Nova Terra Special June [2006] On The Eu Supported Project 'connected Cities'

nova terra special on the eu supported project ‘connected cities’ / june 2006

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Special Edition

connected cities: the sequeL discovering a neglected backyard ‘free’ public transport accessibility for all – eliminating barriers across europe paratransit systems supporting sustainable urban planning and development: three approaches the mobilien high-performance bus network

Nova Terra Special on the EU supported project

Content

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‘Connected Cities’, June 2006. http://connectedcities.net Publisher

Nirov, The Hague, The Netherlands (www.nirov.nl)

Editorial Board

Jan Hein Boersma Evelien Brandes Yttje Feddes

Huib Haccou

Frank van der Hoeven (issue editor)

Derek Middleton (English editing)

Michiel Smit (editor in chief) Josja van der Veer

Athanasios Ziliaskopoulos (guest editor)

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by the European Union

A case study for the Mount Pelion region in Greece

3

18

connected cities: the sequel discovering a neglected backyard

4

Berry de Jong and Frank van der Hoeven

9

‘free’ public transport

initiative

Ziliaskopoulos

supporting sustainable urban planning and development: three approaches

23

Robin Seijdel, Pieter Bots. and Anne Dullemond

accessibility for all – eliminating barriers across europe

the mobilien high-performance bus network

Thomas Wagener and Stefan van der Spek

magazine is a Habiforum

paratransit systems

Christine Mastrogiannidou, George Kozanidis and Athanasios

Michel van Hulten

14

The regular Nova Terra

,M

Editorial

Frank van der Hoeven

Project part-financed

D58!IP

Cover photo: Ellen Houtman, The Hague, The Netherlands

31

Sophie Labbouz, Youssef Diab and Michel Christen

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 3

Connected cities: the sequel Frank van der Hoeven, TU Delft/ Faculty of Architecture, Lead Partner Connected Cities At the time of writing we are well into the second

urban projects, no plans for urban transformations

semester of the EU Interreg IIIC Connected Cities

centred on the station. And the station itself does not

project. In each semester the major events take place in

reflect such ambition. Transport development is

a new location. This time we will be at Mount Pelion,

nowhere to be seen at what we would expect to be the

east of Volos in central Greece. The topics and issues

main public transport hub in the country. Before starting

shift as well. The first semester focused on Dutch

a delicate discussion on what stations to prioritise in

practices. As lead partner, we invited experts from the

Zuid-Holland, we could have started by explaining the

province of Zuid-Holland to organise a showcase

main idea of the Stedenbaan project from the very

workshop. They organised activities in which the other

beginning. But we should not refrain from exchanging

partners were invited to learn from and contribute to

our ideas because of the tectonic differences that may

their own policies and design tasks for linking

exist between our cities. These hiccups are bound to

sustainable mobility and urban (or rural) development

happen and might just be part of the learning process.

within a complex urban network. What Zuid-Holland demonstrated was the Stedenbaan project. Its aim is to

In this Nova Terra special edition we report back on

concentrate much of the new housing demand in close

some of the showcases and lectures held in Brussels.

proximity to existing and new train stations in the

Berry de Jong reflects on Eindhoven’s backyard,

province, closely matching the Transport Development

discovered through our Connected Cities project.

Area (TDA) philosophy advocated by the Royal Institution

Michel van Hulten advocates the benefits of the Flemish

of Chartered Surveyors. Our colleagues at the provincial

practice of ‘free’ public transport, which began in

council wanted to discuss which station areas they

Eindhoven’s backyard. Thomas Wagener addresses

should prioritise in the development of the network.

another obstacle to users of public transport: physical barriers. Christine Mastrogiannidou looks ahead to one

It was only when I travelled for the first time to Volos

of the showcase workshops in Greece with her article on

that I became fully aware of the complexity of that task.

paratransit. She addresses the social dimension of

Of course I was somewhat worried that it would not be

sustainable mobility. How can we prevent social

easy to grasp the difference between station areas in

exclusion caused by inadequate transport opportunities?

Leiden, The Hague, Delft, Rotterdam and Dordrecht.

Robin Seijdel discusses various ways to support

And it could prove even more difficult to say we should

sustainable urban planning and development. His tools

prefer a station area in Capelle aan den IJssel over one in

will be deployed in Magnesia’s harbour workshop.

Zoetermeer. Moreover, the representatives of the

Finally, Sophie Labbouz reports on one of the largest Bus

European New Town Platform might have an opinion –

Rapid Transit projects in Europe today, le Mobilien.

after all, Capelle and Zoetermeer are two members of their organisation. But for someone who has just arrived from Patras in Greece? Yes, we expected that the local context would be confusing. So I stood for the first time at Athens central station (Larissa Station), ready to take the next intercity to Larissa. Athens is a city of four million inhabitants, but Larissa Station is equal in size and number of train services to Delft in Zuid-Holland, a town of less than 100,000 inhabitants. Near Larissa Station there are no

Z

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 4

Discovering a neglected backyard

Location of SRE in The Netherlands.

Eindhoven has always kept its eyes on Randstad Holland, content to be a Dutch ‘brainport’. But in an era of open borders the region now

looks to Leuven (Belgium) and Aachen (Germany) for greater critical mass to compete on a European scale. For too long Eindhoven has ignored its ‘backyard’: the Belgian province of Limburg. Berry de Jong, SRE, Eindhoven, The Netherlands Frank van der Hoeven, TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture, The Netherlands + Connected Cities Illustrations: Frank van der Hoeven (unless indicated otherwise)

The Eindhoven region (700,000 inhabitants)

Forty per cent of private R&D investment in

the eindhoven-leuven-aachen triangle

is a major high-technology cluster. This

the Netherlands finds its way into the region.

(elat)

position is recognised in Dutch economic,

More recently, SRE has been working in the

innovation and planning policies with

The 21 municipal councils in the Eindhoven

Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen Technology

designations like ‘Brainport Eindhoven’ and

region collaborate in the Eindhoven Regional

Triangle (ELAT) with Leuven and Aachen.

‘Top Technology Region’. The region is a

Partnership (SRE) to promote their common

Their proximity on a European scale gives the

‘technology and innovation hotspot’ with

interests. The SRE coordinates local

cities the additional mass they need to act as

strongly developed R&D activities. It has the

government activities in the field of spatial

a single region. The main goal of the ELAT

highest patent density in Europe and a top

planning, traffic and transport, housing, the

project is to develop and implement a joint

quality knowledge infrastructure. The

environment, recreation and tourism,

innovation strategy for the technology

leading regional clusters of mechatronics,

education, health, culture and social and

triangle, using ICT to tie in knowledge

automotive, medical and information

economic policy. The purpose is to bring

institutes, businesses and public authorities.

technology have prospered, while new

about balanced development across the

The strategy is to make the ELAT an

technologies such as embedded systems,

region. But to compete on European and

internationally recognised top region for

nanotechnology and life sciences are

global levels the region needs to create

technology and improve the economic

evolving alongside a dynamic cluster of

economies of scale and scope. If Eindhoven

climate. Transnational cooperation between

design, business development, education

collaborates with other regions it can create

Eindhoven, Leuven and Aachen means a

and creative industries. It is due to the

a critical mass in research, development and

larger knowledge base, a wider urban scale

Eindhoven region that Noord-Brabant is the

innovation.

and greater urban diversity. Because

only Dutch province to meet the EU goal of

specialised companies in the knowledge

spending at least 3.0% of gross domestic

economy need to cooperate to develop new

product (GDP) on research and development.

products, services, techniques and concepts,

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 5

5NIVERSITY ,EADINGßTECHNOLOGYßINSTITUTE 2ESEARCHßCAMPUS ,EADINGßTECHNOLOGYßCOMPANY 3PARTACUSßREGIOTRAM (IGHßSPEEDßTRAIN 2EGIONALßAIRPORT

ELAT placed between the Regions of Excellence taking part in the EU sponsored PAXIS programme (Pilot Action of Excellence on Innovative Start-ups).

ELAT (including Liège): the regional distribution of high-tech industry, knowledge institutes and major infrastructure.

The ELAT-project is still driven exclusively by economic initiatives, but it raises questions about the wider benefits of cross-border development direct contacts are needed for the exchange

national borders hampered the development

diamond shaped region includes the

of tacit knowledge. This network economy

of these regions, now the open borders and

Eindhoven area (SRE), the Leuven area

and acts more and more like an ecosystem

new economics offer opportunities for the

(eastern part of Flemish Brabant), the

and ELAT offers the opportunity for its

economic growth and spatial development of

Belgian province of Limburg, the Maastricht-

further development.

Eindhoven, Leuven and Aachen. But renewed

Aachen area and the Liège urban region.

regional growth will not automatically mould The relatively young ELAT project is still

these three regions into a single new urban

There is even a historic precedent for

driven exclusively by economic initiatives,

network. They need to strengthen their real-

including Liège in such a scheme. Between

but it raises questions about the wider

world ties as well.

1866 and the Second World War a direct rail link between Eindhoven and Liège did exist,

benefits of cross-border development. The regions of Eindhoven, Aachen and Leuven

connected cities

providing direct connections between

have always looked away from each other.

Making these physical links is the aim of the

Amsterdam and Liège three times a day.

The Eindhoven region has strong economic

Connected Cities project launched by the

It was shut down gradually during the

relations with the nearby Dutch city regions

SRE. The idea is to create a sustainable

second half of the century. Although the rails

of Tilburg, ’s-Hertogenbosch and Breda, and

connection between Eindhoven and Hasselt,

have gone, the routes are still there. Recently

with the Randstad (Amsterdam, The Hague,

the capital of the Belgian province of

they have re-emerged as key components in

Utrecht and Rotterdam). The Aachen region

Limburg. Hasselt lies in the very heart of

the Spartacus plan by the Belgian transport

traditionally looks to the Rhine-Ruhr area,

Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen Triangle and

authority De Lijn, an ambitious new plan to

and the Leuven region has links with the

could become an important public transport

improve the quality of public transport in the

Flemish Diamond (Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent).

hub connecting these cities. Liège cannot be

province of Limburg.

Their traditional ‘backyard’ is relatively

excluded from this transport network, as a

underdeveloped. Whereas in the past, the

single look at the map confirms. The resulting

Y

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 6

The Spartacus regiotram lines extended into the Eindhoven region an Noord-Limburg (Lommel).

Linking public transport networks is just a small first step, but it could be a breakthrough in the cross-border thinking that Europe is all about more than eight times as many. Hasselt became a model for many other towns throughout Belgium. The ‘free’ public transport initiative was the brainchild of Hasselt’s mayor Steve Stevaert, who went on to become Flemish Minister of Mobility and Spatial Planning and in 2005 regional spartacus regional transport initiative

network in Limburg. And it is no academic

governor of Limburg. Public transport in

Like many other European regions Limburg

exercise, or one of those mobility plans that

Limburg clearly has solid political backing.

possesses a rudimentary rail network, which

regions love to develop but fail to realise.

