N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report On Archaeological Investigations At Site 34 In The Townland Of Newrath, Co Kilkenny Volume 2
This document was uploaded by user and they confirmed that they have the permission to share it. If you are author or own the copyright of this book, please report to us by using this DMCA report form. Report DMCA
Overview
Download & View N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report On Archaeological Investigations At Site 34 In The Townland Of Newrath, Co Kilkenny Volume 2 as PDF for free.
More details
- Words: 16,384
- Pages: 60
Project Code: NWB 03 Client: Waterford Co. Council Date: May 2009
N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Volume 2 Appendix 8: Integrated wood report for Site 34, Newrath Townland, Co. Kilkenny By: Susan Lyons & Lorna O’Donnell Excavated under Licence: 04E0319 Director: Brendon Wilkins Chainage: 670 NGR: 25921 11446
Project Code: NWB 03 Client: Waterford Co. Council Date: May 2009
N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Volume 2 Appendix 8: Integrated wood report for Site 34, Newrath Townland, Co. Kilkenny
By: Susan Lyons & Lorna O’Donnell Excavated under Licence: 04E0319 Director: Brendon Wilkins Chainage: 670 NGR: 25921 11446
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2 Table of Contents 1. INTRODUCTION
Page
1
2.
SCOPE OF WOOD ANALYSIS
2
3.
SAMPLING STRATEGY
3
3.1
On‐site strategy
3
3.2
Wood analysis strategy
3
4
4.
5.
METHODOLOGY
4.1
Wood identification
4
4.2
Wood size
4
4.3
Growth ring count & ring width analysis
5
4.4
Preservation & evidence of decay
5
4.5
Toolmarks
6
4.5.1
Background to the analysis of worked wood and the tools used
6
4.5.2
Toolmarks from metalworking implements
7
8
5.1
Results of the wood identification and analysis
8
5.2
Wood size
5.3
Ring count analysis
RESULTS
9
10
11
6.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD SPECIES
7.
WOOD RESULTS AND THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY
15
7.1
Early/Middle Bronze Age period
15
7.2
Later Bronze Age period
16
7.3
Iron Age period
16
7.4
Medieval period
17
7.5
Overview of the wood assemblage from the Bronze Age to the medieval period 18
8.
WORKED WOOD ANALYSIS
22
8.1
Individual structures
22
8.2
Worked ends
25
8.3
Jam curves
26
8.4
Facets
30
8.5
Toolmarks and the archaeological chronology
32
8.6
Differences in spit levels
34
8.7
Analysis of signatures
36
8.8
Tree felling
38
8.9
Cleft timbers
39
8.10
Woodcarving and fine woodworking
40
ii
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2 8.11
Notched or holed timbers
9.
41
AGE PROFILE OF THE TIMBERS/WOODLAND MANAGEMENT
42
10.
COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE WOOD AND POLLEN RECORD
45
11.
DISCUSSION
46
12.
SUMMARY
50
13.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
50
14.
REFERENCES
51
iii
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2 List of Figures
Page
9
Fig. 2 Percentage of the general wood sizes recorded from Site 34
10
Fig. 3 Age profiles of wood recorded from Site 34
10
Fig. 4 Distribution of wood species from EBA/MBA dated structure
16
Fig. 5 Distribution of wood species from Iron Age dated structures
17
Fig. 6 Distribution of wood species from Medieval dated structures
18
Fig. 7 Wood species identified from dated structures
20
Fig. 8 Wood sizes identified from dated structures
21
Fig. 9 Total worked ends from Site 34
25
Fig. 10 End types and diameters from Site 34
26
Fig. 11 Jam curves from Site 34
28/29
Fig. 12 Total facet characters from Site 34
30
Fig. 13 Total facet dimensions from Site 34
31
Fig. 14 Features of a facet (After Sands 1997, 12)
31
Fig. 15 Worked ends per time period
33
Fig. 16 Facet profiles per time period
33
Fig. 17 Facet dimensions per time period
34
Fig. 18 Conversion processes from Site 34
39
Fig. 19 Cleft timbers; tangential, radial and half‐split (After O’Sullivan 1996, 305).
39
Fig. 20 Age profiles of the wood taxa from Site 34
Fig. 1 Percentage of wood species identified from Site 34
Fig. 21 Age profiles of wood identified from dated structures
iv
42
44
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2 List of Plates
Page
Plate 1 Medieval jam curve on 34W3524
27
Plate 2 Blade signature on 34W047
36
Plate 3 Oak trunk 34W001
38
41
43
Plate 4 Notched radially split ash 34W2010
Plate 5 Probable coppiced alder heels from Site 34 v
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2 1.
INTRODUCTION
This report presents the results of the wood analysis carried out on a number of wooden structures excavated at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny. Archaeological excavations were undertaken at the site under excavation licence number 04E0319 by Brendon Wilkins of Headland Archaeology Ltd on behalf of Waterford City Council and the National Road Authority (NRA) in 2004, as part of the archaeological mitigation program associated with the N25 Waterford Bypass. A total of 22 structures were identified at the site dating from the Bronze Age to the medieval period and potentially into Early Modern times. The structures themselves ranged in form from large trackways and platforms, primarily constructed of timbers and large roundwood elements, to lighter brushwood scatters of small and medium roundwoods. The analysis of the wood from Site 34 was undertaken by Susan Lyons and Lorna O’Donnell from 2005 to 2006. The wood identification and analysis of bulk wood samples was carried out by Susan Lyons, formerly of Headland Archaeology Ltd, while the wood identification and tool technology analysis of the individual worked wood elements was recorded by Lorna O’Donnell of Margaret Gowen & Co. Ltd. Both authors have combined their results for the purpose of this report, to create one wood report which would incorporate the results from all wood identifications and worked wood analysis. The report will discuss the wood assemblage chronologically according to time periods based on known radiocarbon dates obtained for the site. It will be structured to outline the scope of wood identification analysis, the sampling strategies and methodologies employed, along with a series of discussion points, which will include the total results of wood identifications from sampled elements, the characteristics of the wood species identified at Site 34, results of the wood analysis with reference to the archaeological chronology for the site and comparisons with the results from the pollen study undertaken by Dr. Scott Timpany (2006). The discussion will also incorporate the results of the worked wood assemblage, carried out by Lorna O’Donnell and will detail the evidence for possible woodland management and selection at the site. Due to the large volume of raw data collated during this project, a more detailed description of the wood results of the individual structures and a table of all wood identifications recorded will be available to view on a CD disc with will accompany this report. 1
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
2.
