of their populations.
areas, more and better bicycle paths, pavements and pedestrian
Young people aged 12 to 24 enjoy cheap annual season tickets for
areas, car-restricted areas in inner cities, timeslots for cars entering
local and regional lines, which have become highly popular. Belgian
the city, and probably a special regime for deliveries to shops,
Railways is not included in the ‘free’ public transport programme,
studios and workshops.
but for the elderly (including foreigners) any return fare after 09.00 am costs only € 4 in second class.
The tighter the city and the busier its streets, the more we need ‘free’ public transport to ensure the city remains accessible to
The Belgian model takes an opposite approach to pricing transport:
everyone. It can accommodate the numbers of people essential for
not raising the cost of using private cars, but reducing the price of
city life and keep traffic flowing between destinations in the city,
public transport. Not the stick, but a carrot. The results are
which is basic to all exchange of people, ideas and goods. We need it
miraculous. In the five Flemish provinces with 6 million inhabitants
to prevent cars clogging up the city. ‘Free’ public transport is
offering free local and regional transport to all seniors, handicapped
urbanism.
and young children, the number of users grew from 260 million trips in 2001 to 360 million in 2003 and 518 million in 2005. Further growth is expected.
Website –
www.gratisopenbaarvervoer.nl
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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 14
Accessibility for all – eliminating barriers across Europe
(photo: MVV/München)
Ten years ago the European Union launched a campaign for barrier-free transport to meet the needs and rights of people with disabilities. But we can all benefit from barrier-free transport. The key lies in integrating architectural, planning and transport measures throughout the mobility chain. Thomas Wagener, STUVA – Research Association for Underground Transportation Facilities, Cologne, Germany Stefan van der Spek, Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Netherlands Photos: Stefan van der Spek (unless indicated otherwise) By 2020 there will be twice as many people in Europe over 65 than in
3 Governments must ensure accessibility.
the 1960s, and a significant and growing proportion of Europe’s
4 Accessibility principles must be followed when planning,
ageing population are disabled. In response to this trend, in 1995,
designing and building infrastructure and vehicles. These require
the European Union launched a programme for achieving better
full accessibility to approved standards or recognised best
accessibility of regional, rail, air, and water transportation. This was
practices, with approval by experts, minimum accessibility
followed in 2000 by the European Commission communication
requirements for wheelchairs, features for people with walking
Towards a Barrier Free Europe for people with
disabilities, 1
which
covers spatial, environmental, economic, social and cultural aspects
difficulties, and facilities to assist the blind, deaf or hearing impaired people.
of accessibility. It gives four rules for access to transport services: In 2003 a Group of Experts appointed by the European Commission 1
Everyone must have an opportunity to live independently: public
published the report 2010: A Europe Accessible for All,2 in which they
buildings, the transport system and infrastructure must be
defined accessibility in a wider perspective. Accessibility is of
barrier free. 2 New infrastructure must accommodate the needs of people with
concern to everyone, not only for a minority with physical disabilities. Accessibility should be dealt with in a global and integrated way.
disabilities. Transport equipment and infrastructure can have an
It should not be the domain of building or transport experts alone,
extremely long lifetime and so it is essential that it meets the
but should be achieved by coordination of all the actors involved.
needs of disabled people. This will benefit everyone.
They also argue that accessibility policies can only be designed and
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 15
implemented with the participation of the people and representative NGOs. Moreover, accessibility is a key part of sustainable development
designing accessibility for all Accessibility for all is about creating barrier-free mobility chains
because it enhances the quality of life and makes the environment
from door to door and implies more than just customised
more liveable.
engineering solutions. It takes a holistic approach that integrates
European Commission: ‘Governments must ensure accessibility’
town planning, architectural and transport engineering measures, as well as product and process design. Special design solutions or addons for specific user groups only make situations complex and divide social groups; design features should have wider uses and raise the standard for everyone. The disabled people’s access to the Rotterdam metro is an example if how not to do it. Disabled access is by lift, but this is not a realistic option because the lift is unsafe and used as a toilet. Moreover, it takes only one wheelchair; bicycles are permitted, but do not fit.
barrier-free mobility There are three major types of barriers to access and mobility:
The kind of problems people encounter daily depends on the type of
social barriers, psychological barriers and structural barriers.3
mobility restriction they have. The needs and problems of different
According to the European Group of Experts these barriers are found
users or user groups coincide or clash in many key areas.
in buildings, the space between and around buildings, and in the
Understandably, the design criteria also differ. Although objectives
‘virtual environment’. In this context, freedom from barriers means:
seem to conflict, for example ensuring optimal seating capacity
1
eliminating obstacles in the built environment and enabling
while providing sufficient space for wheelchair users and prams,
access to public transport,
resolving such conflicts can create opportunities, in this case greater
2 eliminating obstacles within vehicles, enabling easy boarding and
flexibility in use and extra standing space, thus increasing capacity. It is important to find solutions which benefit as many people as
alighting, and 3 making information and communication services suitable for use
possible.
Y
by all. Mobility requirements are not limited to the activities for meeting basic needs such as work, education, medical care and so on, but also to a broader range of activities in the spheres of social life and shopping, sports and leisure, education or voluntary work. Unimpeded access is a vital factor in personal development. And because mobility is a basic human need, it should be possible for everyone.
The 'Zuidtangent' bus service between Haarlem, Schiphol Airport and Amsterdam (Netherlands): level access.
What is mobility restriction? Disabled and mobility-restricted people
physically disabled people, for example
restricted in certain situations only.
have widely differing capabilities and
who have difficulty walking, standing or
This group consists of the elderly and
experience a wide range of difficulties
using their hands, have disabilities of the
the infirm, children, expectant mothers,
when using conventional public transport
upper body or a small stature, people
people who are recovering from an
facilities, modes of transport and
with speech impediments, and people
accident, illness or post-operative
information and services.
who are blind, visually impaired, deaf, or
ailments, and people with prams or
hearing impaired.
travelling with heavy or unwieldy luggage. The EU recognises these groups,
In the narrow sense, mobility-restricted people are those whose mobility is
In the broader sense, some mobility-
except for the people travelling with
severely restricted due to permanent
restricted people may be temporarily
heavy or unwieldy luggage.
handicap or acute illness. These include:
affected or hampered, or their mobility is
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 16
good practices Essentially, barrier-free public transport boils down to the
The problem with technical solutions is that they are not holistic. Kneeling buses, wheelchair lifts and ramps are expensive, liable to
elimination of barriers in the built environment. A whole range of
breakdown and maintenance intensive. There are several examples
measures can be taken to eliminate obstacles under the headings
of good practices that get around such problems. In Paris the
‘infrastructure’, ‘vehicles’ and ‘information and services’:
sidewalks are not adjusted, but a dip in the road at the stop ensures
–
–
–
Infrastructure measures include creating suitable areas around
the bus entrance is level with the pavement. This is likely to be more
stops, for example with broad pavements, dropped kerbs, safe
sustainable because there are no mechanical parts and no ramps for
pedestrian crossings and signposting, sufficient dimensioning of
pedestrians. In Heilbron the S-Bahn runs through the city, where the
movement spaces and services, and aids to overcome height
higher platforms are broad and have long ramps for easy access by
differences, such as fixed stairs, ramps, escalators, lifts or moving
mobility-restricted people. In Lyon and Strasbourg the tramway
walkways.