In the case of Spartacus there is also a sense

provides connections to the cities of Antwerp,

The Spartacus plan rests on solid ground: it is

of urgency. The regional and national public

Brussels and Liège. These connections are

explicitly mentioned in the Flemish coalition

transport services in the province are in a

relatively slow and infrequent and make a

agreement and the necessary funds have

poor state and it is widely acknowledged

very modest contribution to the modal split.

been secured.

that something has to be done. It helps that Spartacus is not a mega project absorbing

There are no connections with the neighbouring Dutch provinces Limburg and

At first glance Limburg might seem an odd

billions of euros, but requires a rather

Noord-Brabant (Maastricht, Eindhoven).

place for innovations in public transport.

modest investment in the infrastructure

The Belgian province of Limburg (800,000

of between 150 and 200 million euros.

In recent years De Lijn Limburg has pursued a

inhabitants) lacks most of the ‘urban’

An additional 10 million euros per year are

successful strategy for attracting new

characteristics experts would consider

needed to operate the network.

passengers. They have made deals with the

necessary for developing a successful public

local authorities in several towns and cities

transport network. The urban area is very

The Spartacus plan proposes a network of

to provide ‘free’ public transport for all their

dispersed and densities rather low. But in

improved rail links with the larger cities in

inhabitants or selected target groups. Local

1997 the regional capital Hasselt launched a

Belgium, supported by regional light rail and

bus lines in particular have been used more

unique experiment with ‘free’ public

regional connections. Public transport hubs

intensively. But it has not stimulated the use

transport. It resulted in a significant increase

tie this network together. In essence,

of public transport over longer distances.

in the use of local buses. Whereas in January

Spartacus consists of four main components:

This is what the Spartacus plan sets out to

1997 only 32,000 passengers used the bus in

1

achieve. It involves no less than a

Limburg’s capital, in January 1998 the

connections with Brussels, Antwerp, Liège

restructuring of the entire public transport

number of passengers had risen to 269,000,

and Leuven. Frequent and direct services

De Lijn plans to upgrade existing rail

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 7

High Tech Campus Eindhoven, in future serviced by Spartacus? (source: High Tech Campus Eindhoven)

will eliminate the need to transfer and cut

bridge the remaining half. The Connected

between Limburg (the neglected

travel time significantly.

Cities network organised several expert

backyard) and the ELAT cities.

2 Spartacus proposes the introduction of

meetings and workshops on this task, which

2 The scales of operation have to be

regional light rail, or regiotram. Most of

generated a step-by-step approach that

determined. Initial studies show that the

these regiotram connections use railway

offers a ‘once in a lifetime opportunity’ to

travel time between Eindhoven and

lines that were closed during the second

make an adequate response that bridges the

Hasselt can be kept close to 60 minutes.

half of the twentieth century. Large

gap. The SRE would have to determine with

In that case the link can serve all

stretches of these routes are now used as

De Lijn Limburg how the link between

necessary scales: inter-regional, regional

cycle paths. The Limburg regional plan

Eindhoven and Hasselt affects the position

and intra-regional. Although this seems

identified such routes as lines that can be

of the Noord Limburg public transport hub.

contrary to generally accepted wisdom, in

converted back to rail with only relatively

The advanced public transport system

this case public transport services on all

light investment. Three regiotram lines

developed for the Eindhoven region over the

scales are lacking in this border area and

connecting Maastricht, Maasmechelen

last ten years is not a regiotram, as in Belgian

introducing one system will provide a

and Noord Limburg are proposed. The

Limburg, but the Phileas Bus Rapid Transit

significant improvement on all scales.

Noord Limburg line includes the option to

system, which uses dedicated traffic lanes

A link that bridges the distance between

reach into the Eindhoven region.

and futuristic vehicles. Somehow these

Eindhoven and Hasselt in 60 minutes will

systems, regiotram and Phileas, have to be

provide reduced travel times on long and

knitted together.

short journeys. It will improve the

3 Where passenger volume is modest, regional bus lines are proposed.

connection Eindhoven-Brussels, Hasselt-

Significant reductions in travel time are connecting elat

Amsterdam, Eindhoven-Leuven, Eindhoven-

All in all these are not easy questions to

Hasselt, Eindhoven-Noord Limburg, and

development of a number of public

answer. The steps to be taken in this process

even Eindhoven-Valkenswaard.

transport hubs where all these systems

are nevertheless straightforward:

meet and connect, including Hasselt,

1

foreseen. 4 Finally, the Spartacus plan includes the

3 The desirable and possible connections

SRE needs a vision that provides a context

should be determined. Working with a

for the sustainable link between

trunk line with branches offers a flexible

Eindhoven and Hasselt. The Eindhoven-

solution that fits the Limburg context.

For the time being Spartacus will reach into

Leuven-Aachen Triangle (Liège included)

This trunk line runs straight from

Noord Limburg, covering more than half the

can provide just that. The Eindhoven-

Eindhoven to Hasselt, with as few detours

distance between Hasselt and Eindhoven.

Hasselt link should be instrumental in

as possible to keep travel time close to

The question is whether Eindhoven can

strengthening the real world ties

60 minutes. The trunk can branch off in

Genk, Maasmechelen and Noord Limburg.

Y

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 8

Masterplan for Lommel, set to accommodate

40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. (source: gemeente Lommel, Belgium)

Somehow these systems, regiotram and Phileas, have to be knitted together Stedelijke drager Woonkern Woondorp Woonpark Woonlint Stedelijke open ruimte Te reserveren woonuitbreidingsgebied Erkende woninggroep Te verwijderen woninggroep Te verdichten knooppunt / centrumgebied Suggestie tot selectie van heide-heuvel als één woonkern Suggestie tot selectie als woonkern Uit te rusten regionaal bedrijventerrein Bouwrijp bedrijventerrein Bestaande industriezone KMO-zone (na gebruik te herbestemmen) (Toekomstig) Zandontginning Reservegebied grootschalige stedelijke ontwikkeling Stedelijke boulevard Kernwinkelgebied

Zoekzone overslagactiviteiten Station Suggestie toplocatie kleinhandel Zone voor specifieke voorzieningen Gebied met overwegend natuurfunctie Grootschalig bos-, natuur- of heiecomplex Toeristisch-recreatieve voorziening Toeristisch-recreatieve voorziening in groen kader Zoekzone uitbreiding toeristisch-recreatieve voorziening Beekvallei Open ruimte-verbinding Natuurverbinding Bufferstrook Primaire weg I Secundaire weg II (suggestie) Secundaire weg III (suggestie) Tracé n769 in onderzoek Lokale weg I Lokale weg II

Noord Limburg towards Lommel, a city

focus on the possibility of these systems

step towards a network that strengthens the

that is expanding to 40 – 50,000

sharing one and the same track between

real world ties between Eindhoven, Aachen,

inhabitants.

Eindhoven and Noord Limburg (Lommel).

Leuven and Liège and their central backyard.

4 Locating the Noord Limburg transport

Both regiotram and Phileas use guided

Linking public transport networks is just a

hub and related urban development

vehicles. If regiotram and Phileas can be

small first step, but it could be a

requires careful consideration in

combined, it would make ELAT the first

breakthrough in the cross border thinking

weighing up the different alternatives.

testing ground in the world for comparing

that Europe is all about.

This will take some time. From the

Bus Rapid Transit with Light Rail on a one

perspective of ELAT the capacity of the

to one basis. The results may surprise us.

hub to provide space for the next university, technology institute, research

real world ties

campus or technology cluster should be

Arriving from two rather different

examined.

backgrounds, the Dutch region of Eindhoven

5 The overall routing of the line is in part

and the Belgian province of Limburg are

pre-determined by the existing and past

looking for ways to connect to each others

rail infrastructure.

region’s by advanced public transport.

6 The final choice of system (regiotram or Phileas) is a tricky one. Further work could

Establishing a sustainable link between Eindhoven and Hasselt could become a first

Z

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 9

‘Free’ Public Transport Michel van Hulten

Many governments are willing to invest hundreds of millions or even billions of euros to improve public transport systems. But they usually fail to ensure that capacity is used to the full. One answer is to change how we pay for public transport.

Forty years ago, the Dutch used 100 m2 of

urbanised space per person. Now this is 400 m2.

Theoretical this means that the average distance from person to person has grown from 10 to 20 meters. It has doubled. This is the basic explanation for our growing mobility. The average person uses more space and the distances between destinations are growing. The expansion of urbanised space is caused not so much by our growing population, but to a greater degree by our increasing wealth. Richer people have bigger houses and gardens, greater assets and more cars. A reliable expectation is that our wealth and income will grow by an additional 45 per cent over the next thirty years. As people become richer, commuting and other journeys become relatively cheaper, while the average commuting time remains relatively constant. Now able to travel longer distances to work, people look for places to live, work and spend leisure time at ever more distant locations. Culture is changing too. The number of single households is growing. More people of foreign descent and more women are driving instead of using public transport. Travel patterns are becoming more criss-cross, reflecting the rise in multiple purpose journeys for work, childcare, shopping and recreation, for which cars are extremely well suited. Moreover, people continue to use their cars as they get older as long they feel healthy and fit enough. The attractions of the Illustration: Wendy Ramaekers, Maastricht, The Netherlands

private car are obvious.