SCOPE OF WOOD ANALYSIS
The overall aim of the wood study from Site 34 was to provide a sufficient record of the wood species selected for the construction of the structures recorded at the site along with a record of the types of tools used. The wood results would also give information on the species composition of the marginal woodland and perhaps some indication of the wider wooded landscape. By comparing these results with those from the pollen analysis, it is envisaged that changes or trends in how the local woodland was utilised from the Bronze Age to the medieval period may be highlighted. The wood analysis would also serve to identify if woodland management or a selection process was employed at the site by studying the size (diameter), age ranges and growth ring patterns of the material.
2
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
3.
SAMPLING STRATEGY
3.1
On‐site strategy
A comprehensive wood sampling strategy was devised in consultation with a number of environmental and wood specialists. The sampling strategy was also formulated to accommodate inevitable project constraints and the seasonal flooding experienced at the site, which made for difficult working conditions. It was recommended that at least one third (30%) of the exposed wood assemblage at Site 34 be sampled. This strategy is commonplace on wetland sites that produce a large number of wooden elements and follows a similar strategy that was employed at Derryville Bog in Co. Tipperary (Stuijts, 2005) and by the wetland excavations undertaken by the Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit (IAWU) between1998 to 2005. On‐site sampling of the wood assemblage from Site 34 was carried out two ways: 1) individual worked wood pieces were recorded and sampled as single entities, each getting a separate sample and find number. The worked wood sampling strategy evolved during the course of the excavation. Initially all worked wood elements were sampled but this strategy was subsequently followed by a representative portion of the worked elements being sampled. 2) bulk wood samples, where each sample contained multiple wood elements, were randomly sampled from each known structure and recorded as one whole sample, with each sample allocated a bulk sample number. Each sample was packed in a peat matrix to aid preservation and appropriately wrapped for ease of storage and transportation. 3.2
Wood analysis strategy
The sampling procedure used in the analysis of the bulk samples was developed in consultation with Dr. Tim Holden and Mhairi Hastie of Headland Archaeology Ltd, whereby a representative number of the bulk wood samples from each sampled structure would undergo species identification and analysis. It was agreed that where there were several hundred wood elements associated with any one structure, between 30% and 50% of the assemblage would be studied which would reflect a good representation of the wood used within each structure. The only exception was from Structure 34505 in Area 2 Cutting G, where a small number of wood elements were sampled on site. As a result all wood from bulk sample numbers 59 and 60 were identified and analysed. All of the individual wood
3
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
pieces present in Headland Archaeology’s post excavation facility were selected for identification and analysed for wood working techniques by Lorna O’Donnell. 4.
METHODOLOGY
The wood samples were washed and prepared for analysis at the Headland Archaeology Ltd post‐ excavation facility located in the Europa Business Park, Midleton Co. Cork between May 2005 and October 2005. The individual worked wood and each wood element from the bulk wood samples were unwrapped, washed and visually examined for the presence of bark, bubs and any other obvious external features which would aid identification. The individual worked wood elements were analysed and recorded separately (Lorna O’Donnell), while the multiple wood fragments from the bulk samples were categorised according to size (diameter width), colour and texture (knottiness) by Susan Lyons. Where worked wood was recorded from bulk samples, these were merged with the worked wood assemblage and analysed for wood working technology. 4.1
Wood identification
Wood species identifications were undertaken in accordance with Section 25 of the National Monuments Act 1930, as amended by Section 20 of the National Monuments Amendment Act 1994, to alter an archaeological object. A portion of each wooden element was sawn off to reveal an unexposed surface. Exposing a fresh surface would rid the wood of any degradation or possible fungal attack which may hinder species identification. Thin slivers were cut with a razor blade to obtain the three sectional planes (transverse, radial and tangential sections) necessary for microscopic wood identification. The thin sections were mounted onto a glass slide with a temporary water medium and sealed with a cover slip. Identifications were conducted under a transcident light microscope at magnifications of 40x to 400x where applicable. Wood species identifications were made using wood keys devised by Franklin and Brazier (1961), Schweingruber (1978) and the International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA) wood identification manuals by Wheeler, Bass and Gasson (1989). 4.2
Wood size
Each wood piece chosen for analysis was also measured along the cross section (mm) to determine the size of the element, which would be useful with interpreting if a selection process based on
4
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
physical size was being used at the site. The wood elements were categorised into those that were identified as timbers (split radially or tangentially), roundwoods and root material. Due to the large number of roundwood elements from the assemblage, this category was further divided into sub categories of small roundwoods (<25mm), medium roundwoods (26mm‐60mm) and large roundwoods (61mm‐100mm). Irregular fragments which did not fit into any of the aforementioned categories are grouped as miscellaneous. 4.3
Growth ring count & ring width analysis
Where possible each of the wood pieces selected for species identification were also studied for growth ring count and ring width analysis in order to determine an age profile for the wood and evidence for possible woodland management, in the form of coppicing. This was undertaken by using a calibrated stereoscopic microscope. 4.4
Preservation & evidence of decay
The study of wood can also reveal evidence of decay which can help to determine the environmental conditions to which the various components of the structures had been exposed. Fungi are responsible for most wood degradation, while bacteria accounts for a limited amount of decay under specialized conditions. White rot is when the wood appears white, is very soft and fibrous, while brown rot, where the wood is brown, causes the wood to become powdery and cracks cubically when dry. These are both produced by Basidiomycetes (eg toadstools) and are not found in waterlogged conditions or environments devoid of oxygen, which indicates that the wood was exposed to the air when they invaded it (Carruthers, 1978). Wood which has been in very wet conditions experience soft rot, which is when the outer layer of wood becomes very soft. Here the rate of decay is much slower and is caused by Ascomycetes and Hyphomycetes (eg cup fungi) (Carruthers 1978). Where wood is attacked by bacteria the cell walls become thin, and in extreme cases give the wood the pliability of plasticine. This type of decay is also found in very wet anaerobic conditions and usually observed in extremely old wood (Carruthers, 1978). In the case of the wood assemblage from Site 34, the majority of the material was in a relatively good state of preservation, where wood could be easily sectioned for identification. The only evidence for poor degradation was noted in some of the roundwoods and root material from Structures 34005, 34007, 34015 and 34017 from Area 1, Structure 34507 from Area 2 and Structure 341513 from Area 4.