infrastructure and low-floor vehicles were designed to create a
Vehicles can be altered to improve accessibility. Measures include
recognisable and easily accessible transport system. This can be
sufficient dimensioning of the vehicle doors and the interior,
applied to bus systems as well. The stops of the Zuidtangent, a
placing devices for passenger safety, such as grips, bars and
dedicated bus service between Haarlem and Amsterdam South-East
barriers, matching vehicle and platform levels, and providing
via Schiphol, have level access, with small gaps between the vehicle
boarding aids.
and the platform – but the legibility of the information and the
Information, communication and service systems can be made
comfort of the shelter leave much to be desired.
suitable for all by making sure that service points are accessible
When eliminating barriers and problems associated with using
and within easy reach and their interior dimensions are adequate,
public transport, planners and operators must constantly have the
and by providing information at stops and in the vehicle, such as
needs of mobility-restricted persons in mind. Expanding the circle of
information displays and timetables, external and on-board
potential customers not only makes good economic sense, but also
displays, announcements, other information elements and
raises awareness and acceptance of measures designed to improve
orientation aids. Ticket machines should be reachable and easy
access for the disabled. Measures of this kind serve to foster and
to service.
accelerate the social integration of the disabled and can also lead to an improvement in quality for everyone.
Low-floor tram in Lyon. (photo: Alstom, France)
Low-floor tram in Rotterdam. (photo: Frank van der Hoeven)
Why not use private or semi-private alternatives for the feeder parts of the chain?
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 17
scale
The mobility chain offers new perspectives as well. If it is not possible
The measures and means at our disposal must be used at the right
to offer barrier-free door-to-door chains using public transport, why
scale. For example, even if all city buses were technically adapted for
not use private or semi-private alternatives for the feeder parts of
wheelchair access, there is no guarantee that the specific needs of
the chain? This could be cheaper, more reliable and more efficient for
these passengers will always be met because specially equipped
both the traveller and transport company. EU involvement could
buses alone will not
do. 5
General public transport services are not
reliable enough, and it would make more sense to use dedicated
promote the exchange of good and bad practices for the trunk and feeder lines.
transport companies which meet the needs of mobility-restricted persons. On the other hand, investments in low-floor trams, as in Rotterdam, Dresden, Lyon or Strasbourg, can benefit everyone. The
Notes
level entrance and broader doors give unimpeded access to all.
1
European Commission, Towards a barrier free Europe
Trams in most other cities are not accessible to wheelchairs at all.
2
European Commission Group of Experts, 2010:
3
Venter C., Savill T., Rickert T. and others, Enhanced
for people with disabilities, COMM (2000) 284 final.
Their floors are more than half a meter above the pavement and the small doors are difficult to negotiate for people with buggies or
A Europe Accessible for All (PDF), Brussels, 2003
shopping bags and offer no access for mobility-restricted people.
Accessibility for People with Disabilites Living in
The difficulty in the Netherlands is that almost every city, every company – or in the case of rail transport, almost every line – has its
Urban Areas (PDF), Brussels, 2003 4
Blenneman F., Girnau G., Grossmann H. and others,
own, unique vehicles. Rail vehicles in particular cannot usually be
Barrierefreirer ÖPNV in Deutschland – Barrier-free
used on other lines or in other cities, where the stops are designed
public transport in Germany, Verband Deutscher
and built to match their own vehicles. This is one area where
Verkehrsunternehmen, (VDV) ISBN 3-87094-656-3,
European legislation and best practices could guide future development towards more uniform standards and practices.
Düsseldorf, 2003 5
Kessler V., Statement on the paper rights of passengers in international bus and coach transport, Wirtschaftskammer Österreich (WKO), Vienna, 2005
References European Disability Forum, Universal Access, http://www.edf-feph.org/, 2000
Disabled Persons Transport Advisory Committee (DPTAC), Charter on Access to Transport Services and Infrastructure, http://www.dptac.gov.uk/, Annual Report, 2000
Diamantopoulou A., ‘Towards a Barrier Free Europe Low-floor tram in Strasbourg.
for People with Disabilities’, speech /02/122, press release, http://europa.eu.int/, Madrid, 2002
Bonk R., Muller-Baron I., Greater mobility in Europe – current European developments for barrier-free transportation, http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/, Stuttgart,
The question regarding European legislation is whether all forms of
1995
transport should be covered. There are real differences between local, short-distance transport and (inter)regional, long-distance transport.
European Commission of the European Communities
Air and high speed train connections are relatively infrequent and
(COM), ‘Strengthening passenger rights within the
seating capacity limited and legislation is necessary to protect
European Union’ (PDF), Brussels, 2005
passengers. In local to national rail and bus transport, frequencies are higher and seats are not reserved and the stops are each subject to local conditions. The question is whether in this case the traveller would benefit more from EU legislation or from agreements between the local authority and the local transport company.
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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 18
A case study for the Mount Pelion region in Greece
Paratransit systems
Local transport in the Mount Pelion region of Greece is hampered by the sparse road network and difficult mountain conditions. Public transport services are limited and inadequate, a major problem for both residents and visitors to this all-round tourist destination. An innovative ‘dial-a-ride’ system could be the answer. Christine Mastrogiannidou, George Kozanidis and Athanasios Ziliaskopoulos, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece Illustration: Witmor, Madrid Mount Pelion in Volos is one of the best
make the design and construction of an
The only public transport system operating
known national and international tourist
efficient road system a difficult task and the
in the area is the KTEL of Magnesia (the
destinations in Greece. The region offers
existing road network is quite sparse. These
traditional train of Pelion runs only as a
pristine mountainous forests, a ski resort for
conditions present the local authorities with
tourist attraction). Services to and from
the winter period and attractive beaches for
one of their most challenging problems: how
many villages are infrequent (see Table 1)
the summer season. However, the high
to operate the existing public transportation
because the large buses have difficulty
altitude and the steep slopes of the area
system efficiently.
negotiating the narrow mountain roads.