Y

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 10

Private and public payments for transport in the Netherlands

to between 1.5 and 2.8 times present levels in 2030, possibly more if

amount to about € 25 billion (not counting freight transport, which

the trend towards fewer passengers per car continues. Car occupancy

accounts for an additional € 15 billion). Just a small fraction of this,

rates went down from 1.71 per car in 1985 to 1.57 in 2002. In the same

between € 4 and € 5 billion per year, is for public transport. Most car

period the number of vehicle-kilometres rose by 47 per cent from

drivers think that the state takes more from them than they receive

62.7 to 91.9 billion. This would not have been a problem, had the

in the form of roads and services. But just to park all our cars costs

available road length per car not gone down, and continues to fall.

national, provincial and municipal government € 5.5 billion each year

At its present level, if all the cars in the country were on the roads at

(excluding parking costs on private land or privately owned garages).

the same time, traffic everywhere would grind to a halt. Luckily, on

In return, car users pay the authorities about € 1 billion in parking

average the Dutch drive only about 16,000 km per year. Even at a

fees and parking tickets. On average each car owner receives a

low average speed of 50 km/hr, this is less than one hour a day.

public subsidy of some € 600, double the amount we pay as a subsidy for the whole of the public transport system. This is rarely

The road length available per car is diminishing year after year.

mentioned when politicians and transport researchers discuss the

In 1993 each car could claim 17.47 m of road. In 2002 this had shrunk

subsidies (around 60 per cent of costs) paid to public transport by

to 15.25, despite the construction in this period of 12.599 km of

the state.

roads. To have maintained this 17.47 m per car, an additional 17,089

On average each car owner receives a public subsidy of some € 600, double the amount we pay as a subsidy for the whole of the public transport system

km or roads would have been necessary, or 1,700 km each year, at a cost of at least € 4 million/km. Annual costs would have risen by an additional € 6.8 billion, if not more. None of the political parties in Parliament, not to mention the Government, has been or is inclined to do this. This picture is familiar to all who live and work in circumstances that resemble those in the Netherlands. A rising population, increasing wealth, changing habits, greater use of private cars, more daily trips and multipurpose journeys of ever increasing length, and a road network that provides a decreasing amount of space per car. On top of all this, costs per vehicle-kilometre are falling in relation to the passenger-prices per kilometre by public transport and growing personal incomes. The pattern is familiar to anyone from any urbanised area in the Western world. Car parks and roads everywhere are overcrowded, while many public transport services run with empty vehicles, the logical precursor to the closure of lines

grim future

and stops. We need a way to reverse this trend.

If we look at the mobility and urbanisation problems in the Netherlands, we face a grim future. The 16 million people in the Netherlands use in total 6,400

km 2

of urbanised space (including all

infrastructure) out of a national territory of 36,000 km 2. The rest is

agricultural land, forest and water. We have 200 cars per km2,

the road pricing stick The most drastic remedy is to stop funding public transport and spend the money on road widening schemes and the construction of new roads and car parks. This would satisfy the continuing call by

or 7 million cars in total (not counting the million lorries). In 2000,

politicians (in response to public demand) to build more roads to

the Dutch had 423 private cars per 1,000 inhabitants, far less than

solve the problem of the diminishing road length per car. The latest

the 785 in the USA, which passed 423 in 1970. The picture from

proposed remedy is road pricing. In essence, the aim is to make room

America backs up the forecasted rise in the number of cars in the

on the roads for those who need to drive and can afford to pay.

Netherlands to 630 per 1,000 inhabitants in about 20 years from

It would force others (including those with similar needs) who are

now. With a population growing to 17 to 18 million in 2030/40, this

less inclined – or less able to pay – to use other roads, or travel at

will mean more than 300 cars per km2, with less than 3.500 m2 of

different times or to other destinations.

the national territory available for each car. Few can imagine what it will be like, in less than 25 years time, to have three cars parked or

Road pricing sounds like a healthy economic proposition. The price

driving for every two now.

put on the use of roads and car parks can be increased to the level at which the demand for space balances the supply of space.

Given these expected numbers of people and cars in the near future,

Free market competition will do the rest. Raising the price of using

it is no wonder that reliable sources predict road traffic to increase

private cars will be more effective in limiting the use of cars than

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 11

Perception costs disappear... (photo: Justin Jin/ HH)

Relative development of public transport in the Netherlands and Flanders. 1997=100. (source: Frank van der Hoeven, TU Delft)

any other measure and will end congestion. Those who can pay,

Other people, particular in heavy urbanised areas, will view the

or who can make the tax office pay, or their employer, will be the

rising density of cars and conclude that the car is no longer a useful

private car drivers of the future.

mode of transport. A second quarter of Dutch households have a car available, but it leaves in the morning when (in most cases) father

Whether this is the best choice for society, is another question.

goes to work. Mother stays at home with the children.

Road-pricing is a good economic proposition for all those who have the free choice to satisfy their individual mobility needs, either by

This combined half of the population depend on public transport for

walking, bicycle or private car, or by taking the bus, tram, metro or

all trips that cannot be made on foot or by bicycle. Unless we want

train. But not everybody has that choice. It is not a healthy

to isolate these people and exclude them from public life, we cannot

proposition for those who, for a wide variety of reasons, cannot

choose the most drastic remedy of dismantling all public transport.

make that choice between private or collective transport. Between 7 am and 7 pm this is true for about half the population in our type

Moreover, the total disappearance from our streets of all public

of urbanised areas.

vehicles would not save enough money to finance all the additional roads we would have to build. Assuming that mobility needs would

transport poverty Dutch national statistics show that for years about a quarter of all households have had no car at their disposal, 22 per cent because they are too poor and 3 per cent because they are very

remain the same, the result would be rising congestion on the roads, which is in nobody’s interest. Neither would it help us to lower ambient concentrations of CO 2 and particulates to meet our obligations under international treaties. Buses have a bad

environmentally conscious and do not want to use a private car.

reputation for pollution, but this is not justified by comparative

With a fast growing elderly population, we can expect that in the

emission data per person per kilometre, which clearly show that

near future more and more people will rely on public transport

even the cleanest car is more polluting than airplanes, buses and

because they are no longer physically or financially able to drive.

trains (in descending order) at ‘normal’ occupancy rates. The total

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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 12

The Belgian model takes an opposite approach: not the stick, but a carrot.

Vertical v horizontal. Why do lifts and escalators in buildings offer ‘free’ vertical traffic (paid for collectively), whereas we have to pay individually for horizontal trips between buildings by public transport? (Photo: Cote Maison / Hollandse Hoogte)

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 13

To be successful, ‘free’ public transport must be backed by additional measures surface area covered by traffic infrastructure would also expand,

social and economic policy

which is not exactly in line with our endeavours to save the

Discussions on ‘free’ public transport tend to treat this topic as a

environment. The number of traffic accidents would most probably

traffic issue. In my view it is social and economic policy. It is social

rise, with more dead and wounded.

policy because as it helps to prevent social isolation of the elderly and the handicapped, and it redistributes income and the costs of

the carrot – collectively paid transport Recent Belgian experience shows that another approach is likely

living. Under Belgian progressive income taxes (as in most other countries) ‘the rich’ pay relatively more into the public purse, from

to be less expensive and more effective: ‘free’ public transport on

which ‘free’ public transport is paid, and make less use of that

local and regional busses, trams and metro. First introduced in 1997

privilege; ‘the poor’ pay less and use it more. Free choice of transport

in Hasselt and in Brussels in 2002, it was extended the same year

mode is not harmed, as those who are willing and able to pay can

throughout Belgium for the elderly (65+), the recognised handicapped

still use their private car. There will even be fewer cars on the road,

and the under sixes. Their travel is paid for by regional government.

as others use public transport instead.

Any other contracting party, such as a municipality or a company, can make similar agreements with the public transport companies.

It is economic policy because it fills up the empty seats in previously

The Postal Service, Belgacom and the Federal Government have

empty buses and trams, for which all the operational and

already made such agreements for their staff, sometimes including

environmental costs have been made. Moreover, perception costs

their partners. The Flemish Government paid € 15 million for the first

disappear (normally between 10 and 15 per cent of the income

year of ‘free’ public transport in 2001 for the 1 million elderly.

collected from ticketing the passengers) and the very expensive

The Federal Government agreed to pay € 79 million each year for its

public transport infrastructure is more heavily used. Making the

65,000 employees (including railway workers), beginning in late

Brussels metro ‘free’ for the elderly was a very welcome input into

2004. Some private companies (the minister recently mentioned

the economy of the urban core, which received many more

‘1100 companies’) have already followed this example, including the

(spending) visitors. As vehicles fill up, more are brought into

offer of ‘free’ public transport in labour contracts with their staff.

operation, which in turn improves the public service and makes

The companies pay 80 per cent, the government 20 per cent.

public transport more attractive for new paying passengers.

About 100 of the 300 Flemish municipalities have reached

To be successful, ‘free’ public transport must be backed by additional

agreements with the regional public transport company ‘De Lijn’

measures such as restrictions on parking in central and inner city

covering additional segments of their populations.

areas, more and better bicycle paths, pavements and pedestrian

Young people aged 12 to 24 enjoy cheap annual season tickets for

areas, car-restricted areas in inner cities, timeslots for cars entering

local and regional lines, which have become highly popular. Belgian

the city, and probably a special regime for deliveries to shops,

Railways is not included in the ‘free’ public transport programme,

studios and workshops.

but for the elderly (including foreigners) any return fare after 09.00 am costs only € 4 in second class.

The tighter the city and the busier its streets, the more we need ‘free’ public transport to ensure the city remains accessible to

The Belgian model takes an opposite approach to pricing transport:

everyone. It can accommodate the numbers of people essential for

not raising the cost of using private cars, but reducing the price of

city life and keep traffic flowing between destinations in the city,

public transport. Not the stick, but a carrot. The results are

which is basic to all exchange of people, ideas and goods. We need it

miraculous. In the five Flemish provinces with 6 million inhabitants

to prevent cars clogging up the city. ‘Free’ public transport is

offering free local and regional transport to all seniors, handicapped

urbanism.

and young children, the number of users grew from 260 million trips in 2001 to 360 million in 2003 and 518 million in 2005. Further growth is expected.

Website –

www.gratisopenbaarvervoer.nl

Z

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 14

Accessibility for all – eliminating barriers across Europe

(photo: MVV/München)

Ten years ago the European Union launched a campaign for barrier-free transport to meet the needs and rights of people with disabilities. But we can all benefit from barrier-free transport. The key lies in integrating architectural, planning and transport measures throughout the mobility chain. Thomas Wagener, STUVA – Research Association for Underground Transportation Facilities, Cologne, Germany Stefan van der Spek, Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Netherlands Photos: Stefan van der Spek (unless indicated otherwise) By 2020 there will be twice as many people in Europe over 65 than in

3 Governments must ensure accessibility.

the 1960s, and a significant and growing proportion of Europe’s

4 Accessibility principles must be followed when planning,

ageing population are disabled. In response to this trend, in 1995,

designing and building infrastructure and vehicles. These require

the European Union launched a programme for achieving better

full accessibility to approved standards or recognised best

accessibility of regional, rail, air, and water transportation. This was

practices, with approval by experts, minimum accessibility

followed in 2000 by the European Commission communication

requirements for wheelchairs, features for people with walking

Towards a Barrier Free Europe for people with

disabilities, 1

which

covers spatial, environmental, economic, social and cultural aspects

difficulties, and facilities to assist the blind, deaf or hearing impaired people.

of accessibility. It gives four rules for access to transport services: In 2003 a Group of Experts appointed by the European Commission 1

Everyone must have an opportunity to live independently: public

published the report 2010: A Europe Accessible for All,2 in which they

buildings, the transport system and infrastructure must be

defined accessibility in a wider perspective. Accessibility is of

barrier free. 2 New infrastructure must accommodate the needs of people with

concern to everyone, not only for a minority with physical disabilities. Accessibility should be dealt with in a global and integrated way.

disabilities. Transport equipment and infrastructure can have an

It should not be the domain of building or transport experts alone,

extremely long lifetime and so it is essential that it meets the

but should be achieved by coordination of all the actors involved.

needs of disabled people. This will benefit everyone.