5
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
The wood recorded here was very soft and in some cases hindered full species identification or ring counts. This could indicate a degree of soft rot in the material, which would be consistent with the waterlogged environment from which the wood was subjected to. 4.5
Toolmarks
Toolmark analysis followed methods employed by O’Sullivan (1996), O’Neill (2005) and Coles and Orme (1985). Facet measurements were taken using calipers. Each piece of wood was also examined for blade signatures. Worked ends were classified in three different ways; chisel, wedge and pencil ended. Chisel ends are worked on one side, wedge‐ends worked on both sides and pencil ends are worked on three sides or more. Facets were recorded in millimeters. 4.5.1
Background to the analysis of worked wood and the tools used
The excavation and publication of wooden trackways and platforms from the Somerset levels have provided the background to current worked wood analysis (e.g. Orme and Coles, 1983; Coles and Orme 1985). Other British work includes the wood assemblage from Caldicot, South Wales (Brunning and O’Sullivan 1997). A considerable amount of woodworking evidence has been published from a Late Bronze Age platform at Flag Fen in Cambridgeshire (Pryor et al 1986; Taylor and Pryor 1990), and individual issues such as blade signatures have been addressed in Sands (1997). Recent Irish work comes from excavations along the Mountdillon trackways (O’Sullivan 1996), Mount Gabriel mines (Mc Keown 1994), Derryville Bog (O’Neill 2005) and various excavations by the Irish Archaeological Wetland unit (Maloney 1993a and b; 1995). By analysing the conversion process, facets and worked ends from Site 34, the woodworking evidence can be compared to the existing body of data form Irish archaeological sites. Many important changes occurred from the Bronze Age to the medieval period, such as hafting mechanisms, blade edge diameters and the evolution of specialist tools. These changes are reflected in the shape of the facets, and the diversity of timber joinery. For this reason a brief overview of the published corpus of Bronze, Iron and Medieval woodworking tools is presented below. Early Bronze Age The earliest Irish metal axes were made from copper and were flat, trapezoidal axes with thick butts and straight sides. These developed into thick‐butted axes with a slightly curving edge. The last truly copper axe had curved sides and thin butts (Burgess 1979). When the technology to make harder bronze was introduced, the first widespread bronze axes in Ireland were broad and approximately
6
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
triangular in shape, with a shallow crescent shaped cutting edge. Most are flat with thin butts and some are decorated. Important changes occur with the development of axes when low raised edges were put on the faces, creating slight flanges and a transverse bevel which appears on the middle of the axe (O’Sullivan 1996, 313). One of the last axe types in the Early Bronze Age are fairly small, with straight and more or less parallel sides which curve out abruptly to an expanded crescentic cutting edge. Butts are usually flat, low hammered flanges are present in many cases, and a median thickening or ridge often occurs (Harbison, 1969). Middle Bronze Age There is a large range of palstaves and flanged axes in the Middle Bronze Age however the cutting edges remain very similar in terms of width, cross‐section and curvature (Herity and Eogan 1977). Flanged axes and palstaves are characterised by the height of flanges and nature of the stop. The flanges and stops introduced increase the weight of the axehead (O’Sullivan 1996). Late Bronze Age Possible wood working tools from the Late Bronze Age include socketed axes and gouges, knives and tanged chisels (Herity and Eogan 1977; O’Sullivan 1996, 321). The weight and the cutting edge width of socketed axes were smaller than previously. As these flanged, socketed and looped axes and palstaves were smaller, they probably would not have suited purposes such as tree felling, but would have been suitable for chopping smaller roundwoods (Edlin 1973; O’Sullivan 1996, 321). Iron Age A small number of looped, socketed axeheads and shaft‐hole axeheads are known from Ireland in the Iron Age (Herity and Eogan 1977). These shaft‐hole axes had a wider cutting edge than the looped and socketed axes, being up to 9cm in width. Iron Age adzes have also been identified, for example the small socketed adze from Newgrange, Co. Meath (O’Sullivan 1996, 331). Dedicated chisels also emerge in the Late Bronze Age (O’Neill 2005, 335). Medieval period During the Medieval period, woodworking tools would have consisted of axes, billhooks, adzes, knives, chisels, saws and augers (Wallace 1982). 4.5.2
Toolmarks from metal woodworking implements
7
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Metal axes can produce flat, slightly concave or concave facets. The facet junctions are normally clean or stepped, as the metal can cut far more cleanly through the wood than stone axes. Roundwoods are cut at quite shallow angles, and are generally not snapped or torn. 5.
RESULTS
The results of the wood analysis from Site 34 will be outlined and discussed under a) results of the wood identifications and analysis and b) results of the worked wood analysis. Approximately 30% of the wood assemblage from Site 34 was chosen for full identification and analysis. Of the 22 structures identified at the site, fourteen structures contained a workable number of wood samples suitable for wood identification and analysis. Eleven wood taxa totalling 2,191 identifications were recorded from structures 34005, 34006, 34007, 34014, 34015, 34017, 34504, 34505, 34507, 341501, 341507, 341509, 341512 and 341513. The majority of the wood samples still had the bark or traces of still attached, and in some cases, elements from the bulk wood samples were noted as being knarled and/or knotty. Most of the wood was free of any obvious insect damage and suggests that the wood used in the construction of these structures may have been chopped down just before deposition. Approximately 5% of the wood assemblage analysed had insect damage, which may indicate that some woods were lying exposed or used for other purposes prior to being utilised in the structures. 5.1
Results of the wood identification and analysis (Fig. 1)
The majority of the wood elements were in a relatively good state of preservation and identifications could be made to genus level for the most part, i.e. Quercus (oak), Betula (birch), Salix (willow), Sambucus (elder), Taxus baccata (yew), Cornus (dogwood) and Carpinus (hornbeam). In cases where the species was considered to be the most likely represented, these included Alnus glutinous (alder/black alder), Fraxinus excelsior (ash) and Corylus avellana (hazel). The identification of the Pomoideae group proved more difficult to separate. The pomaceous fruit wood species includes the genera Malus (apple), Pyrus (pear), Sorbus (rowan or whitebeam) and Crataegus (hawthorn). They are anatomically very similar and in the absence of bark, buds and leaves cannot be differentiated between each other very often.