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 19
itineraries
departures
Volos-Agios Lavrentios Agios Lavrentios-Volos Volos-Pinakates Pinakates-Volos Volos-Agios Vlassios Agios Vlassios-Volos Volos-Milies-Vizitsa Vizitsa-Milies-Volos Volos-Zagora Zagora-Volos Zagora-Horefto Horefto-Zagora Volos-Neochori Neochori-Volos Volos-Katigiorgis Katigiorgis-Volos Volos-Platanias Volos-Portaria-Makrinitsa Makrinitsa-Portaria-Volos Volos-Agios Ioannis Agios Ioannis-Volos Volos-Afissos Afissos-Volos Volos-Kala Nera
06:00 07:00 06:00 07:00 06:00 07:15 05:45 07:00 05:15 08:45 07:45 08:15 05:15 06:55 04:15 06:30 04:30 06:15 07:00 04:45 07:00 05:15 07:00 04:00 11:00 07:30 15:30 04:00 06:45 04:30 07:30
Kala Nera-Volos Volos-Trikeri Trikeri-Volos Volos-Milina Milina-Volos
13:45 14:45 14:00 15:00 12:30 13:15 06:45 08:00 08:30 14:30 16:45 17:15 08:20 14:00 10:15 15:30 10:15 08:00 08:45 13:30 15:30 11:00 12:00 04:15 12:00 07:40 16:00 12:30 16:00 10:15 16:15
14:00 15:15 09:00 12:00 13:30 10:15 13:45 14:15 (through Hania) 17:45 (through Hania) 12:30 17:45
18:00 14:45 19:15 08:20 (through Neochori) 13:55 (through Neochori)
13:30
16:30
16:30 10:00 10:45
12:30 13:15
13:45 14:30
14:30 15:15
16:30 17:15
19:45 20:30
20:45 21:30
16:30 12:30 14:15 04:30 12:30 07:45 16:10
15:00 14:00 15:00 04:45 13:30 08:30 16:50
16:30 18:15 05:00 14:00 08:40 17:00
21:00 22:00 05:15 16:30 08:45 18:00
05:45 18:00 09:00 18:45
06:30 21:00 10:45 19:45
06:45
08:20
09:00
10:15
12:15 20:30
14:30 22:15
14:45
15:15
12:30 16:30
19:30
Table 1 Itineraries of the KTEL of Magnesia.
The lack of easy access to the villages
During the late 1970s, the concept evolved
regular taxi (40-80 euros). In Turkey the
reduces the attractiveness of the region and
into its present form as a specialised door-to-
popular dolmus, while not exactly a door-to-
creates major mobility problems both for the
door service for disabled passengers who are
door paratransit service, is more flexible than
tou rists and the permanent residents of the
unable to use conventional public transport.
the bus and more affordable than a taxi or
area. Past experience indicates that for problems like these a paratransit system can provide a useful demand responsive service. The minibuses often employed by such systems can operate more efficiently on the narrow,
How to operate the existing public transportation system efficiently?
steep roads of Mount Pelion. Travel between the villages would be easier, even for
The most commonly used vehicle is the minibus.
private car. The dolmus service can be
handicapped and elderly people, and most
Dial-a-ride systems are currently operating in
described as a privately operated minibus
journey times would be significant shorter
low density areas of the province of Bologna.
with a capacity of 12 to 14 passengers (but
than the services run by KTEL of Magnesia.
They are also used extensively in the USA,
sometimes taxis with a four-passenger
under the American with Disabilities Act
capacity) which depart as soon as they are
(ADA), and in Canada. Cyprus has a less
full (dolmus means ‘full’) and run on
organised paratransit taxi-based system,
predetermined routes with fixed stops.
door-to-door service The UK and the US were among the first countries to introduce dial-a-ride systems, in
mainly for airport service and other intercity
the early 1970s, as an element of public
trips from 50 to 100 km per trip, which offers
Many EU countries, including Finland,
transport services in low-density areas.
a cheaper alternative (10-20 euros) to a
Sweden, the Netherlands and Belgium,
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NovaTerra Connected Cities / juli 2006 / 20
The vehicle routing problem One of the most rapidly developing areas of
service provided. Each request is defined by a
delivery node are specified for each request.
mathematical programming in recent
geographic location and associated with a
Among the additional constraints that apply
decades has been transport management.
load. A time window, which defines a time
to this problem are the precedence
This stems from the importance of logistics
frame for the service of the associated
constraints, which state that each pick-up
management in the economy and the great
request, may also be specified for each
location has to be visited prior to the
complexity of the related problems. One of
location. There is a static and a dynamic
corresponding delivery location. Pairing
the most important transport management
version of the problem, depending on
constraints restrict the set of admissible
problems to attract the attention of both
whether the list of requests is fixed or if it is
routes to those in which both the pick-up
researchers and practitioners in recent years
allowed to change over time. All vehicles
and the delivery of each transportation
is the vehicle routing problem.
depart from a start depot and must arrive at
request are by the same vehicle.
a destination depot after they complete their The vehicle routing problem consists of
route.
Variants of the vehicle routing problem include several important applications:
finding a set of optimal routes for a fleet of vehicles to fulfil a set of transportation
One of the earliest vehicle routing problems
1
Bus and taxi services
requests. In general, the objective function
studied is the so-called travelling salesman
2 Fleet management for the purpose of
takes into consideration the cost of
problem. This problem involves a single
satisfying the requests, which may include a
vehicle without capacity constraints. The
3 Inventory distribution systems
fixed cost per vehicle used, and the
objective is to design the shortest possible
4 Door-to-door disabled transport
transportation cost, which depends on the
route that begins at an origin node, visits
5 Emergency rescue or repair services
time or distance travelled. Additional
each node of a given network exactly once
elements may also be incorporated in the
and returns to its origin node. In the pick-up
objective function, such as the quality of
and delivery problem, a pick-up and a
have introduced dial-a-ride systems, mainly
community transport were adopted in 2001.
Each vehicle may serve more than one person
funded by the European Commission.
More recently, this interest in flexible forms
simultaneously, as long as the number of
European experience shows that it is more
of transport has been backed up by
passengers riding on the vehicle at any time
straightforward to implement paratransit
substantial funding from the Rural and
does not exceed the capacity of the vehicle.
systems in regulated environments because
Urban Bus Challenge programmes for local
Some passengers may not be taken straight
this reduces conflict with other public
authorities to establish demand responsive
to their destination point, and the
transport modes.
transport services.
inconvenience experienced by the
The UK Government’s Transport Ten Year
the dial-a-ride problem
collecting or delivering shipments
passengers is factored into the problem as a Plan, published in 2000, pledges to remove or
Paratransit systems hinge around the
set of constraints, such as the total time or distance passengers may travel before they
at least relax constraints (e.g. route
‘dial-a-ride problem’, in which a fleet of m
arrive at their destinations, the total number
registration) on the development of flexibly
vehicles must transport n passengers. All
of nodes each passenger may visit before
routed bus services and promote a greater
vehicles depart from a start depot and must
arriving at their destination, and whether or
role for community-based services. In
return to a finish depot after they complete
not the time windows are strictly observed.
addition, research commissioned by the
their route. The start and finish depots do
(then) UK Department of the Environment,
not need to coincide. For each passenger an
Dial-a-ride systems come in many forms.