They also argue that accessibility policies can only be designed and

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 15

implemented with the participation of the people and representative NGOs. Moreover, accessibility is a key part of sustainable development

designing accessibility for all Accessibility for all is about creating barrier-free mobility chains

because it enhances the quality of life and makes the environment

from door to door and implies more than just customised

more liveable.

engineering solutions. It takes a holistic approach that integrates

European Commission: ‘Governments must ensure accessibility’

town planning, architectural and transport engineering measures, as well as product and process design. Special design solutions or addons for specific user groups only make situations complex and divide social groups; design features should have wider uses and raise the standard for everyone. The disabled people’s access to the Rotterdam metro is an example if how not to do it. Disabled access is by lift, but this is not a realistic option because the lift is unsafe and used as a toilet. Moreover, it takes only one wheelchair; bicycles are permitted, but do not fit.

barrier-free mobility There are three major types of barriers to access and mobility:

The kind of problems people encounter daily depends on the type of

social barriers, psychological barriers and structural barriers.3

mobility restriction they have. The needs and problems of different

According to the European Group of Experts these barriers are found

users or user groups coincide or clash in many key areas.

in buildings, the space between and around buildings, and in the

Understandably, the design criteria also differ. Although objectives

‘virtual environment’. In this context, freedom from barriers means:

seem to conflict, for example ensuring optimal seating capacity

1

eliminating obstacles in the built environment and enabling

while providing sufficient space for wheelchair users and prams,

access to public transport,

resolving such conflicts can create opportunities, in this case greater

2 eliminating obstacles within vehicles, enabling easy boarding and

flexibility in use and extra standing space, thus increasing capacity. It is important to find solutions which benefit as many people as

alighting, and 3 making information and communication services suitable for use

possible.

Y

by all. Mobility requirements are not limited to the activities for meeting basic needs such as work, education, medical care and so on, but also to a broader range of activities in the spheres of social life and shopping, sports and leisure, education or voluntary work. Unimpeded access is a vital factor in personal development. And because mobility is a basic human need, it should be possible for everyone.

The 'Zuidtangent' bus service between Haarlem, Schiphol Airport and Amsterdam (Netherlands): level access.

What is mobility restriction? Disabled and mobility-restricted people

physically disabled people, for example

restricted in certain situations only.

have widely differing capabilities and

who have difficulty walking, standing or

This group consists of the elderly and

experience a wide range of difficulties

using their hands, have disabilities of the

the infirm, children, expectant mothers,

when using conventional public transport

upper body or a small stature, people

people who are recovering from an

facilities, modes of transport and

with speech impediments, and people

accident, illness or post-operative

information and services.

who are blind, visually impaired, deaf, or

ailments, and people with prams or

hearing impaired.

travelling with heavy or unwieldy luggage. The EU recognises these groups,

In the narrow sense, mobility-restricted people are those whose mobility is

In the broader sense, some mobility-

except for the people travelling with

severely restricted due to permanent

restricted people may be temporarily

heavy or unwieldy luggage.

handicap or acute illness. These include:

affected or hampered, or their mobility is

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 16

good practices Essentially, barrier-free public transport boils down to the

The problem with technical solutions is that they are not holistic. Kneeling buses, wheelchair lifts and ramps are expensive, liable to

elimination of barriers in the built environment. A whole range of

breakdown and maintenance intensive. There are several examples

measures can be taken to eliminate obstacles under the headings

of good practices that get around such problems. In Paris the

‘infrastructure’, ‘vehicles’ and ‘information and services’:

sidewalks are not adjusted, but a dip in the road at the stop ensures

–

–

–

Infrastructure measures include creating suitable areas around

the bus entrance is level with the pavement. This is likely to be more

stops, for example with broad pavements, dropped kerbs, safe

sustainable because there are no mechanical parts and no ramps for

pedestrian crossings and signposting, sufficient dimensioning of

pedestrians. In Heilbron the S-Bahn runs through the city, where the

movement spaces and services, and aids to overcome height

higher platforms are broad and have long ramps for easy access by

differences, such as fixed stairs, ramps, escalators, lifts or moving

mobility-restricted people. In Lyon and Strasbourg the tramway

walkways.

infrastructure and low-floor vehicles were designed to create a

Vehicles can be altered to improve accessibility. Measures include

recognisable and easily accessible transport system. This can be

sufficient dimensioning of the vehicle doors and the interior,

applied to bus systems as well. The stops of the Zuidtangent, a

placing devices for passenger safety, such as grips, bars and

dedicated bus service between Haarlem and Amsterdam South-East

barriers, matching vehicle and platform levels, and providing

via Schiphol, have level access, with small gaps between the vehicle

boarding aids.

and the platform – but the legibility of the information and the

Information, communication and service systems can be made

comfort of the shelter leave much to be desired.

suitable for all by making sure that service points are accessible

When eliminating barriers and problems associated with using

and within easy reach and their interior dimensions are adequate,

public transport, planners and operators must constantly have the

and by providing information at stops and in the vehicle, such as

needs of mobility-restricted persons in mind. Expanding the circle of

information displays and timetables, external and on-board

potential customers not only makes good economic sense, but also

displays, announcements, other information elements and

raises awareness and acceptance of measures designed to improve

orientation aids. Ticket machines should be reachable and easy

access for the disabled. Measures of this kind serve to foster and

to service.

accelerate the social integration of the disabled and can also lead to an improvement in quality for everyone.

Low-floor tram in Lyon. (photo: Alstom, France)

Low-floor tram in Rotterdam. (photo: Frank van der Hoeven)

Why not use private or semi-private alternatives for the feeder parts of the chain?

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 17

scale

The mobility chain offers new perspectives as well. If it is not possible

The measures and means at our disposal must be used at the right

to offer barrier-free door-to-door chains using public transport, why

scale. For example, even if all city buses were technically adapted for

not use private or semi-private alternatives for the feeder parts of

wheelchair access, there is no guarantee that the specific needs of

the chain? This could be cheaper, more reliable and more efficient for

these passengers will always be met because specially equipped

both the traveller and transport company. EU involvement could

buses alone will not

do. 5

General public transport services are not

reliable enough, and it would make more sense to use dedicated

promote the exchange of good and bad practices for the trunk and feeder lines.

transport companies which meet the needs of mobility-restricted persons. On the other hand, investments in low-floor trams, as in Rotterdam, Dresden, Lyon or Strasbourg, can benefit everyone. The

Notes

level entrance and broader doors give unimpeded access to all.

1

European Commission, Towards a barrier free Europe

Trams in most other cities are not accessible to wheelchairs at all.

2

European Commission Group of Experts, 2010:

3

Venter C., Savill T., Rickert T. and others, Enhanced

for people with disabilities, COMM (2000) 284 final.

Their floors are more than half a meter above the pavement and the small doors are difficult to negotiate for people with buggies or

A Europe Accessible for All (PDF), Brussels, 2003

shopping bags and offer no access for mobility-restricted people.

Accessibility for People with Disabilites Living in

The difficulty in the Netherlands is that almost every city, every company – or in the case of rail transport, almost every line – has its

Urban Areas (PDF), Brussels, 2003 4

Blenneman F., Girnau G., Grossmann H. and others,

own, unique vehicles. Rail vehicles in particular cannot usually be

Barrierefreirer ÖPNV in Deutschland – Barrier-free

used on other lines or in other cities, where the stops are designed

public transport in Germany, Verband Deutscher

and built to match their own vehicles. This is one area where

Verkehrsunternehmen, (VDV) ISBN 3-87094-656-3,

European legislation and best practices could guide future development towards more uniform standards and practices.

Düsseldorf, 2003 5

Kessler V., Statement on the paper rights of passengers in international bus and coach transport, Wirtschaftskammer Österreich (WKO), Vienna, 2005

References European Disability Forum, Universal Access, http://www.edf-feph.org/, 2000

Disabled Persons Transport Advisory Committee (DPTAC), Charter on Access to Transport Services and Infrastructure, http://www.dptac.gov.uk/, Annual Report, 2000

Diamantopoulou A., ‘Towards a Barrier Free Europe Low-floor tram in Strasbourg.

for People with Disabilities’, speech /02/122, press release, http://europa.eu.int/, Madrid, 2002

Bonk R., Muller-Baron I., Greater mobility in Europe – current European developments for barrier-free transportation, http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/, Stuttgart,

The question regarding European legislation is whether all forms of

1995

transport should be covered. There are real differences between local, short-distance transport and (inter)regional, long-distance transport.

European Commission of the European Communities

Air and high speed train connections are relatively infrequent and

(COM), ‘Strengthening passenger rights within the

seating capacity limited and legislation is necessary to protect

European Union’ (PDF), Brussels, 2005

passengers. In local to national rail and bus transport, frequencies are higher and seats are not reserved and the stops are each subject to local conditions. The question is whether in this case the traveller would benefit more from EU legislation or from agreements between the local authority and the local transport company.

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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 18

A case study for the Mount Pelion region in Greece

Paratransit systems

Local transport in the Mount Pelion region of Greece is hampered by the sparse road network and difficult mountain conditions. Public transport services are limited and inadequate, a major problem for both residents and visitors to this all-round tourist destination. An innovative ‘dial-a-ride’ system could be the answer. Christine Mastrogiannidou, George Kozanidis and Athanasios Ziliaskopoulos, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece Illustration: Witmor, Madrid Mount Pelion in Volos is one of the best

make the design and construction of an

The only public transport system operating

known national and international tourist

efficient road system a difficult task and the

in the area is the KTEL of Magnesia (the

destinations in Greece. The region offers

existing road network is quite sparse. These

traditional train of Pelion runs only as a

pristine mountainous forests, a ski resort for

conditions present the local authorities with

tourist attraction). Services to and from

the winter period and attractive beaches for

one of their most challenging problems: how

many villages are infrequent (see Table 1)

the summer season. However, the high

to operate the existing public transportation

because the large buses have difficulty

altitude and the steep slopes of the area

system efficiently.

negotiating the narrow mountain roads.