8
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Alder (Alnus glutinous) was by far the most dominant wood species recorded from the study, accounting for 72% of the identifiable material. Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) was the second most significant wood type making up 10% of the assemblage. Almost equal quantities of oak (Quercus sp.) and willow (Salix sp.) were recorded at 6% each, while just 2% of birch (Betula sp.), and 1% or less of hazel (Corylus avellana), pomaceous woods (Pomoideae spp.), elder (Sambucus sp.), yew (Taxus baccata), dogwood (Cornus sp.) and hornbeam (Carpinus sp.) were identified. The preservation quality of some wood fragments hindered further identification in some cases and this material was labelled as indeterminate wood (wood indet.) and accounted for 2% of the analysed material.
<1% <1% <1% <1% <1% <1% 1% 1% <1% <1% <1% 2% <1% 2% 2% 2% 6% 6%
Alder Alder Ash Ash
6% 6%
Willow Willow Oak Oak Birc Birchh Hazel Hazel
10% 10%
Pomac Pomaceous spp eous spp Elder Elder Dogwood Dogwood Yew Yew Hornbeam Hornbeam 72% 72%
Wood Indet Wood Indet
Fig. 1 Percentage of wood species identified from Site 34 5.2
Wood size (Fig. 2)
The majority of the wood analysed from Site 34 was made up of small roundwoods (<25mm diameter width), which accounted for 48% of the assemblage. Medium roundwoods (26mm‐60mm) made up 14% of the assemblage, while just 5% of the wood analysed was categorised as larger roundwoods (61mm‐100mm). Split timbers and root material each accounted for just 3% of the assemblage. Up to
9
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
27% of the wood samples were noted as irregular fragments and therefore categorised as miscellaneous wood. While all the miscellaneous wood fragments underwent wood species identification, they were deemed unsuitable for growth ring count analysis or ring width analysis and will therefore not be included in these sections. Structures 34006, 34007, 34014, 34017, 34504 and 341512 contained the majority of the small and medium roundwoods recorded, while the only structures to contain a notable number of larger roundwoods and timbers were Structures 34007, 34015, 34505 and 341507.
3% 3% 5% 5%
27% 27%
14% 14% Timbers Timbers
Lrg rwds Lrg rwds
Med rwds Med rwds
SSm rwds m rwds
3% 3%
Root Root
Misc Misc
48% 48%
Fig. 2 Percentage of the general wood sizes recorded from Site 34 5.3
Ring count analysis (Fig. 3)
Where possible, the number of growth rings was recorded from each of the roundwood elements. A total of 1518 roundwoods were sectioned and the growth rings counted. The majority of the analysed wood elements (51%) were aged to between 11 and 20 years, with 40% of the assemblage aged to between 1 and 10 years. More mature trees were recorded in much lesser numbers, where 6% were aged to between 21 and 30 years with just 3% accounting for elements aged over 30 years.
10
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
6% 6%
3% 3%
40% 40%
1‐10 yrs 1‐10 yrs 11‐20 yrs 11‐20 yrs
21‐30 yrs 21‐30 yrs
30+ yrs 30+ yrs
51% 51%
Fig. 3 Age profiles of wood recorded from Site 34 6.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD SPECIES
Alnus glutinous L. Gärtner (alder or black alder) Alder is usually found growing close to running water, rivers or in damp woodland, in the latter often with oak (Orme and Coles, 1985; Rackham, 1995). In marshland alder grows as a shrub frequently mixed with willow and alder buckthorn to form alder carr (Cutler and Gale, 2000). It can also grow well in and on fen peat. Germination and early growth of alders requires a constant supply of water, however once the tree reaches maturity its root system makes the tree less dependent on high water levels (Stuijts, 2005). Alders commonly produce root nodules which contain nitrogen‐ fixing bacteria, known as Schinzia alni which enables alder to enrich soils through its fallen leaves hence allowing the tree to survive in poorer soil conditions (Milner cited in Culter and Gale, 2000; van der Meiden cited in Stuijts, 2005). In suitable conditions alder growth is fast, usually reaching a height of 25m with a maximum girth of 1m and can grow to an age of sixty to one hundred years (Strotelder cited in Stuijts, 2005). While alder makes for poor fuel, it produces good quality charcoal (Edlin, 1951). The wood can quickly turn a reddish colour after cutting and once dry it is water resistant and does not split easily. Once in a waterlogged state, alder is very durable and is often used in the construction of underwater bridge piles, houses and scaffolding (Culter and Gale, 2000). Alder is traditionally used in the making of smaller objects such as bowls, handles and broomsticks and its bark can be used in the tanning of leather (Rackham, 1980).