Transport and the Regions (DETR) argues that
origin and a destination location (node) are
Most try to optimise performance by
flexible public transport services provided by
specified, with a time window for each node
manipulating the restrictions arising from
local authorities and bus operators in
within which the passenger must be
the specific constraints in each case. Dial-a-
partnerships with employers, stores and
delivered or picked up. Time windows may
ride systems can therefore be classified
leisure centres would help to break down
also be defined for the start and finish
according to their flexibility: systems with
social exclusion. Similar findings were
depots. The objective is to satisfy the given
fixed routes and stops; systems that allow a
reported in Ireland in 1999. The UK Rural
requests while optimising an appropriate
choice from a set of predetermined routes
White Paper proposals to extend the Bus
parameter related to the operation of the
and stops; and systems with no fixed sets of
Service Operators Grant (BSOG) to
system.
routes and stops, but which can be adapted
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 21
request
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
pick-up node
(Anakasia) (Portaria) (Makrinitsa) (Zagora) (Tsagarada) (Milies) (Neochori) (Argalasti) (Lafkos) (Platanias) (Trikeri) (Agria) (Gatzea) (Kala Nera) (Afissos) (Milina) (Agios Ioannis) (Horefto) (Kalamaki) (Promiri)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
earliest pick-up time
latest pick-up time
0 20 0 150 180 110 120 100 30 40 40 35 50 65 100 75 100 125 140 190
20 40 20 170 200 130 140 120 50 60 60 55 70 85 120 95 120 145 160 210
delivery node
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(Trikeri) (Volos) (Portaria) (Tsagarada) (Argalasti) (Tsagarada) (Platanias) (Gatzea) (Milina) (Milina) (Milina) (Kala Nera) (Afissos) (Agios Ioannis) (Agria) (Kalamaki) (Horefto) (Zagora) (Promiri) (Lafkos)
Table 2 List of requests.
to the special needs of each user. They can
deviate from the planned route if this route
special needs of the case. The aim is to make
also be classified into one of two ways of
was heavily congested.
the operation of the system as effective as
processing the requests and designing the
The paratransit case study for Mount Pelion
possible and bring the cost of each
routes: the static system, in which all the
We designed a paratransit system for the
passenger trip close to the cost of using
requests are known in advance and cannot
villages around Mount Pelion based on a
fixed-route services.
change thereafter; and the dynamic system,
concept very similar to paratransit systems
in which the requests are allowed to change
operating elsewhere in the world. The model
Take a case in which twenty random
dynamically over time. Paratransit systems
presented here is the static case of the
inhabitants request transport between two
may also operate in an online or an offline
problem, without fixed sets of routes and
given locations in this region. Several
mode, depending on whether the system
stops, but it can easily be modified into a
physical constraints, which may be related
uses new information gathered en route. In
dynamic system. The challenge is how to
to age, health or time, make it impractical
an online system a mini-bus would probably
modify the general concept to meet the
for these people to use the existing public transport system. In our case, the system
The intractable nature of these problems means that they become prohibitive for larger scales of operation
used for the transportation of the twenty requests consists of three vehicles starting and finishing in the city of Volos, the capital of Magnesia Prefecture. Each vehicle can accommodate at most 6 passengers at the same time. Table 2 lists the origins (pick-up node) and destinations (delivery node) of each of the twenty requests and the specified time windows. Note that these time windows are only specified for the pick-up location of each request. This is not a physical restriction of the problem, but
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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 22
[0-3-23-2-12-13-14-32-17-34-18-37-4-38-5-2425-33-22-41] and [0-9-10-30-29-15-6-26-3541]. In each of these routes, nodes 0 and 41 are the origin and destination nodes of the three vehicle routes, which is the same location in the city of Volos. optimal routes The map shows the optimal routes. The blue lines correspond to the first vehicle, the green route is for the second vehicle, and the orange route is the third vehicle. All the vehicle routes are feasible and observe the physical constraints of the system: each request is picked up and delivered by the same vehicle; each request is picked up before it is delivered; the capacity of the vehicle is not exceeded at any time; the time windows of each request are observed; the vehicle starts its service as soon as it arrives at a node, and leaves the node immediately after it finishes service. The total travel time is 299.33 minutes for the first vehicle, 293.21 minutes for the second and 186.06 minutes for the third. This solution is equivalent to the operation of a 6-passenger minibus for approximately 13 hours (= 780 minutes). The total travel
Optimal routes for the Mount Pelion case study.
times from pick-up to destination for this rather a situation that arises naturally in
constraints of the problem are satisfied.
situation reveal a high level of satisfaction by
practice, since each request usually imposes
Because the financial aspect is one of the
the passengers. Although the cost of the
a unique time window, either for the
most important, the most reasonable choice
system is very close to that of a fixed-route
departure from or for the arrival to some
for the objective function is usually to
service, its performance, as measured by the
location The road network is symmetric,
minimise the total cost of the system. Total
quality of service provided, is closer to that of
since transportation is allowed in both
costs are made up largely of two items: the
a taxi service.
directions for each pair of nodes. The direct
total operational cost of the vehicles, and the
travel time (in minutes) between each pair
total cost resulting from the dissatisfaction
The intractable nature of these problems
of nodes in the network can be easily
of the travellers. Incorporating additional
means that they become prohibitive for
computed. We assume a service time of 10
financial aspects of the problem is
larger scales of operation. In recent years
minutes at each node of the network for the
straightforward process.
researchers have focused on the
passengers to board or alight from the
development of heuristic techniques, which This is a difficult problem, even for very small
usually provide high quality solutions (close
networks. It belongs to a special class of
to optimum) even for very large problems.
The number of possible routes that the three
vehicle routing problems that require
Their main drawback is that in some extreme
vehicles could follow to satisfy the requests
enormous effort to find the exact optimal
cases they may provide a solution which is
is very large. Our goal is to find the set of
solution. Using mathematical programming
very far from optimal. In general, the
routes that optimises some appropriate
algorithms we found a solution for the three
complexity of the problem requires a
performance measure (the objective
vehicle routes to service the requests: [0-1-11-
compromise between time efficiency and
function), while also ensuring that all the
21-16-31-8-7-19-36-20-39-27-40-28-41],
solution accuracy.
vehicle.
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 23
Supporting sustainable urban planning and development: three approaches R.R. Seijdel, StrateGis Groep / TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands Co-authors: P.W.G Bots. Delft University of Technology / Cemagref (France); A.T Dullemond, Strategis Groep / TNO Environment and Geosciences Acknowledgements: J. Kortman. IVAM, Research and Consultancy on Sustainability, Amsterdam Photo: Rob Huibers / Hollandse Hoogte
Cities are among the most complex of man-made systems. Interventions in these systems are never simple. The essential cooperation between all stakeholders can be improved by tools that clarify urban development processes and quantify impacts. TNO and its partners have developed three promising decision support systems. The complexity of urban development will present us with one of
transport infrastructure, as in the Transport Development Areas
our main challenges in the years to come. This complexity will
(TDA) concept. So what exactly is this complexity? We can break it
increase further as new European directives come into force (e.g.
down into three types: content-oriented complexity, political
on air quality) and the supply of land for greenfield development
complexity and the complexity of urban systems.
diminishes. Urban development will also increasingly be shaped by
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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 24
criteria
assessment of the tno city approach
score
Integrative
TNO City in its basic form is primarily geared to financial assessments, but it can be extended to perform integrated assessments. It can be applied to different spatial levels and decision making levels.
Dynamic
TNO City is able to calculate the performance of alternatives. If specific indicators are needed, this could require additional modelling.
+
Interactive
The very communicative interface and real-time calculations make for a very interactive tool. The approach has been observed to act as a ‘mediator’ in multi-actor settings.
++
Transparent
The underlying models are transparent and relatively easy to demonstrate. The first sessions with the model are used to validate all the underlying models and data with the stakeholders.
++
Flexible and Reusable
The use of intelligent interfaces that link data and models to the GIS makes the approach very flexible and reusable. Default situations require no specific action.