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 19

itineraries

departures

Volos-Agios Lavrentios Agios Lavrentios-Volos Volos-Pinakates Pinakates-Volos Volos-Agios Vlassios Agios Vlassios-Volos Volos-Milies-Vizitsa Vizitsa-Milies-Volos Volos-Zagora Zagora-Volos Zagora-Horefto Horefto-Zagora Volos-Neochori Neochori-Volos Volos-Katigiorgis Katigiorgis-Volos Volos-Platanias Volos-Portaria-Makrinitsa Makrinitsa-Portaria-Volos Volos-Agios Ioannis Agios Ioannis-Volos Volos-Afissos Afissos-Volos Volos-Kala Nera

06:00 07:00 06:00 07:00 06:00 07:15 05:45 07:00 05:15 08:45 07:45 08:15 05:15 06:55 04:15 06:30 04:30 06:15 07:00 04:45 07:00 05:15 07:00 04:00 11:00 07:30 15:30 04:00 06:45 04:30 07:30

Kala Nera-Volos Volos-Trikeri Trikeri-Volos Volos-Milina Milina-Volos

13:45 14:45 14:00 15:00 12:30 13:15 06:45 08:00 08:30 14:30 16:45 17:15 08:20 14:00 10:15 15:30 10:15 08:00 08:45 13:30 15:30 11:00 12:00 04:15 12:00 07:40 16:00 12:30 16:00 10:15 16:15

14:00 15:15 09:00 12:00 13:30 10:15 13:45 14:15 (through Hania) 17:45 (through Hania) 12:30 17:45

18:00 14:45 19:15 08:20 (through Neochori) 13:55 (through Neochori)

13:30

16:30

16:30 10:00 10:45

12:30 13:15

13:45 14:30

14:30 15:15

16:30 17:15

19:45 20:30

20:45 21:30

16:30 12:30 14:15 04:30 12:30 07:45 16:10

15:00 14:00 15:00 04:45 13:30 08:30 16:50

16:30 18:15 05:00 14:00 08:40 17:00

21:00 22:00 05:15 16:30 08:45 18:00

05:45 18:00 09:00 18:45

06:30 21:00 10:45 19:45

06:45

08:20

09:00

10:15

12:15 20:30

14:30 22:15

14:45

15:15

12:30 16:30

19:30

Table 1 Itineraries of the KTEL of Magnesia.

The lack of easy access to the villages

During the late 1970s, the concept evolved

regular taxi (40-80 euros). In Turkey the

reduces the attractiveness of the region and

into its present form as a specialised door-to-

popular dolmus, while not exactly a door-to-

creates major mobility problems both for the

door service for disabled passengers who are

door paratransit service, is more flexible than

tou rists and the permanent residents of the

unable to use conventional public transport.

the bus and more affordable than a taxi or

area. Past experience indicates that for problems like these a paratransit system can provide a useful demand responsive service. The minibuses often employed by such systems can operate more efficiently on the narrow,

How to operate the existing public transportation system efficiently?

steep roads of Mount Pelion. Travel between the villages would be easier, even for

The most commonly used vehicle is the minibus.

private car. The dolmus service can be

handicapped and elderly people, and most

Dial-a-ride systems are currently operating in

described as a privately operated minibus

journey times would be significant shorter

low density areas of the province of Bologna.

with a capacity of 12 to 14 passengers (but

than the services run by KTEL of Magnesia.

They are also used extensively in the USA,

sometimes taxis with a four-passenger

under the American with Disabilities Act

capacity) which depart as soon as they are

(ADA), and in Canada. Cyprus has a less

full (dolmus means ‘full’) and run on

organised paratransit taxi-based system,

predetermined routes with fixed stops.

door-to-door service The UK and the US were among the first countries to introduce dial-a-ride systems, in

mainly for airport service and other intercity

the early 1970s, as an element of public

trips from 50 to 100 km per trip, which offers

Many EU countries, including Finland,

transport services in low-density areas.

a cheaper alternative (10-20 euros) to a

Sweden, the Netherlands and Belgium,

Y

NovaTerra Connected Cities / juli 2006 / 20

The vehicle routing problem One of the most rapidly developing areas of

service provided. Each request is defined by a

delivery node are specified for each request.

mathematical programming in recent

geographic location and associated with a

Among the additional constraints that apply

decades has been transport management.

load. A time window, which defines a time

to this problem are the precedence

This stems from the importance of logistics

frame for the service of the associated

constraints, which state that each pick-up

management in the economy and the great

request, may also be specified for each

location has to be visited prior to the

complexity of the related problems. One of

location. There is a static and a dynamic

corresponding delivery location. Pairing

the most important transport management

version of the problem, depending on

constraints restrict the set of admissible

problems to attract the attention of both

whether the list of requests is fixed or if it is

routes to those in which both the pick-up

researchers and practitioners in recent years

allowed to change over time. All vehicles

and the delivery of each transportation

is the vehicle routing problem.

depart from a start depot and must arrive at

request are by the same vehicle.

a destination depot after they complete their The vehicle routing problem consists of

route.

Variants of the vehicle routing problem include several important applications:

finding a set of optimal routes for a fleet of vehicles to fulfil a set of transportation

One of the earliest vehicle routing problems

1

Bus and taxi services

requests. In general, the objective function

studied is the so-called travelling salesman

2 Fleet management for the purpose of

takes into consideration the cost of

problem. This problem involves a single

satisfying the requests, which may include a

vehicle without capacity constraints. The

3 Inventory distribution systems

fixed cost per vehicle used, and the

objective is to design the shortest possible

4 Door-to-door disabled transport

transportation cost, which depends on the

route that begins at an origin node, visits

5 Emergency rescue or repair services

time or distance travelled. Additional

each node of a given network exactly once

elements may also be incorporated in the

and returns to its origin node. In the pick-up

objective function, such as the quality of

and delivery problem, a pick-up and a

have introduced dial-a-ride systems, mainly

community transport were adopted in 2001.

Each vehicle may serve more than one person

funded by the European Commission.

More recently, this interest in flexible forms

simultaneously, as long as the number of

European experience shows that it is more

of transport has been backed up by

passengers riding on the vehicle at any time

straightforward to implement paratransit

substantial funding from the Rural and

does not exceed the capacity of the vehicle.

systems in regulated environments because

Urban Bus Challenge programmes for local

Some passengers may not be taken straight

this reduces conflict with other public

authorities to establish demand responsive

to their destination point, and the

transport modes.

transport services.

inconvenience experienced by the

The UK Government’s Transport Ten Year

the dial-a-ride problem

collecting or delivering shipments

passengers is factored into the problem as a Plan, published in 2000, pledges to remove or

Paratransit systems hinge around the

set of constraints, such as the total time or distance passengers may travel before they

at least relax constraints (e.g. route

‘dial-a-ride problem’, in which a fleet of m

arrive at their destinations, the total number

registration) on the development of flexibly

vehicles must transport n passengers. All

of nodes each passenger may visit before

routed bus services and promote a greater

vehicles depart from a start depot and must

arriving at their destination, and whether or

role for community-based services. In

return to a finish depot after they complete

not the time windows are strictly observed.

addition, research commissioned by the

their route. The start and finish depots do

(then) UK Department of the Environment,

not need to coincide. For each passenger an

Dial-a-ride systems come in many forms.

Transport and the Regions (DETR) argues that

origin and a destination location (node) are

Most try to optimise performance by

flexible public transport services provided by

specified, with a time window for each node

manipulating the restrictions arising from

local authorities and bus operators in

within which the passenger must be

the specific constraints in each case. Dial-a-

partnerships with employers, stores and

delivered or picked up. Time windows may

ride systems can therefore be classified

leisure centres would help to break down

also be defined for the start and finish

according to their flexibility: systems with

social exclusion. Similar findings were

depots. The objective is to satisfy the given

fixed routes and stops; systems that allow a

reported in Ireland in 1999. The UK Rural

requests while optimising an appropriate

choice from a set of predetermined routes

White Paper proposals to extend the Bus

parameter related to the operation of the

and stops; and systems with no fixed sets of

Service Operators Grant (BSOG) to

system.

routes and stops, but which can be adapted

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 21

request

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

pick-up node

(Anakasia) (Portaria) (Makrinitsa) (Zagora) (Tsagarada) (Milies) (Neochori) (Argalasti) (Lafkos) (Platanias) (Trikeri) (Agria) (Gatzea) (Kala Nera) (Afissos) (Milina) (Agios Ioannis) (Horefto) (Kalamaki) (Promiri)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

earliest pick-up time

latest pick-up time

0 20 0 150 180 110 120 100 30 40 40 35 50 65 100 75 100 125 140 190

20 40 20 170 200 130 140 120 50 60 60 55 70 85 120 95 120 145 160 210

delivery node

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

(Trikeri) (Volos) (Portaria) (Tsagarada) (Argalasti) (Tsagarada) (Platanias) (Gatzea) (Milina) (Milina) (Milina) (Kala Nera) (Afissos) (Agios Ioannis) (Agria) (Kalamaki) (Horefto) (Zagora) (Promiri) (Lafkos)

Table 2 List of requests.

to the special needs of each user. They can

deviate from the planned route if this route

special needs of the case. The aim is to make

also be classified into one of two ways of

was heavily congested.

the operation of the system as effective as

processing the requests and designing the

The paratransit case study for Mount Pelion

possible and bring the cost of each

routes: the static system, in which all the

We designed a paratransit system for the

passenger trip close to the cost of using

requests are known in advance and cannot

villages around Mount Pelion based on a

fixed-route services.

change thereafter; and the dynamic system,

concept very similar to paratransit systems

in which the requests are allowed to change

operating elsewhere in the world. The model

Take a case in which twenty random

dynamically over time. Paratransit systems

presented here is the static case of the

inhabitants request transport between two

may also operate in an online or an offline

problem, without fixed sets of routes and

given locations in this region. Several

mode, depending on whether the system

stops, but it can easily be modified into a

physical constraints, which may be related

uses new information gathered en route. In

dynamic system. The challenge is how to

to age, health or time, make it impractical

an online system a mini-bus would probably

modify the general concept to meet the

for these people to use the existing public transport system. In our case, the system

The intractable nature of these problems means that they become prohibitive for larger scales of operation

used for the transportation of the twenty requests consists of three vehicles starting and finishing in the city of Volos, the capital of Magnesia Prefecture. Each vehicle can accommodate at most 6 passengers at the same time. Table 2 lists the origins (pick-up node) and destinations (delivery node) of each of the twenty requests and the specified time windows. Note that these time windows are only specified for the pick-up location of each request. This is not a physical restriction of the problem, but

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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 22