11
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Fraxinus excelsior L. (ash) Ash is a wood that thrives well on nutrient‐rich soils but is also a common woodland species and grows in mixed woodland with oak on damp, slightly acidic soils (Gale & Culter, 2000). It generally avoids very wet environments although where soils are mineral‐rich, it can sometimes be found in marginal forests and on stream beds. While ash is a light‐loving species, the seedlings prefer shaded areas to grow. It can grow up to 45m in height and can reach an age of 150 years. It produces very good firewood and its timber is valued for its durability and elasticity and is commonly used in making furniture, shafts, spears, handles and agricultural equipment. Upon exposure, ash is prone to rotting. Pollen analysis indicates that ash became more common in the pollen record from the Neolithic period onwards (Mitchell, 1953/4). This could be as a result of more clearance due to agricultural practices at the time, where ash was able to germinate and grow more vigorously as secondary woodland and in marginal areas and hedges (Kelly, 1976). Quercus spp. L. (oaks) Oak is a tall deciduous woodland tree, often growing in association with hazel and ash. Most species prefer damp, non‐calcareous soils on lowland or montane sites. Of the 27 European species, pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea) are native to Ireland. Pedunculate oak is common on heavy clay lowland soils whereas sessile oak thrives on the lighter loams characteristic of higher ground (Culter & Gale, 2000). The two native Irish oaks are usually distinguished by their acorns: the sessile oak has acorns with no stalks, while the pedunculate oak has acorns with long stalks (peduncles). Sessile oak can be found on less fertile, acidic soils than the pedunculate oak. The latter is usually found growing on heavy, lowland soils where it can also tolerate flooding. Oaks can reach a height of 40 metres and live for 1,000 years or more (Hickie, 2002, 60). It makes excellent firewood. It splits and works well, which combined with durable heartwood makes it a preferred species for all larger structural timbers. Salix spp. (willows). There are a number of different species of willow which cannot be differentiated through wood anatomy. They grow rapidly, and can be easily propagated from cuttings. General comments only about the genus can be made, as there are different varieties of it. They are not naturally a woodland species, although shrubby growth may occur under light woodland cover. All willows appear to favour wet conditions, and it may be a pioneer species on wet soils. The use of willow depends on the
12
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
species concerned, for some grow as shrubs and others as trees, and a species may be particularly suited to some purpose. In general, the flexibility of willow shoots has led to coppicing or pollarding to produce the raw materials for baskets, frames, hurdling etc. (Orme & Coles, 1985). The main Irish native willows are grey willow (Salix cinera), goat willow (Salix caprea) and eared willow (Salix aurita). Betula spp. (birches) Birch was one of the first tress to arrive to Ireland after the end of the last glaciation. It grows as trees or shrubs with a preference for light and thrives on non‐calcareous soils. It is often associated with heathland and successional oak woods, but can rapidly form secondary woodland in cleared areas and on abandoned peat cuttings. Birch species are generally short‐lived, although some examples have known to reach ages of up to 70 and 80 years. Through most of its woodland history, birch played a minor role since its timber was too weak for structural purposes and rots easily outdoors and therefore not greatly valued. Birch wood however, makes a hot but short‐lived fuel and produces high quality charcoal (Lines cited in Gale & Culter, 2000). It is best suited in the manufacturing of fine objects, such as furniture, bowls and tool handles. Birch bark has also been used in making shoes and roofs. Corylus avellana L. (hazel) Hazel woodlands replaced birch in the early post‐glacial forests and remains on some shallow limestone soils to the present day (Pilcher & Hall, 2001). The species can tolerate most soil types, but not waterlogged conditions and forms a small deciduous tree or shrub. It commonly occurs in the understorey of oak and/or ash woodlands, where it may grow to a height of 10m or more. In open areas or woodland glades hazel grows as a shrub. Hazel is a common species recorded from Irish archaeological sites and its widespread presence is highlighted in pollen diagrams from the Neolithic to the medieval period (Caseldine, 1996). It produces good firewood and is a suitable wood for kindling. The wood is soft enough to be split yet flexible and strong enough to be used in rope making and basketry. It has also proved a useful resource in the construction of hurdles, wattling, palisades and trackways from prehistoric times (Pilcher & Hall, 2001). Pomoideae spp. (pomaceous fruit woods) The pomaceous fruit wood species includes the genera Malus (apple), Pyrus (pear), Sorbus (rowan or whitebeam) and Crataegus (hawthorn). They are anatomically very similar and in the absence of bark, buds and leaves cannot be differentiated between each other very often. The pomaceous wood types are small deciduous spiny trees or shrubs and are common to the scrub margins of woodlands and
13
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
hedgerows (Gale & Culter, 2000). The apple species, often crab apple (Malus sylvertris) in woodlands, is a light‐demanding tree and is often found in open oak woods. When dry, crab apple makes for good firewood. While its wood is durable and tough, its crooked trunks and small branches make this species unsuitable for most construction works and instead it is used in making small implements, such as tool handles, bodkins and screws. Pear, grown as wild pear (Pyrus pyraster), is good as fuel. Its wood is hard and fine grained and used in high‐quality turning and making instruments. Rowan and whitebeam grow well in light soils and avoids clays and limestone. Their timber is durable yet not of any economic value, since large trees are scarce. The wood is smooth, fine‐grained and suitable for turnery, household utensils and small decorative woodwork. Hawthorn is shade‐tolerant and forms understorey in ash and hazel woodland. Both hawthorn and apple‐type (Malus sp.) produce edible fruits which would have been gathered as a foodstuff from the prehistoric period (Greig, 1991). These wood types burn slow and steady and provide excellent heat with minimal smoke (Culter & Gale, 2000). Sambucus nigra L. (elder) This is a small tree or shrub of fertile soils in a wide range of habitats, including woodland, hedgerows, grassland, scrub and waste ground (Preston et al 2002, 597). Elder is normally shrubby, it can become arborescent with a trunk up to 25m in diameter. It is synathropic, thriving on the nitrogen‐rich soils associated with human habitation. The trunk wood is extremely hard (Gale & Cutler, 2000). It burns quickly and with little heat. Taxus baccata (yew) Yew has been a component of the Irish native woodland since the post‐glacial period, although not as prominent as scots pine or the deciduous species of oak, elm, ash, hazel and birch. It grows on many soil types, usually under the shade of other trees and often as a solitary tree. Its timber is of great strength and elasticity and resists decay when exposed. It makes for very good firewood and is traditionally used in the manufacturing of bows, turned domestic objects, furniture and fence posts (Cutler and Gale 2000). Just four wood elements were identified as yew and confined to Early/Middle Bronze Age structures 34017 and 341512. Cornus sp. (dogwood)
14
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
This shrub can be found in woodlands, scrub and hedgerows, on limestone soils or base rich clays, sometimes dominant in hedges and scrub on chalk (Preston et al 2002, 422). Carpinus sp. (hornbeam) This is a long lived deciduous tree, found in pure and mixed woodland on base‐poor sandy or loamy clays, or clay‐with‐flints (Preston et al 2002, 135). 7.