++
Fast and easy
Experts should build the TNO City models. Experience is that non-experts can use the model with limited instruction, but expertise is required to use the software.
+
Communicative and educational
Because of the GIS background, the approach is very communicative. However, the approach does not contain a specifically educational element.
+
Authoritative
The basic databases and models are derived from expert models and databases used by TNO experts. TNO City easily handles financial data and can accommodate user specific data entered by stakeholders.
+
++
Sustainable development as a concept is far from unambiguous content-oriented complexity
Sustainable development as a concept is far from unambiguous.1
involved. 4 They make competing assumptions about problems and solutions, means and ends, and cause and effect. From an actor
Many attempts have been made to provide definitions of
network perspective, there is no single correct approach to policy
sustainable development. Generic definitions suffer from the fact
problems and their solution. Decisions are made in a complex
that they can be interpreted in many ways, whereas more specific
process of negotiation between actors and both the quality of the
definitions inevitably reflect the value judgments of the definer.
outcomes of these interactions and the level of support they enjoy
Generally accepted definitions2 leave room for interpretation and
are often suboptimal. Answers to this problem are sought in process
pose new questions which cannot be answered unequivocally. This
management5 but this does not make urban development projects
ambiguity manifests itself on philosophical, political and
themselves any simpler.
operational levels. complexity of urban systems It is fair to say that sustainable development is a concept that
Urban systems are extremely complicated and consist of many
should be further defined and negotiated in a political context. If all
interdependent physical and social variables. Large projects typically
the stakeholders involved want a sustainable and high quality
require hundreds of major design decisions and many thousands of
public transport system, the trick is to bring together the rationality
detailed choices have to be made. These decisions are often
of the design process (making of design choices for the reorganisation
interdependent, and they contribute to a vast number of
of the urban system) and the political and administrative rationality
environmental, social and economic impacts, making the effects of
(the acquisition of sufficient political and public support).
decisions difficult to assess and complicating the design of alternatives.
political complexity Acquisition of sufficient political support for urban development
Reductionist approaches to deal with this complexity tend towards
and infrastructural projects typically involves a complex network of
monodisciplinary models which, while scientifically valid, lack an
stakeholders, who strive to achieve their ambitions and protect their
overall picture of the problem in a societal context. More pragmatic
interests.3 Their activities are not governed by objective rationality,
and holistic approaches, on the other hand, are often not
but determined by the perceptions and value systems of the actors
transparent, and for that reason not acceptable for generic use.
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 25
5SEßOFßHERBICIDES
&UNCTIONßOFßGREENßAREA´S 0RECLUSION
%COLOGICAL
3ECONDARY
"IODEGRADABLEß HERBICIDES
2ECREATION
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)MPROBABLE
0ARTIAL
)MPOSSIBLE
)NTEGRALß
)MPROBABLE
5NLIKELY
.OßELEVATION
0REPARATIONßOFßBUILDINGßSITE
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0ROMISING
0ROBLEMATIC
)MPOSSIBLE
)DEAL
%COLOGICAL
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0REPARATIONßOFßBUILDINGßSITE
Figure 1: Interconnected decision areas.
Others have described this as the dilemma of the choice between
What we need for sustainable urban development are decision
scientific disciplinary rigour and practical relevance. What is needed
support methods that cope with both the substantive (content) as
is a balance between integration on the one hand and scientific
well as the political (context) dimensions. Such methods and
validity and precision on the other.
approaches should meet the following criteria: 8 – Integrative: consider different aspects and levels of design and
sustainable decision making for urban development System complexity, political complexity and the ambiguity of the concept of sustainable development make it difficult to manage sustainable urban development projects. What does ‘sustainability’ mean precisely to the various parties involved, and how can the goals of all the stakeholders be achieved?
decision making in a holistic approach. – Dynamic: show the ‘performance’ of various alternatives in relation to the preferences and the ‘behaviour’ of stakeholders. – Interactive: support the negotiation process between stakeholders. – Transparent: produce results that are clear and understandable to all stakeholders, i.e. no ‘black box’.
System complexity alone could be addressed by modelling, focusing on the substantive issues. Unfortunately, many of these tools lack the transparency and flexibility required to accommodate the variety of perspectives on sustainability and the dynamics of
– Flexible and reusable: usable for, or adaptable to, a range of similar situations. – Fast and easy to use: relatively quick to implement by non-experts, e.g. residents and politicians.
political decision processes.
– Communicative and educational: enlighten stakeholders about
Political and administrative complexity alone could be addressed by
– Authoritative: the process and the results meet analytical (e.g.
a participatory planning approach or by process management.6 But
validity) and political standards (e.g. safeguarding core values,
without substantive knowledge, participatory decision-making
timeliness) to increase the likelihood that the results are used.
problem structure, alternatives and different perspectives.
processes are void. Participatory planning approaches, such as open forum discussions with residents, can easily degenerate into a rather
Three approaches developed by TNO and its partners are briefly
one-sided venting of opinions at a time when the plans have already
described and discussed with reference to this list of criteria.
reached an advanced stage.
7
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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 26
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)
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Figure 2: Impact assessment within MEDIA.
The DPL approach is very easy to use, also for non-experts codes
Originally, AIDA identified only preclusions (between a decision
Codes stands for ‘Consequences of Decision making in urban
option and a decision area) and exclusions (between decision
planning and infrastructure’. The approach has been developed
options of different decision areas). This has been implemented in
within the Delft Cluster research programme by TNO Built
MEDIA, with some adaptations. First, MEDIA differentiates between
Environment and Geosciences and the Delft University of
the severity of exclusions, distinguishing impossible, problematic
Technology.9 It consists of an innovative and comprehensive decision
and unlikely relationships. Second, the concept of positive
support system – the software model MEDIA – in combination with
relationships between options has been introduced (ideal,
gaming and simulation techniques.
favourable, promising).
Codes is aimed at supporting the early stages of urban planning (development brief and master planning). It can be used for plans at
Another addition is the impact assessment functionality of MEDIA,
different spatial levels, from individual dwellings to cities and
which is closely related to the problem regarding the ambiguity of
regions, although presently it is mainly used for districts. It has been
sustainable development. It is through the choice of indicators and
designed to deal with both the complexity of urban systems and the
impact assessment models that we, implicitly or explicitly,
political complexity.
implement our views about what sustainability is. Any attempt to develop a generic set of indicators and calculation models can be
At the core of Codes is the MEDIA software model, based on the Analysis of Interconnected Decision Areas (AIDA)
concept.10
AIDA
regarded as ‘yet another interpretation’ of this concept. To deal with this problem, MEDIA has been designed to accommodate different
makes major design challenges transparent and manageable.
definitions. MEDIA uses three major elements in dealing with
Design challenges are described as a set of decision areas, with two
impact assessment: variables and functions, methods, and qualifiers.
or more decision options. Relations between decision areas and options are formalised, creating transparency and insight into the
Variables are the direct effects (impacts) caused by decision options
direct and indirect consequences of one specific decision or
(e.g. more parking space means increasing the area of hard
comprehensive set of decisions (scenario). Four typical decision
surfacing). Variables can be combined by more or less complicated
areas are presented as an example in Figure 1.
functions to give aggregated and/or comprehensive variables
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 27
criteria
assessment of the dpl approach
score
Integrative
DPL is integrative as far as substantive aspects concerns.