[0-3-23-2-12-13-14-32-17-34-18-37-4-38-5-2425-33-22-41] and [0-9-10-30-29-15-6-26-3541]. In each of these routes, nodes 0 and 41 are the origin and destination nodes of the three vehicle routes, which is the same location in the city of Volos. optimal routes The map shows the optimal routes. The blue lines correspond to the first vehicle, the green route is for the second vehicle, and the orange route is the third vehicle. All the vehicle routes are feasible and observe the physical constraints of the system: each request is picked up and delivered by the same vehicle; each request is picked up before it is delivered; the capacity of the vehicle is not exceeded at any time; the time windows of each request are observed; the vehicle starts its service as soon as it arrives at a node, and leaves the node immediately after it finishes service. The total travel time is 299.33 minutes for the first vehicle, 293.21 minutes for the second and 186.06 minutes for the third. This solution is equivalent to the operation of a 6-passenger minibus for approximately 13 hours (= 780 minutes). The total travel

Optimal routes for the Mount Pelion case study.

times from pick-up to destination for this rather a situation that arises naturally in

constraints of the problem are satisfied.

situation reveal a high level of satisfaction by

practice, since each request usually imposes

Because the financial aspect is one of the

the passengers. Although the cost of the

a unique time window, either for the

most important, the most reasonable choice

system is very close to that of a fixed-route

departure from or for the arrival to some

for the objective function is usually to

service, its performance, as measured by the

location The road network is symmetric,

minimise the total cost of the system. Total

quality of service provided, is closer to that of

since transportation is allowed in both

costs are made up largely of two items: the

a taxi service.

directions for each pair of nodes. The direct

total operational cost of the vehicles, and the

travel time (in minutes) between each pair

total cost resulting from the dissatisfaction

The intractable nature of these problems

of nodes in the network can be easily

of the travellers. Incorporating additional

means that they become prohibitive for

computed. We assume a service time of 10

financial aspects of the problem is

larger scales of operation. In recent years

minutes at each node of the network for the

straightforward process.

researchers have focused on the

passengers to board or alight from the

development of heuristic techniques, which This is a difficult problem, even for very small

usually provide high quality solutions (close

networks. It belongs to a special class of

to optimum) even for very large problems.

The number of possible routes that the three

vehicle routing problems that require

Their main drawback is that in some extreme

vehicles could follow to satisfy the requests

enormous effort to find the exact optimal

cases they may provide a solution which is

is very large. Our goal is to find the set of

solution. Using mathematical programming

very far from optimal. In general, the

routes that optimises some appropriate

algorithms we found a solution for the three

complexity of the problem requires a

performance measure (the objective

vehicle routes to service the requests: [0-1-11-

compromise between time efficiency and

function), while also ensuring that all the

21-16-31-8-7-19-36-20-39-27-40-28-41],

solution accuracy.

vehicle.

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 23

Supporting sustainable urban planning and development: three approaches R.R. Seijdel, StrateGis Groep / TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands Co-authors: P.W.G Bots. Delft University of Technology / Cemagref (France); A.T Dullemond, Strategis Groep / TNO Environment and Geosciences Acknowledgements: J. Kortman. IVAM, Research and Consultancy on Sustainability, Amsterdam Photo: Rob Huibers / Hollandse Hoogte

Cities are among the most complex of man-made systems. Interventions in these systems are never simple. The essential cooperation between all stakeholders can be improved by tools that clarify urban development processes and quantify impacts. TNO and its partners have developed three promising decision support systems. The complexity of urban development will present us with one of

transport infrastructure, as in the Transport Development Areas

our main challenges in the years to come. This complexity will

(TDA) concept. So what exactly is this complexity? We can break it

increase further as new European directives come into force (e.g.

down into three types: content-oriented complexity, political

on air quality) and the supply of land for greenfield development

complexity and the complexity of urban systems.

diminishes. Urban development will also increasingly be shaped by

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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 24

criteria

assessment of the tno city approach

score

Integrative

TNO City in its basic form is primarily geared to financial assessments, but it can be extended to perform integrated assessments. It can be applied to different spatial levels and decision making levels.

Dynamic

TNO City is able to calculate the performance of alternatives. If specific indicators are needed, this could require additional modelling.

+

Interactive

The very communicative interface and real-time calculations make for a very interactive tool. The approach has been observed to act as a ‘mediator’ in multi-actor settings.

++

Transparent

The underlying models are transparent and relatively easy to demonstrate. The first sessions with the model are used to validate all the underlying models and data with the stakeholders.

++

Flexible and Reusable

The use of intelligent interfaces that link data and models to the GIS makes the approach very flexible and reusable. Default situations require no specific action.

++

Fast and easy

Experts should build the TNO City models. Experience is that non-experts can use the model with limited instruction, but expertise is required to use the software.

+

Communicative and educational

Because of the GIS background, the approach is very communicative. However, the approach does not contain a specifically educational element.

+

Authoritative

The basic databases and models are derived from expert models and databases used by TNO experts. TNO City easily handles financial data and can accommodate user specific data entered by stakeholders.

+

++

Sustainable development as a concept is far from unambiguous content-oriented complexity

Sustainable development as a concept is far from unambiguous.1

involved. 4 They make competing assumptions about problems and solutions, means and ends, and cause and effect. From an actor

Many attempts have been made to provide definitions of

network perspective, there is no single correct approach to policy

sustainable development. Generic definitions suffer from the fact

problems and their solution. Decisions are made in a complex

that they can be interpreted in many ways, whereas more specific

process of negotiation between actors and both the quality of the

definitions inevitably reflect the value judgments of the definer.

outcomes of these interactions and the level of support they enjoy

Generally accepted definitions2 leave room for interpretation and

are often suboptimal. Answers to this problem are sought in process

pose new questions which cannot be answered unequivocally. This

management5 but this does not make urban development projects

ambiguity manifests itself on philosophical, political and

themselves any simpler.

operational levels. complexity of urban systems It is fair to say that sustainable development is a concept that

Urban systems are extremely complicated and consist of many

should be further defined and negotiated in a political context. If all

interdependent physical and social variables. Large projects typically

the stakeholders involved want a sustainable and high quality

require hundreds of major design decisions and many thousands of

public transport system, the trick is to bring together the rationality

detailed choices have to be made. These decisions are often

of the design process (making of design choices for the reorganisation

interdependent, and they contribute to a vast number of

of the urban system) and the political and administrative rationality

environmental, social and economic impacts, making the effects of

(the acquisition of sufficient political and public support).

decisions difficult to assess and complicating the design of alternatives.

political complexity Acquisition of sufficient political support for urban development

Reductionist approaches to deal with this complexity tend towards

and infrastructural projects typically involves a complex network of

monodisciplinary models which, while scientifically valid, lack an

stakeholders, who strive to achieve their ambitions and protect their

overall picture of the problem in a societal context. More pragmatic

interests.3 Their activities are not governed by objective rationality,

and holistic approaches, on the other hand, are often not

but determined by the perceptions and value systems of the actors

transparent, and for that reason not acceptable for generic use.

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 25

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Figure 1: Interconnected decision areas.

Others have described this as the dilemma of the choice between

What we need for sustainable urban development are decision

scientific disciplinary rigour and practical relevance. What is needed

support methods that cope with both the substantive (content) as

is a balance between integration on the one hand and scientific

well as the political (context) dimensions. Such methods and

validity and precision on the other.

approaches should meet the following criteria: 8 – Integrative: consider different aspects and levels of design and

sustainable decision making for urban development System complexity, political complexity and the ambiguity of the concept of sustainable development make it difficult to manage sustainable urban development projects. What does ‘sustainability’ mean precisely to the various parties involved, and how can the goals of all the stakeholders be achieved?

decision making in a holistic approach. – Dynamic: show the ‘performance’ of various alternatives in relation to the preferences and the ‘behaviour’ of stakeholders. – Interactive: support the negotiation process between stakeholders. – Transparent: produce results that are clear and understandable to all stakeholders, i.e. no ‘black box’.

System complexity alone could be addressed by modelling, focusing on the substantive issues. Unfortunately, many of these tools lack the transparency and flexibility required to accommodate the variety of perspectives on sustainability and the dynamics of

– Flexible and reusable: usable for, or adaptable to, a range of similar situations. – Fast and easy to use: relatively quick to implement by non-experts, e.g. residents and politicians.

political decision processes.

– Communicative and educational: enlighten stakeholders about

Political and administrative complexity alone could be addressed by

– Authoritative: the process and the results meet analytical (e.g.

a participatory planning approach or by process management.6 But

validity) and political standards (e.g. safeguarding core values,

without substantive knowledge, participatory decision-making

timeliness) to increase the likelihood that the results are used.

problem structure, alternatives and different perspectives.

processes are void. Participatory planning approaches, such as open forum discussions with residents, can easily degenerate into a rather

Three approaches developed by TNO and its partners are briefly

one-sided venting of opinions at a time when the plans have already

described and discussed with reference to this list of criteria.

reached an advanced stage.

7

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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 26

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Figure 2: Impact assessment within MEDIA.

The DPL approach is very easy to use, also for non-experts codes

Originally, AIDA identified only preclusions (between a decision

Codes stands for ‘Consequences of Decision making in urban

option and a decision area) and exclusions (between decision

planning and infrastructure’. The approach has been developed

options of different decision areas). This has been implemented in

within the Delft Cluster research programme by TNO Built

MEDIA, with some adaptations. First, MEDIA differentiates between

Environment and Geosciences and the Delft University of

the severity of exclusions, distinguishing impossible, problematic

Technology.9 It consists of an innovative and comprehensive decision

and unlikely relationships. Second, the concept of positive

support system – the software model MEDIA – in combination with

relationships between options has been introduced (ideal,

gaming and simulation techniques.

favourable, promising).

Codes is aimed at supporting the early stages of urban planning (development brief and master planning). It can be used for plans at

Another addition is the impact assessment functionality of MEDIA,

different spatial levels, from individual dwellings to cities and

which is closely related to the problem regarding the ambiguity of

regions, although presently it is mainly used for districts. It has been

sustainable development. It is through the choice of indicators and

designed to deal with both the complexity of urban systems and the

impact assessment models that we, implicitly or explicitly,

political complexity.

implement our views about what sustainability is. Any attempt to develop a generic set of indicators and calculation models can be

At the core of Codes is the MEDIA software model, based on the Analysis of Interconnected Decision Areas (AIDA)

concept.10

AIDA

regarded as ‘yet another interpretation’ of this concept. To deal with this problem, MEDIA has been designed to accommodate different

makes major design challenges transparent and manageable.

definitions. MEDIA uses three major elements in dealing with

Design challenges are described as a set of decision areas, with two

impact assessment: variables and functions, methods, and qualifiers.

or more decision options. Relations between decision areas and options are formalised, creating transparency and insight into the

Variables are the direct effects (impacts) caused by decision options

direct and indirect consequences of one specific decision or

(e.g. more parking space means increasing the area of hard

comprehensive set of decisions (scenario). Four typical decision

surfacing). Variables can be combined by more or less complicated

areas are presented as an example in Figure 1.

functions to give aggregated and/or comprehensive variables

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 27

criteria

assessment of the dpl approach

score

Integrative

DPL is integrative as far as substantive aspects concerns.