WOOD RESULTS AND THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY
Of the fifteen structures studied as part of this wood analysis report, eleven dates from the following structures were obtained from single wood elements by AMS dating: Early/Middle Bronze Age (EBA/MBA) Structure 34005: 1680‐1500 cal BC Structure 34017: 2112‐1884 cal BC Structure 341501: 2133‐1901 cal BC Structure 341512: 2200‐1980 cal BC Structure 341514: 2855‐2488 cal BC Later Bronze Age (LBA) Structure 34505: 1488‐1309 cal BC Iron Age Structure 34006: 344‐48 cal BC Structure 34007: 173 cal BC‐cal AD 4 Structure 34015: 256 cal BC‐cal AD 414 Medieval period Structure 34504: 1324‐1441 cal AD Structure 34507: 1316‐1436 cal AD
15
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
From this point forward it will be these dated structures [34005, 34006, 34007, 34015, 34017, 34504, 34505, 34507, 341501, 341512 and 341514], which will be discussed in relation to the archaeological chronology recorded at the site. 7.1
Early/Middle Bronze Age period
Five structures were dated to the Early/Middle Bronze Age [34005, 34017, 341501, 341512 and 341514]. The structures were primarily constructed of alder, with much lesser evidence for ash, willow and birch (Fig 4). Oak, hazel and dogwood were only recorded from Structure 34005 and this seems to be the most substantial structure dating to this period. The only evidence for yew was recorded from Structures 34017 and 341512. Structures 34017 and 341501 contained very few wood elements (<100 elements each) and therefore may not be a viable assemblage from which to draw any interpretations from. It is possible that these structures are more scatters of wood which may be a) the remnants of an existing structure, b) have been deposited to facilitate the maintenance or repair of an existing structure or c) may represent the dislodged remains of another structure.
200 200
180 180
160 160
No. of wood pieces No. of wood pieces
Alder Alder
140 140
Ash Ash
120 120
Willow Willow Birc Birchh
100 100
Oak Oak Hazel Hazel
80 80
Dogwood Dogwood
60 60
Yew Yew
40 40 20 20 00 34005 34005
34017 34017
341501 341501 Structures Structures
341512 341512
341514 341514
Fig. 4 Distribution of wood species from Early/Middle Bronze Age dated structures
16
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
7.2
Later Bronze Age period
Structure 34505 was dated to the early later Bronze Age period and represents the only structure to date to this period. All woods were recorded as brushwood elements. Just forty five wood samples were identified from one bulk sample associated with 34505 and as a result very little can be postulated about this particular feature. Alder, oak and ash were recorded from here, but with values of less than twenty for each species, it is difficult to ascertain the composition of wood species used in constructing this feature or indeed how this reflects on the local woodland during this period. Once again it is possible that 34505 represents the remains of a once larger structure, or may be a scatter of wood deposited for repair, or as part of a foundational layer. 7.3
Iron Age period
Three structures were dated to the Iron Age [34006, 34007 and 34015]. Alder is the dominant wood species identified within these structures, however there is obviously more ash and willow recorded from this assemblage (Fig. 5). Oak too is present, but values for hazel still remains low. The slight emphasis on more ash and willow here may just reflect the nature of the wood composition in this structure rather than an increase in the use of these wood types or a change in local woodland resources during the Iron Age. The use of alder, ash and oak together in more notable quantities may also reflect the construction of more durable structures in the Iron Age period. All three species are renowned for their timber strength and sustainability when deposited in waterlogged conditions.
70 70
60 60
50 50
No. of wood pieces No. of wood pieces
Alder Alder Ash Ash
40 40
Willow Willow Oak Oak
30 30
Hazel Hazel 20 20
Pomac Pomaceous eous Elder Elder
10 10 00 34006 34006
34007 34007
34015 34015
Structures Structures
17
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Fig. 5 Distribution of wood species from Iron Age dated structures 7.4
Medieval period
The structures dating to the medieval period [34505 and 34507] were predominantly constructed of alder, while less than 10 identifications of ash, willow, birch, pomaceous fruit woods and hornbeam were also recorded (Fig 6). Structure 34504 was possibly the more substantial structure since it contained almost 600 wooden elements. The majority of the wood was brushwood, with approximately 15 timbers identified as oak from Structure 34504.
700 700
600 600
No. of wood pieces No. of wood pieces
500 500
Alder Alder Ash Ash Willow Willow
400 400
Birc Birchh Oak Oak Pomac Pomaceous eous
300 300
Dogwood Dogwood Wood indet Wood indet Hornbeam Hornbeam
200 200
100 100
00 34504 34504
34507 34507 Structures Structures
Fig. 6 Distribution of wood species from Medieval dated structures 18
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
7.5
Overview of the wood assemblage from the Bronze Age to the medieval period
The wood species identified from the structures associated with each of these time frames are presented in Fig. 7 and help to highlight the composition of wood types that were present from the Bronze Age to the medieval dated structures. Alder is the dominant wood species recorded at Site 34 from the Early Bronze Age to the medieval period, while values for all other wood species identified from the assemblage were recorded in much lower incidences. Accounting for just 220 identifications, ash is the second most used wood at the site during the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age and Iron Age periods. Since the ash counts from the Late Bronze Age structure 34505 were based on such a small number of wood identifications, it may be too ambitious to discuss the low incidences of this species here. During the medieval period however, the use of ash has noticeably declined at the site. Oak has been a popular choice of wood used in construction from the prehistoric period, but plays but a minor role in the construction of the structures at Site 34. Oak values, while low, remain relatively consistent from the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age to the Late Bronze Age and into the Iron Age. A slight rise in the use of oak is evident during the medieval dated phase at the site and it becomes the second to alder in the construction of these features. While values for willow are also low throughout the construction phases at the site, it too remains consistent during the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age and medieval periods. The use of birch at the site is noted during the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age phase of the site, but fails to make an appearance in the structures again until the medieval phase of construction and at that is not used in the same capacity as in the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age phase. Birch is not favoured for the structural quality of its wood and may have proved useful elsewhere. The scrubby wood species of the pomaceous woods are absent from the earlier construction phases at the site and instead make an appearance in the Iron Age and medieval dated structures along with dogwood and hornbeam. Similarly, elder is recorded in the Iron Age structures only, but was not in use beyond this. In later prehistoric periods, pomaceous woods are more prevalent in the landscape, perhaps as a result of more opening up of larger areas of land or the fencing off of certain areas (Stuijts, 2003/4, 20).
19
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
An interesting observation is the low values for hazel at the site during all four phases of construction. Hazel is identified in very low numbers from the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age dated structures and again in the Iron Age structures, but fails to become a prominent wood species used in these construction phases. Although not a water tolerant species, hazel is a hardy shrub that is quick to colonise marginal areas, growing close to oak and ash especially in areas exposed to light. Traditionally it is the wood of choice for making brushwood or hurdles and would have been most suitable in the construction of the structures recorded at Site 34.