Dynamic
DPL is suitable for calculating the performance of alternatives; however it does not link such results to the preferences of the stakeholders. It does facilitate discussion however.
++
Interactive
A large amount of data is required for the model to work. Generation and interactive processing of alternatives is limited.
0
Transparent
The model is very transparent to the user. All the underlying calculation methods are easily accessible and transparent.
++
Flexible and reusable
Through the use of references, the model is applicable to a range of similar applications. First however, a reference database must be generated, which is rather time consuming.
Fast and easy
The model is easy to use for everybody with some basic computer skills. However, gathering the information needed can take considerable time.
Communicative and educational
The model can be a useful communication tool within the policy process of a local authority. The model is not aimed at facilitating communication in dynamic multi-actor settings.
0
Authoritative
Where possible the indicators are based on existing and validated methods. Public support for other indicators can be obtained through the inclusion of stakeholders in the development of the model. The Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment supports the method. Nevertheless, the choice of the indicators remains subjective.
+
+
+ 0/+
(e.g. modal split in a district is calculated by combining variables for type of dwelling, quality of public transport, available parking space and so on). In addition, more sophisticated models can be linked to MEDIA using the concept ‘Methods’, and qualitative labels can be assigned to decision options using the concept ‘Qualifiers’.11 The benefits of this flexible structure (no approaches are precluded or forced upon actors) outweigh the drawbacks (no ‘easy’ answers are provided). Figure 2 depicts the impact assessment structure of MEDIA, which at the moment can calculate approximately 850 variables. Additional functionality within MEDIA includes linking stakeholders’ goals specific variables and defining coherent sets of MEDIA is used in interactive gaming and simulation exercises that
condense the decision-making process into a few sessions in which stakeholders can discuss alternative plans. The decision areas help to structure the agenda and MEDIA gives immediate feedback on the impacts of the choices, distinguishing between financial
impacts (e.g. life cycle costs), environmental impacts (e.g. CO 2
emissions) and social impacts (e.g. access to services). 12
This application can also be used in training.
DPL can be used to set targets in advance and verify them later
decisions (e.g. all the decisions regarding high quality public transport). tno city TNO City is an approach developed by TNO Environment and Geosciences. The approach is all about interactively drawing and calculating urban development plans. 13 The method improves trust and understanding in complex projects with numerous stakeholders. Just like Codes, it should be used in the early stages of decision making, but with an emphasis on land and site planning and financial feasibility. It is designed for use with professional stakeholders.
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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 28
'TNO City' improves trust and understanding in complex projects with numerous stakeholders
TNO City interface.
TNO City consists of a sophisticated geographical information
The input and output to the geographical information system is
system (GIS) for use in interactive settings. Plans can be drawn up
managed by the flexible programmable interface Visual Basic. The
interactively using a visual and communicative interface, with the
model has been applied numerous times and has proven to be of
financial and other consequences of alternatives immediately
added value, and a version aimed specifically at land and real estate
calculated and fed back into the process. The TNO-City model
planning is used commercially by the consultancy firm StrateGis
consists of four major conceptual components:
Groep.
1
Maps. The starting point for all analyses using TNO City is a set of topographical or functional maps of the area. Several types of maps can be used as a basic map. Older versions (TNO RasterGis)
measuring sustainability of a district with dpl DPL is an approach for sustainable urban planning that
used only raster maps, but presently all common formats are
quantitatively measures the sustainability of urban areas (districts)
compatible. Based on this map alone, preliminary analysis can be
based on 25 environmental, social and economic indicators (People,
performed, such as average distances to public transport stops.
Planet, Profit). DPL was developed by IVAM in cooperation with TNO
2 Databases. All kinds of geographical databases can be added as
Environment and Geosciences and with financial support from the
‘layers’ to the system: land and real estate ownership, real estate
Dutch Ministry of Housing Spatial Planning and the Environment
prices, soil conditions, demographical data, legal information, etc.
(VROM).
These databases provide input to a great diversity of analyses, for example the financial impact of acquiring and demolishing
DPL can be used by local authorities, urban planners and project
a specific area.
developers to inform discussions of sustainability in urban planning.
3 Functions: The third component is a database, in which urban
DPL can be used to set targets in advance and verify them later. Pilot
functions (infrastructure, dwellings, offices, parks, shopping
projects have been carried out in the cities of Amsterdam, Delft, The
centres, etc.) have been broken down into their logical components
Hague, Den Helder, Heerlen, Nieuwegein and Velsen.
and related to surface area. For each square metre of a land use the area of road, pavement, green space, parking space, sewers
Central to the DPL approach is a spreadsheet model with a user-
and so on is known. This enables the user to draw plans based
friendly interface. Users of the model first have to gather
solely on the surface area of the land uses; it is not necessary to
information regarding numerous aspects of an existing or newly
make an actual architectural design.
planned district. This information is used to calculate the 25
4 Calculation models. Several impact assessment models are linked
indicators. The resulting indicator scores can be compared with a
to the system, such as models to make financial assessments and
database of reference plans, typical for the most common types of
environmental, demographical and sociological models. The
Dutch urban districts. The complexity and depth of the isolated
model also allows for comparative and integrated assessment of
indicators is limited; the strength of DPL lies in the breadth of the
scenarios and for assessment of the development over time.
range of ecological, social and economic indicators (see
Typically, calculation models are Excel-spreadsheets.
Sustainability profile of a district). DPL is currently available as a
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 29
The DPL interface.
dpl – sustainability profile of a district ‘planet’ indicators
‘people’ indicators
‘profit’ indicators
stocks
safety
economic vitality
1 Material use 2 Energy use
10. Social safety 11. Traffic safety
20. Local employment 21. Local economic activity
3 Land use
12. External safety
local environment
services
4 Water management
13 Quality of services
5 Soil contamination
14 Access to services
capacity to change
7 Air pollution
green space and water
24 Mixed use
8 Noise
15 Local green space
25 ICT infrastructure
9.Smells
16 Local water
6 Waste management
sustainable businesses 22. sustainable businesses
23 Flexibility
quality 17 Quality of the district 18 Quality of the dwellings 19 Social cohesion
commercial software program through IVAM and TNO Environment
The TNO City approach is very communicative and interactive and
and Geosciences.
has no real weaknesses. Further improvements should focus on making the interface more usable for non-experts and on adding
three parallel approaches
more substantive aspects (indicators) to the default calculations.
A brief assessment of the three approaches, using the criteria identified earlier, is presented in tables 2a, 2b, and 2c. Each of the
The DPL approach is very easy to use, also for non-experts. It is also a
approaches has its specific advantages and disadvantages.
very transparent approach. The main disadvantage is that it takes time to generate the input for the calculations, which makes the
The Codes approach is integrative in many ways and pays a lot of
approach unsuitable for interactive and dynamic applications.
attention to the link between performance of design alternatives and the preferences of the stakeholders. The model is transparent,
The ideal method would have the integrative and actor-focused
but also very complex. This complexity limits its use, since experts
qualities of Codes, the GIS interface and speed of TNO City and the
are always needed to apply the approach.
transparency and ease of use of DPL. Such hybrid approaches will be
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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 30
criteria
assessment of the codes approach
Integrative
MEDIA integrates different spatial levels, substantive aspects and decision making in one systematic approach.