Dynamic

DPL is suitable for calculating the performance of alternatives; however it does not link such results to the preferences of the stakeholders. It does facilitate discussion however.

++

Interactive

A large amount of data is required for the model to work. Generation and interactive processing of alternatives is limited.

0

Transparent

The model is very transparent to the user. All the underlying calculation methods are easily accessible and transparent.

++

Flexible and reusable

Through the use of references, the model is applicable to a range of similar applications. First however, a reference database must be generated, which is rather time consuming.

Fast and easy

The model is easy to use for everybody with some basic computer skills. However, gathering the information needed can take considerable time.

Communicative and educational

The model can be a useful communication tool within the policy process of a local authority. The model is not aimed at facilitating communication in dynamic multi-actor settings.

0

Authoritative

Where possible the indicators are based on existing and validated methods. Public support for other indicators can be obtained through the inclusion of stakeholders in the development of the model. The Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment supports the method. Nevertheless, the choice of the indicators remains subjective.

+

+

+ 0/+

(e.g. modal split in a district is calculated by combining variables for type of dwelling, quality of public transport, available parking space and so on). In addition, more sophisticated models can be linked to MEDIA using the concept ‘Methods’, and qualitative labels can be assigned to decision options using the concept ‘Qualifiers’.11 The benefits of this flexible structure (no approaches are precluded or forced upon actors) outweigh the drawbacks (no ‘easy’ answers are provided). Figure 2 depicts the impact assessment structure of MEDIA, which at the moment can calculate approximately 850 variables. Additional functionality within MEDIA includes linking stakeholders’ goals specific variables and defining coherent sets of MEDIA is used in interactive gaming and simulation exercises that

condense the decision-making process into a few sessions in which stakeholders can discuss alternative plans. The decision areas help to structure the agenda and MEDIA gives immediate feedback on the impacts of the choices, distinguishing between financial

impacts (e.g. life cycle costs), environmental impacts (e.g. CO 2

emissions) and social impacts (e.g. access to services). 12

This application can also be used in training.

DPL can be used to set targets in advance and verify them later

decisions (e.g. all the decisions regarding high quality public transport). tno city TNO City is an approach developed by TNO Environment and Geosciences. The approach is all about interactively drawing and calculating urban development plans. 13 The method improves trust and understanding in complex projects with numerous stakeholders. Just like Codes, it should be used in the early stages of decision making, but with an emphasis on land and site planning and financial feasibility. It is designed for use with professional stakeholders.

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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 28

'TNO City' improves trust and understanding in complex projects with numerous stakeholders

TNO City interface.

TNO City consists of a sophisticated geographical information

The input and output to the geographical information system is

system (GIS) for use in interactive settings. Plans can be drawn up

managed by the flexible programmable interface Visual Basic. The

interactively using a visual and communicative interface, with the

model has been applied numerous times and has proven to be of

financial and other consequences of alternatives immediately

added value, and a version aimed specifically at land and real estate

calculated and fed back into the process. The TNO-City model

planning is used commercially by the consultancy firm StrateGis

consists of four major conceptual components:

Groep.

1

Maps. The starting point for all analyses using TNO City is a set of topographical or functional maps of the area. Several types of maps can be used as a basic map. Older versions (TNO RasterGis)

measuring sustainability of a district with dpl DPL is an approach for sustainable urban planning that

used only raster maps, but presently all common formats are

quantitatively measures the sustainability of urban areas (districts)

compatible. Based on this map alone, preliminary analysis can be

based on 25 environmental, social and economic indicators (People,

performed, such as average distances to public transport stops.

Planet, Profit). DPL was developed by IVAM in cooperation with TNO

2 Databases. All kinds of geographical databases can be added as

Environment and Geosciences and with financial support from the

‘layers’ to the system: land and real estate ownership, real estate

Dutch Ministry of Housing Spatial Planning and the Environment

prices, soil conditions, demographical data, legal information, etc.

(VROM).

These databases provide input to a great diversity of analyses, for example the financial impact of acquiring and demolishing

DPL can be used by local authorities, urban planners and project

a specific area.

developers to inform discussions of sustainability in urban planning.

3 Functions: The third component is a database, in which urban

DPL can be used to set targets in advance and verify them later. Pilot

functions (infrastructure, dwellings, offices, parks, shopping

projects have been carried out in the cities of Amsterdam, Delft, The

centres, etc.) have been broken down into their logical components

Hague, Den Helder, Heerlen, Nieuwegein and Velsen.

and related to surface area. For each square metre of a land use the area of road, pavement, green space, parking space, sewers

Central to the DPL approach is a spreadsheet model with a user-

and so on is known. This enables the user to draw plans based

friendly interface. Users of the model first have to gather

solely on the surface area of the land uses; it is not necessary to

information regarding numerous aspects of an existing or newly

make an actual architectural design.

planned district. This information is used to calculate the 25

4 Calculation models. Several impact assessment models are linked

indicators. The resulting indicator scores can be compared with a

to the system, such as models to make financial assessments and

database of reference plans, typical for the most common types of

environmental, demographical and sociological models. The

Dutch urban districts. The complexity and depth of the isolated

model also allows for comparative and integrated assessment of

indicators is limited; the strength of DPL lies in the breadth of the

scenarios and for assessment of the development over time.

range of ecological, social and economic indicators (see

Typically, calculation models are Excel-spreadsheets.

Sustainability profile of a district). DPL is currently available as a

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 29

The DPL interface.

dpl – sustainability profile of a district ‘planet’ indicators

‘people’ indicators

‘profit’ indicators

stocks

safety

economic vitality

1 Material use 2 Energy use

10. Social safety 11. Traffic safety

20. Local employment 21. Local economic activity

3 Land use

12. External safety

local environment

services

4 Water management

13 Quality of services

5 Soil contamination

14 Access to services

capacity to change

7 Air pollution

green space and water

24 Mixed use

8 Noise

15 Local green space

25 ICT infrastructure

9.Smells

16 Local water

6 Waste management

sustainable businesses 22. sustainable businesses

23 Flexibility

quality 17 Quality of the district 18 Quality of the dwellings 19 Social cohesion

commercial software program through IVAM and TNO Environment

The TNO City approach is very communicative and interactive and

and Geosciences.

has no real weaknesses. Further improvements should focus on making the interface more usable for non-experts and on adding

three parallel approaches

more substantive aspects (indicators) to the default calculations.

A brief assessment of the three approaches, using the criteria identified earlier, is presented in tables 2a, 2b, and 2c. Each of the

The DPL approach is very easy to use, also for non-experts. It is also a

approaches has its specific advantages and disadvantages.

very transparent approach. The main disadvantage is that it takes time to generate the input for the calculations, which makes the

The Codes approach is integrative in many ways and pays a lot of

approach unsuitable for interactive and dynamic applications.

attention to the link between performance of design alternatives and the preferences of the stakeholders. The model is transparent,

The ideal method would have the integrative and actor-focused

but also very complex. This complexity limits its use, since experts

qualities of Codes, the GIS interface and speed of TNO City and the

are always needed to apply the approach.

transparency and ease of use of DPL. Such hybrid approaches will be

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NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 30

criteria

assessment of the codes approach

Integrative

MEDIA integrates different spatial levels, substantive aspects and decision making in one systematic approach.

++

Dynamic

MEDIA is able to calculate the performance of alternatives. The simulation game relates these results to stakeholders’ preferences. Stakeholders can choose the indicators they consider important.

++

Interactive

MEDIA itself does not directly support negotiation between stakeholders, this is however the primary function of the simulation game.

++

Transparent

From evaluations of the combined use of MEDIA and simulation game, it can be concluded that the approach in principle is clear and understandable to all stakeholders, although the complexity of the model requires a certain degree of expertise and experience with computer models.

+

Flexible and Reusable

The concepts behind MEDIA are generic, and therefore can be used or adapted for a wide range of applications. Considerable effort is required to construct a specific database, so this is only feasible if the method is applied often, or on very large projects.

0

Fast and easy

MEDIA databases should be built by experts. Experience is that non-experts can use the model with instruction, but only for the most basic functions. For sophisticated analysis an expert is needed. It is also clear the software interface still has a lot room for improvement.

0

Communicative and educational

This is not directly the purpose of MEDIA, but again one of the main objectives of the simulation game. Within the game, MEDIA clarifies the structure of the problem and possible alternative solutions. The game is designed to allow for different perspectives. The interface of the model itself is not specifically communicative.

+

Authoritative

Many of the indicators calculated by MEDIA are based on established and validated methods, but this not necessarily the case, nor is it clear in the model. Specific care has to be taken in advance to demonstrate this to the users. Within the simulation game, political standards are incorporated through the ambitions and goals of the participants.

+

examined in the future within research programmes such as Delft Cluster. However, past experiences have shown that visions of omnipotent supermodels have the tendency to become a goal in

score

8

Geurts J. and Joldersma C., Methodology for Participatory Policy Analysis, European

9

Bots P and Seijdel R., MEDIA - A decision support tool for urban development.

themselves. Accordingly, the approaches described in this paper will

Journal of Operational Research 128(2):300-310, 2001.

Conference proceedings Sustainable Building 2002, Oslo, 2002; Mayer I. van Bueren E., Bots P., van der Voort H. and Seijdel R., Collaborative decision making for

sustainable urban renewal projects: a simulation - gaming approach, Environment

be developed primarily in parallel with one another, focusing on

and Planning B: Planning and Design 32:403-423, 2005; Bots P., van Bueren E., ten

their specific strengths and applications.

Heuvelhof E. and Mayer I., Communicative tools in sustainable urban planning and building, Sustainable Urban Areas 5, DUP Science, 2005.

Notes 1

See Hajer M., The politics of environmental performance review: choices in design,

Working paper 38, Recht and Beleid, Rijksuniversiteit Leiden, 1992, and Roe E., Taking

10 Morgan J.R., AIDA – A Technique for the Management of Design, Coventry: Tavistock 11

complexity seriously: policy analysis, triangulation and sustainable development, Kluwer, Boston, 1998.

2

WCED, World commission on Environment and Development (1987) – Our common

3

Marin B. and Mayntz R., eds., Policy Networks: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical

4

Marsh, 1998? [niet in literatuurlijst]

Seijdel R., Collaborative decision making for sustainable urban renewal projects:

a simulation – gaming approach. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 32:403-423, 2005.