800 800
750 750
700 700
650 650
600 600
550 550
No. of wood pieces No. of wood pieces
Alder Alder Ash Ash
500 500
Willow Willow
450 450
Oak Oak
400 400
Birc Birchh
350 350
Hazel Hazel Pomac Pomaceous spp eous spp
300 300
Dogwood Dogwood Elder Elder
250 250
Hornbeam Hornbeam
200 200
150 150 100 100 50 50 00 EBA/MBA EBA/MBA
LBA LBA
Iron Age Iron Age
Medieval Medieval
PPeriods eriods
Fig. 7 Wood species identified from dated structures
20
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
While there are slight shifts in some woods used in the structures at Site 34, the composition of the wood species generally stays relatively uniform from period to period and suggests that the local vegetation did not alter too much during this time. The similarity of wood results from each structure in each phase indicates that the local woodland was primarily used in the construction of these features. The use of alder at the site certainly highlights that this species was growing in plentiful supply in and around the site and as such would have been frequently exploited. Since all categories of woods (timbers, large, medium and small roundwoods and roots) were represented by alder, it reaffirms the availability of this wood species in and around the site as all parts of the tree were potentially used in constructing or maintaining the structures at the site. The measurements taken from the diameter of the roundwood samples revealed that smaller roundwood material (<25mm diameter) was commonly used in the construction of the structures specifically from the Early/ Middle Bronze Age and in particularly the medieval period. This would support the on‐site interpretation of brushwood elements being commonplace at the site and as Fig. 8 below shows, very little in the way of larger roundwoods or timbers being present within these structures. Based on the wood size alone, if a selection process was in place to collect woods of a certain size, then perhaps the people constructing these structures were in need of small but compact and durable wooden structures to allow for easy access or increase stability across pockets of wetter areas of the site that would have become more waterlogged during times of flash flooding.
700 700
600 600
No. of wood counts No. of wood counts
500 500
Timbers Timbers Lrg rwds Lrg rwds
400 400
Med rwds Med rwds SSm rwds m rwds
300 300
Root Root Misc Misc
200 200
100 100 00 EBA/MBA EBA/MBA
LBA LBA
Iron Age Iron Age PPeriods eriods
Medieval Medieval
Fig. 8 Wood sizes identified from dated structures
21
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
A degree of organisation and effort would have been needed if larger roundwoods and timbers were used at the site. These elements would need to have been felled, perhaps stripped of branches and twigs and, if timbers, split and possibly worked around the edges. Perhaps then the present of bark from the many of the samples analysed and little in the way of smoothing out the wood surface suggests that very little preparation was used in dressing the wood for use in such structures. Where timbers of oak and ash and larger roundwoods of alder, ash, oak and willow are used, it is possible that they were brought to the site for other constructive purposes and re‐used in the structures themselves from time to time. 8.
WORKED WOOD ANALYSIS
8.1
Individual structures
Early/Middle Bronze Age [34005] This structure was roughly linear, and mainly made of brushwood, secured by upright posts and stakes. The material was primarily composed of alder, followed by ash and birch. Hazel, willow oak and dogwood were also identified. Three end types were recorded, the main one was chisel, followed by wedge and pencil, all cut at very shallow angles. The largest facet was 55m long and 50mm wide. An ash pencil ended stake from here was blunted at one end, showing where it was hammered into the ground. [34017] This was a small arrangement of stakes. Alder, ash and yew were present. Three worked pieces only were recorded, with mixed end types, the largest facet was flat measuring 40mm wide, 53mm long and blunted at one end, showing where it was hammered into the ground. [341512] This was either a small trackway or platform. It was dominated by alder with some pomaceous fruitwood, ash, oak and yew. The end types were wedge and chisel. Flat facets were present, the largest of which was 60mm wide and 75mm long.
22
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Later Bronze Age [34505] This was made from upright vertical posts and pegs, brushwood and lesser amounts of larger roundwood elements. Alder, oak and ash were mainly used for construction, although hazel, willow and pomaceous fruitwood were also identified. The predominant end type was chisel, all cut at shallow angles. Facets were flat, the largest of which was 35mm wide and 76mm long. Iron Age [34006] This was rough platform or dump, composed mainly of brushwood with some larger roundwoods. Alder, ash and willow were the main woods used for this structure. The worked ends were chisel, and two flat facets were recorded, the largest of which was 25mm wide and 35mm long. [34007] This was a north/south running liner arrangement of brushwood and roundwoods. A number of individual worked pieces were recorded from here and comprised of alder, oak and pomaceous fruitwood. The pieces were pencil, chisel and wedge ended. Cutting angles were shallow. Flat and slightly concave facets were recorded, the largest of which was 62mm wide and 71mm long. Willow, ash, oak, elder and hazel were also identified from here. [34015] This structure was defined as a spread of brushwood. Alder, ash, oak, pomaceous fruitwood and willow were identified from here. No worked ends were evident. Worked wood was composed of mainly half split ashes and oaks. A radially cleft ash with a rectangular shaped notch was excavated from here. Medieval [34504] This was the main part of a continuous linear spread of brushwood. It has been dated to the medieval period. Alder was the main component, while other wood such as oak, pomaceous fruitwood, willow, ash, dogwood and birch were also used. A high number of chisel ended pieces (46) were recorded from this structure, with a small percentage of wedge and pencil ends. Facets were
23
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
predominantly flat, the largest of which was 71 x 62mm. A large rectangular shaped jam curve was lifted from an oak roundwood, which was 83mm in width. [34507] This structure was mostly composed of brushwood branches laid parallel and adjacent to each other. Again, alder was the dominant wood selected, with lesser amounts of hazel, willow and pomaceous fruitwood. The worked ends were mainly chisel, cut at shallow angles. Three flat facets were recorded, the largest of which was 50mm long and 48mm wide. Undated [34014] This was a linear arrangement of brushwood and roundwood. A large amount of worked wood was analysed from here. Alder, willow and ash were the main wood types identified. Hazel, yew, pomaceous fruitwood and oak were also present. The roundwoods were mainly chisel ended, with flat facets. Nineteen facets were recorded, the largest of which was 36mm wide and 75mm long. An alder half split with a notch was identified. [34519] This was located underneath structure [34505] and may be part of its substructure. Alder was the main wood used, with some hazel. A variety of facet types were recorded, these were concave, slightly concave and flat. Some of these were quite long, one being 82mm long by 21mm in width. One of the wood pieces from this structure has been dated to the Early Bronze Age. [341501] Alder, hazel and ash were identified from here. Worked ends were wedge, pencil and chisel. Facets ranged in length from 93 to 37mm. Concave, slightly concave and flat facets were evident. An interesting aspect of this site was an alder roundwood log (34W4595), which had a very well preserved concave shaped void profile of an axe preserved in it. It was difficult to measure this accurately however the base of the axe would have been at least 79mm in width. A positive silicone gel mould will be made of this, which will provide details of the width of the axe blade.