++
Dynamic
MEDIA is able to calculate the performance of alternatives. The simulation game relates these results to stakeholders’ preferences. Stakeholders can choose the indicators they consider important.
++
Interactive
MEDIA itself does not directly support negotiation between stakeholders, this is however the primary function of the simulation game.
++
Transparent
From evaluations of the combined use of MEDIA and simulation game, it can be concluded that the approach in principle is clear and understandable to all stakeholders, although the complexity of the model requires a certain degree of expertise and experience with computer models.
+
Flexible and Reusable
The concepts behind MEDIA are generic, and therefore can be used or adapted for a wide range of applications. Considerable effort is required to construct a specific database, so this is only feasible if the method is applied often, or on very large projects.
0
Fast and easy
MEDIA databases should be built by experts. Experience is that non-experts can use the model with instruction, but only for the most basic functions. For sophisticated analysis an expert is needed. It is also clear the software interface still has a lot room for improvement.
0
Communicative and educational
This is not directly the purpose of MEDIA, but again one of the main objectives of the simulation game. Within the game, MEDIA clarifies the structure of the problem and possible alternative solutions. The game is designed to allow for different perspectives. The interface of the model itself is not specifically communicative.
+
Authoritative
Many of the indicators calculated by MEDIA are based on established and validated methods, but this not necessarily the case, nor is it clear in the model. Specific care has to be taken in advance to demonstrate this to the users. Within the simulation game, political standards are incorporated through the ambitions and goals of the participants.
+
examined in the future within research programmes such as Delft Cluster. However, past experiences have shown that visions of omnipotent supermodels have the tendency to become a goal in
score
8
Geurts J. and Joldersma C., Methodology for Participatory Policy Analysis, European
9
Bots P and Seijdel R., MEDIA - A decision support tool for urban development.
themselves. Accordingly, the approaches described in this paper will
Journal of Operational Research 128(2):300-310, 2001.
Conference proceedings Sustainable Building 2002, Oslo, 2002; Mayer I. van Bueren E., Bots P., van der Voort H. and Seijdel R., Collaborative decision making for
sustainable urban renewal projects: a simulation - gaming approach, Environment
be developed primarily in parallel with one another, focusing on
and Planning B: Planning and Design 32:403-423, 2005; Bots P., van Bueren E., ten
their specific strengths and applications.
Heuvelhof E. and Mayer I., Communicative tools in sustainable urban planning and building, Sustainable Urban Areas 5, DUP Science, 2005.
Notes 1
See Hajer M., The politics of environmental performance review: choices in design,
Working paper 38, Recht and Beleid, Rijksuniversiteit Leiden, 1992, and Roe E., Taking
10 Morgan J.R., AIDA – A Technique for the Management of Design, Coventry: Tavistock 11
complexity seriously: policy analysis, triangulation and sustainable development, Kluwer, Boston, 1998.
2
WCED, World commission on Environment and Development (1987) – Our common
3
Marin B. and Mayntz R., eds., Policy Networks: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical
4
Marsh, 1998? [niet in literatuurlijst]
Seijdel R., Collaborative decision making for sustainable urban renewal projects:
a simulation – gaming approach. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 32:403-423, 2005.
13 Dekker K.H., Pries F. and van der Toorn W., Innovatief vastgoed beheer: aanzetten voor een discussie over instrumenten voor stedelijk beheer, Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer, 1991.
and corporatism, Building Research and Information 28(2): 98-108, 2000
Bruijn, H. de and Ten Heuvelhof E. (2000) – Networks and Decision Making, Utrecht:
6
See note 5; and: Edelenbos, J., Design and management of participatory public
Lemma publishers.
policymaking, Public Management 1:569-578, 1999 and Edelenbos, J.,
Design and management of participatory public policymaking, 7
development, Conference proceedings Sustainable Building 2002, Oslo, 2002.
Bremer W. and Kok K., The Dutch construction industry: a combination of competition
5
Public Management 1:569-578, 1999
Mayer, I. (1997) – Debating Technologies. A methodological Contribution to the
Design and Evaluation of Participatory Policy Analysis. Tilburg Iniversity Press, Tilburg.
example, Bots P. and Seijdel R., MEDIA – A decision support tool for urban
12 These sessions are described in Mayer I., van Bueren E., Bots P., van der Voort H. and
future, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Considerations, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1991.
Institute of Human Relations, Institute of Operational Research, 1971
This functionality has been described more detailed in earlier papers. See, for
References –
Bueren E. van and Mayer I., A simulation game for sustainable decision making,
–
Mayer I. and Veneman W., Games in a world of infrastructures, Eburon Academic
Conference proceedings Sustainable Building 2002, Oslo, 2002. Publishers, Delft, 2003.
Z
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 31
The Mobilien high-performance bus network Seventy per cent of motorised traffic in the French conurbations is between suburbs, and this proportion is rising. Commuter journeys are being joined by growing numbers of leisure trips, while flexible working times spread out the morning and evening rush hours. The Mobilien bus network being introduced in the Île-de-France region aims to meets these needs while easing congestion.
Sophie Labbouz, EIVP/RATP/UMLV Youssef Diab, EIVP/UMLV Michel Christen, RATPP Logo of the Île-de-France Urban Travel Plan.
All French conurbations with populations greater than 100,000
suburbs (the départements Seine-et-Marne, Yvelines, Essonne and
have to prepare a Plan de Déplacements Urbains (PDU), or Urban
Val-d’Oise). The Mobilien network was designed as a fully-fledged
Travel Plan. These plans must contain appropriate measures for
network, with radial bus lines leading to the centre of Paris
reducing traffic, developing public transport and encouraging
complemented by several circle lines. By providing both suburb to
walking and cycling as alternative means of environmentally-
suburb and suburb to pole connections it maximises interchange
friendly travel. Other topics addressed in these plans include
between the different modes of transport.
goods transport, water transport and parking management. A key feature of the project is giving a clear structure to the network The PDU for the Île-de-France (PDUIF) was adopted at the end of
and establishing a hierarchy by showcasing the most important
2000 for a five year period. It did not seek explicitly to curb car traffic,
connections and heavily-used lines. The new lines will complement
but to reorganise public space in favour of environmentally-friendly
the existing rail and metro network with a finer network through
modes of transport. Certain objectives have been quantified, such as
the denser urban areas. The public transport hubs link these networks
reducing car traffic by 3% and increasing the use of public transport
to provide a comprehensive package of transport services throughout
by 2%, as well as doubling the number of cyclists on the roads.
the Île-de-France region.
the Mobilien project – expanding the bus network A key element in the PDUIF is the Mobilien project, a radical upgrade of the bus services, the least attractive means of transport in Île-de-France. In contrast to metro or tram, this form of public transport can be developed and expanded without major investment. The Mobilien network consists of 150 lines, most already existing, and 150 multimodal public transport hubs. It boasts as many lines and poles in Paris and its outskirts (the départements Hauts-deSeine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne) as in the more distant
The Mobilien project: a radical upgrade of the bus services
Y
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 32
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Like any new transport network, the Mobilien must be easily
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(communes, départements, the region and the State), public
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and road profile to allow the free movement of buses, mainly !
through the creation of dedicated bus lanes. On bus line 91 in Paris,
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the bus corridor runs down the centre of the highway, an ideal
location for operating the line because it is separate from the traffic
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on the adjacent roadway. This central location is one of the first in Bus lines incorporated into the Mobilien project.