13 Dekker K.H., Pries F. and van der Toorn W., Innovatief vastgoed beheer: aanzetten voor een discussie over instrumenten voor stedelijk beheer, Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer, 1991.

and corporatism, Building Research and Information 28(2): 98-108, 2000

Bruijn, H. de and Ten Heuvelhof E. (2000) – Networks and Decision Making, Utrecht:

6

See note 5; and: Edelenbos, J., Design and management of participatory public

Lemma publishers.

policymaking, Public Management 1:569-578, 1999 and Edelenbos, J.,

Design and management of participatory public policymaking, 7

development, Conference proceedings Sustainable Building 2002, Oslo, 2002.

Bremer W. and Kok K., The Dutch construction industry: a combination of competition

5

Public Management 1:569-578, 1999

Mayer, I. (1997) – Debating Technologies. A methodological Contribution to the

Design and Evaluation of Participatory Policy Analysis. Tilburg Iniversity Press, Tilburg.

example, Bots P. and Seijdel R., MEDIA – A decision support tool for urban

12 These sessions are described in Mayer I., van Bueren E., Bots P., van der Voort H. and

future, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Considerations, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1991.

Institute of Human Relations, Institute of Operational Research, 1971

This functionality has been described more detailed in earlier papers. See, for

References –

Bueren E. van and Mayer I., A simulation game for sustainable decision making,

–

Mayer I. and Veneman W., Games in a world of infrastructures, Eburon Academic

Conference proceedings Sustainable Building 2002, Oslo, 2002. Publishers, Delft, 2003.

Z

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 31

The Mobilien high-performance bus network Seventy per cent of motorised traffic in the French conurbations is between suburbs, and this proportion is rising. Commuter journeys are being joined by growing numbers of leisure trips, while flexible working times spread out the morning and evening rush hours. The Mobilien bus network being introduced in the Île-de-France region aims to meets these needs while easing congestion.

Sophie Labbouz, EIVP/RATP/UMLV Youssef Diab, EIVP/UMLV Michel Christen, RATPP Logo of the Île-de-France Urban Travel Plan.

All French conurbations with populations greater than 100,000

suburbs (the départements Seine-et-Marne, Yvelines, Essonne and

have to prepare a Plan de Déplacements Urbains (PDU), or Urban

Val-d’Oise). The Mobilien network was designed as a fully-fledged

Travel Plan. These plans must contain appropriate measures for

network, with radial bus lines leading to the centre of Paris

reducing traffic, developing public transport and encouraging

complemented by several circle lines. By providing both suburb to

walking and cycling as alternative means of environmentally-

suburb and suburb to pole connections it maximises interchange

friendly travel. Other topics addressed in these plans include

between the different modes of transport.

goods transport, water transport and parking management. A key feature of the project is giving a clear structure to the network The PDU for the Île-de-France (PDUIF) was adopted at the end of

and establishing a hierarchy by showcasing the most important

2000 for a five year period. It did not seek explicitly to curb car traffic,

connections and heavily-used lines. The new lines will complement

but to reorganise public space in favour of environmentally-friendly

the existing rail and metro network with a finer network through

modes of transport. Certain objectives have been quantified, such as

the denser urban areas. The public transport hubs link these networks

reducing car traffic by 3% and increasing the use of public transport

to provide a comprehensive package of transport services throughout

by 2%, as well as doubling the number of cyclists on the roads.

the Île-de-France region.

the Mobilien project – expanding the bus network A key element in the PDUIF is the Mobilien project, a radical upgrade of the bus services, the least attractive means of transport in Île-de-France. In contrast to metro or tram, this form of public transport can be developed and expanded without major investment. The Mobilien network consists of 150 lines, most already existing, and 150 multimodal public transport hubs. It boasts as many lines and poles in Paris and its outskirts (the départements Hauts-deSeine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne) as in the more distant

The Mobilien project: a radical upgrade of the bus services

Y

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 32

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on the adjacent roadway. This central location is one of the first in Bus lines incorporated into the Mobilien project.

Île-de-France and demonstrates the determination of the authorities to make the Mobilien an innovative and high-performance network. Each physical intervention involves a redistribution of public space to make the roadway more legible and improve traffic circulation.

Y

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 34

Bus journey speeds are higher and services more regular as a result. Crossroads are where buses are held up the longest and so traffic management is being improved by introducing a ‘priority to buses’ system. Buses approaching the crossroads are detected and the traffic light sequence is adjusted to give them a green light and minimise waiting time. Counterflow bus lanes have been introduced in some one-way streets to keep outward and return journeys on the same route to make life easier for passengers.

The most visible improvements are changes in the street layout and road profile Public urban transport has to be accessible to everyone, including the elderly, parents with prams and disabled people. All public

Advertising campaign by the Île-de-France region in November 2004 (‘Because people in Île-de-France are always in a hurry, the Region gives you Mobilien’).

transport hubs must be fitted with lifts if they are not already provided. New buses will have a low platform at the same level

Besides route planning and design, the Mobilien project also includes

as the pavement. They will also be equipped with a platform that

operational measures. Each Mobilien line has to provide connecting

can be extended to bridge the gap between the vehicle and the

services as long as the Metro is operating, or from 6.30 am to 12.30 pm.

pavement for easy wheelchair access. The internal layout of the

They also have to run at no more than 5 minutes during the rush

buses has also been altered for greater passenger comfort.

hour and 10 minutes in slack periods. Moroever, Mobilien buses have to be in service every day, whereas some buses in Île-de-France do

Counterflow on line 325 in Ivry-sur-Seine (photo: RATP/ Gérard Dumax).

not operate at the weekend and on public holidays. Whatever the time or the day, the goal is to guarantee the traveller a bus. Finally, travel information is continually available in real time on the Mobilien network, an integral aspect of journey quality. One of the information services most appreciated by travellers are the estimated arrival times. The SIEL system, which works by satellite, locates the bus and informs travellers how long they have to wait before the next bus arrives. Information is also available through the website of the RATP (the main urban transport operator in Île-de-France), where you can calculate the shortest journey time on the public transport network. Neither has the signage at bus stops been neglected, but is carefully designed to indicate connections and help passengers find their bearings. Maps display the main attractions as well as all public transport stops and stations. consultation slows progress, but response promising The first Mobilien line to come into service in mid 2004 was line 38 in Paris. Of the 150 lines planned by the PDUIF at the outset, it is one the dozen now in operation; about thirty more are progressing and should be in service before the French municipal elections of 2008. The poles have been much slower getting off the ground. Only five will be in service at the end of the year, and twenty or so more should be ready at the end of 2008.

NovaTerra Connected Cities / june 2006 / 35

The SIEL system on bus line 95 to Paris (photo: RATP/ Gérard Dumax).

The most obvious point to arise from an appraisal of the project

Note 1

are the severe delays. As soon as the allocation of public space is at

project by the local population, the consultation periods were longer than initially planned. The complexity of allocating responsibilities has also slowed the project down. These delays have been tolerated

services (e.g. dedicated bus lanes, studies to give priority to buses at traffic lights). They cannot be used for hard or soft landscaping.

stake, local residents become involved and are quick to make their demands known. Although positive in terms of ownership of the

The subsidies must be used for roads layout or other measures which facilitate bus

Abbreviations – –

EIVP City of Paris Engineering School, 15 rue Fénelon, 75010 Paris, France. Phone + 33 1 56 02 61 00

RATP Public Transport Operator in the Paris Region, Maison de la Ratp,

54 quai de la Rapée, LAC A34, 75599 Paris Cedex 12, France. Phone +33 1 58 78 33 23

in view of the importance placed on consultation by the PDUIF.

–

While the lines now in service experienced a considerable drop in

References

passenger numbers during the works, numbers have subsequently increased sharply. Customer satisfaction surveys unequivocally show that travellers are sensitive to these changes and want the benefits extended to all the other lines. These results augur well for all the other line and pole projects which will get going over the next few

Reactions to: [email protected]

5 boulevard Descartes, 77454 Marne-la-Vallée Cedex 2, France. Phone + 33 1 60 95 73 43

–

Christen Michel, Mobilien, une ambition pour l’Île-de-France,

–

Direction Régionale de l’Équipement d’Île-de-France,

–

Direction Régionale de l’Équipement d’Île-de-France,

–

months. This project promises to appreciably upgrade the public transport network at limited costs.

UMLV University of Marne-la-Vallée, Pôle Ville, Bâtiment Lavoisier, Cité Descartes,

– –

Revue Savoir Faire 45(1), 2003.

Plan des Déplacements Urbains d’Île-de-France, December 2000. Plan des Déplacements Urbains d’Île-de-France – Bilan à mi-parcours, 2003. Gonzales Alvarez Antonio, Mobilien et le PDU d’Île-de-France – l’innovation

dans les politiques de déplacements au risque de la concertation, thèse de doctorat, February 2006.

RATP Department Development et Territorial Action,

The Mobilien project – RATP contribution, May 2004. RATP Pôle Développement et Politique de la Ville,

Contribuer à la mise en place du Plan des Déplacements Urbains, 2002.

Z

Connected Cities

Connected Cities is about sustainable mobility and spatial development. As EU-sponsored Interreg IIIC

Bulgaria

Municipality of Kardjali

network it focuses on high quality public transport

France

mobility and quality of life in urban and rural areas.

Sénart Public Local Authority

and transport development areas, aimed at improving The network activities will continue until the end of 2007. European network

Connected Cities brings together twenty-five partners throughout Europe. The partners in Connected Cities will share their experiences and insights through

City of Paris Engineering School (EIVP)

Ghent University / Architecture and Urban Planning

Netherlands Centre for Underground Construction(COB) TNO Environment and Geosciences

Institute Pedro Nunes (IPN)

Hamburg-Harburg University of Technology (TUHH)

of Patras (ADEP)

European New Town Platform (ENTP)

structure (SRE)

Facilities (STUVA)

through a guide to good practice.

Belgium

Eindhoven Regional Government Administrative

Portugal

Research Association for Underground Transportation

Greece

http://connectedcities.net

Delft University of Technology (TU Delft)

Germany

management and coordination, interregional showcase

workshops, dissemination and communication, including

Netherlands

Municipal Enterprise of Planning & Development Development Agency of Magnesia S.A. (ANEM)

City Hall of Covilhã

Spain

Federation of municipalities and provinces of Castilla-La Mancha (FEMPCLM) Municipality of Toledo

Municipality of Philippi

United Kingdom

University of Thessaly

South East England Development Agency (SEEDA)

Region of Thessaly

Italy

Municipality of Ancona Municipality of Ferrara

Bristol City Council

Transport for London (TfL)