Île-de-France and demonstrates the determination of the authorities to make the Mobilien an innovative and high-performance network. Each physical intervention involves a redistribution of public space to make the roadway more legible and improve traffic circulation.
Y
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 34
Bus journey speeds are higher and services more regular as a result. Crossroads are where buses are held up the longest and so traffic management is being improved by introducing a ‘priority to buses’ system. Buses approaching the crossroads are detected and the traffic light sequence is adjusted to give them a green light and minimise waiting time. Counterflow bus lanes have been introduced in some one-way streets to keep outward and return journeys on the same route to make life easier for passengers.
The most visible improvements are changes in the street layout and road profile Public urban transport has to be accessible to everyone, including the elderly, parents with prams and disabled people. All public
Advertising campaign by the Île-de-France region in November 2004 (‘Because people in Île-de-France are always in a hurry, the Region gives you Mobilien’).
transport hubs must be fitted with lifts if they are not already provided. New buses will have a low platform at the same level
Besides route planning and design, the Mobilien project also includes
as the pavement. They will also be equipped with a platform that
operational measures. Each Mobilien line has to provide connecting
can be extended to bridge the gap between the vehicle and the
services as long as the Metro is operating, or from 6.30 am to 12.30 pm.
pavement for easy wheelchair access. The internal layout of the
They also have to run at no more than 5 minutes during the rush
buses has also been altered for greater passenger comfort.
hour and 10 minutes in slack periods. Moroever, Mobilien buses have to be in service every day, whereas some buses in Île-de-France do
Counterflow on line 325 in Ivry-sur-Seine (photo: RATP/ Gérard Dumax).
not operate at the weekend and on public holidays. Whatever the time or the day, the goal is to guarantee the traveller a bus. Finally, travel information is continually available in real time on the Mobilien network, an integral aspect of journey quality. One of the information services most appreciated by travellers are the estimated arrival times. The SIEL system, which works by satellite, locates the bus and informs travellers how long they have to wait before the next bus arrives. Information is also available through the website of the RATP (the main urban transport operator in Île-de-France), where you can calculate the shortest journey time on the public transport network. Neither has the signage at bus stops been neglected, but is carefully designed to indicate connections and help passengers find their bearings. Maps display the main attractions as well as all public transport stops and stations. consultation slows progress, but response promising The first Mobilien line to come into service in mid 2004 was line 38 in Paris. Of the 150 lines planned by the PDUIF at the outset, it is one the dozen now in operation; about thirty more are progressing and should be in service before the French municipal elections of 2008. The poles have been much slower getting off the ground. Only five will be in service at the end of the year, and twenty or so more should be ready at the end of 2008.
NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 35
The SIEL system on bus line 95 to Paris (photo: RATP/ Gérard Dumax).
The most obvious point to arise from an appraisal of the project
Note 1
are the severe delays. As soon as the allocation of public space is at
project by the local population, the consultation periods were longer than initially planned. The complexity of allocating responsibilities has also slowed the project down. These delays have been tolerated
services (e.g. dedicated bus lanes, studies to give priority to buses at traffic lights). They cannot be used for hard or soft landscaping.
stake, local residents become involved and are quick to make their demands known. Although positive in terms of ownership of the
The subsidies must be used for roads layout or other measures which facilitate bus
Abbreviations – –
EIVP City of Paris Engineering School, 15 rue Fénelon, 75010 Paris, France. Phone + 33 1 56 02 61 00
RATP Public Transport Operator in the Paris Region, Maison de la Ratp,
54 quai de la Rapée, LAC A34, 75599 Paris Cedex 12, France. Phone +33 1 58 78 33 23
in view of the importance placed on consultation by the PDUIF.
–
While the lines now in service experienced a considerable drop in
References
passenger numbers during the works, numbers have subsequently increased sharply. Customer satisfaction surveys unequivocally show that travellers are sensitive to these changes and want the benefits extended to all the other lines. These results augur well for all the other line and pole projects which will get going over the next few
Reactions to: [email protected]
5 boulevard Descartes, 77454 Marne-la-Vallée Cedex 2, France. Phone + 33 1 60 95 73 43
–
Christen Michel, Mobilien, une ambition pour l’Île-de-France,
–
Direction Régionale de l’Équipement d’Île-de-France,
–
Direction Régionale de l’Équipement d’Île-de-France,
–
months. This project promises to appreciably upgrade the public transport network at limited costs.
UMLV University of Marne-la-Vallée, Pôle Ville, Bâtiment Lavoisier, Cité Descartes,
– –
Revue Savoir Faire 45(1), 2003.
Plan des Déplacements Urbains d’Île-de-France, December 2000. Plan des Déplacements Urbains d’Île-de-France – Bilan à mi-parcours, 2003. Gonzales Alvarez Antonio, Mobilien et le PDU d’Île-de-France – l’innovation
dans les politiques de déplacements au risque de la concertation, thèse de doctorat, February 2006.
RATP Department Development et Territorial Action,
The Mobilien project – RATP contribution, May 2004. RATP Pôle Développement et Politique de la Ville,
Contribuer à la mise en place du Plan des Déplacements Urbains, 2002.
Z
Connected Cities
Connected Cities is about sustainable mobility and spatial development. As EU-sponsored Interreg IIIC
Bulgaria
Municipality of Kardjali
network it focuses on high quality public transport
France
mobility and quality of life in urban and rural areas.
Sénart Public Local Authority
and transport development areas, aimed at improving The network activities will continue until the end of 2007. European network
Connected Cities brings together twenty-five partners throughout Europe. The partners in Connected Cities will share their experiences and insights through
City of Paris Engineering School (EIVP)
Ghent University / Architecture and Urban Planning
Netherlands Centre for Underground Construction(COB) TNO Environment and Geosciences
Institute Pedro Nunes (IPN)
Hamburg-Harburg University of Technology (TUHH)
of Patras (ADEP)
European New Town Platform (ENTP)
structure (SRE)
Facilities (STUVA)
through a guide to good practice.
Belgium
Eindhoven Regional Government Administrative
Portugal
Research Association for Underground Transportation
Greece
http://connectedcities.net
Delft University of Technology (TU Delft)
Germany
management and coordination, interregional showcase
workshops, dissemination and communication, including
Netherlands
Municipal Enterprise of Planning & Development Development Agency of Magnesia S.A. (ANEM)
City Hall of Covilhã
Spain
Federation of municipalities and provinces of Castilla-La Mancha (FEMPCLM) Municipality of Toledo
Municipality of Philippi
United Kingdom
University of Thessaly
South East England Development Agency (SEEDA)
Region of Thessaly
Italy
Municipality of Ancona Municipality of Ferrara
Bristol City Council
Transport for London (TfL)