24
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
25
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.2
Worked ends
Three types of worked ends were represented in the Site 34 material, these were chisel, wedge and pencil ends. The main roundwood species used was alder. This can be chopped cleanly, the bark does not strip or tear but there is a tendency for the roundwood to split (Orme and Coles 1985, 32). The predominant end type was clearly chisel (Fig. 9) which may be a reflection of the diameters of the roundwoods, which tended to range between 11 and 55mm. It appears that it was simply unnecessary to chop many of the roundwoods more than once to fell them, and demonstrates the efficiency of the axe blades. The cutting angles of the material were all very similar, tending to be very shallow (0‐20°) and shallow (20‐40°). This strongly suggests the use of metal axes, with sharp blades, which could cut the wood fibres at acute angles (O’Sullivan 1996, 314). The similar cutting angles were dispersed throughout Areas 1, 2 and 4, an indication that metal axes were used across the site. When the end types were plotted against the diameter, pieces of smaller diameter tended to be cut on one side, while pencil and wedge ends were used throughout (Fig. 10). In the Derryville bog excavations, a simple but definite pattern emerged, that of wedge ends displacing chisel‐ends as the predominant type, with a concurrent increase in diameters. Pencil ends would then displace wedge ends for large diameters (O’Neill 2005, 333). Split and axed ends as evidenced in the Neolithic period from the Mountdillon trackways (O’Sullivan 1996) were totally absent in the Site 34 material, which suggests that splitting techniques were no longer necessary and that larger trees could now be felled exclusively by means of an axe.
amt. of of pieces pieces amt.
180 180 160 160 140 140 120 120 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 00 chisel chisel
wedge wedge
pencil pencil
end end type type
Fig. 9 Total worked ends from Site 34
26
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
25 25
amt. of of pieces pieces amt.
20 20
15 15
chisel chisel pencil pencil
10 10
wwedge edge
55 00 1-5 1-5
i
1111- F 212115 25 15 25
313135 35
414145 45
515155 55
616165 65
717175 75
818185 85
919195 95
diameter diameter (mm) (mm)
g Fig. 10 End types and diameters from Site 34 8.3
Jam curves
These occur when the blade gets jammed in the wood and had to be withdrawn, effectively leaving a clear imprint of the axe blade. It is the most effective method for accurately recording blade dimensions. Jam curves were recorded from six structures in Site 34; 34504, 34519, 34005 and 34017 from Area 2 and 341501 and 341512 from Area 4 (Fig. 11). Three of the structures with clear jam curves were dated‐ Structures 34519 and 341501 were dated to the Early Bronze Age, while Structure 34504 yielded a medieval date. Broad jam curves were recorded from the Early Bronze Age structures, reflecting wide, convex edged blades. The jam curves from 34W3026 (Structure 34519) and 34W4602 (Structure 341501) were both very similar in dimensions and curve profile, broad and widely curved, 58mm and 68mm in width respectively. However, in contrast to this, from Structure 34519, two tightly curved jam curves were lifted from 34W3029 and 34W3019, of dimensions 23 and 30mm in width. While some of the larger jam curves are comparable within the Early Bronze Age material, clearly different axes were used on the same structure. The Medieval axe mark was extremely different to those from the earlier periods. This jam curve was 83mm in width, and was very rectangular shaped, with a straight cutting edge (34W3524, Structure
27
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
34504). This straight edge was very different to the curved edges of the earlier material. It was obviously a heavy axe, capable of cutting deeply into oak heartwood (Plate 1). Similar jam curves were also identified from the same structure, for example from 341512 in Area 4, where four broad, convex shaped jam curves were recorded (ca. 60mm in length). Therefore, distinctly different axe shapes can be discerned from the jam curves. Some of the curves showed the use of broad, heavy blades with curved edges, for example in Structure 341512. In contrast, smaller, more tightly curved convex edged blades were recorded from Structure 34519. A flat, broad, almost rectangular edged blade with almost straight cutting edges was used on Structure 34504 (Fig. 7).
9
10
11
Plate 1. Rectangular edged jam curve from 34W3524
28
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
12
13
Fig. 11 Jam curves from Site 34
14 29
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
15 Fig. 11 Jam curv es from Site 34 (cont ’d)
16
30
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.4
Facets
In all events, one should measure the most complete facet (O’Sullivan 1996) but when working with roundwoods as small as 20mm in diameter, the full facet will not always be preserved. This is why the comparability of the larger facets probably reflects more accurately the dimensions of the axes used to fell and shape the trees. The facet junction, where the blade has not gone straight through the wood but has come out across a previous facet (Coles and Orme 1985, 27) was clean or stepped in all cases, which suggests the use of metal axes . Stone axes tend to leave ‘ragged’ facet junctions, as they are not as capable of cutting the wood cleanly as metal axes. Facets were recorded from fifty six pieces of wood from Site 34. The predominant profile from the site was clearly flat (Fig. 12), although slightly concave and concave were also represented. The facet dimensions can be seen in Fig. 13. The facet study from Site 34 demonstrated that metal axes with blade widths of at least 62mm were used to chop the wood. The various features of a facet can be seen in Fig. 14.
amt. of of samples samples amt.
50 50 45 45 40 40 35 35 30 30 25 25 20 20 15 15 10 10 55 00 flat flat
slightly slightly concave concave
concave concave
Facet Facet profile profile
Fig. 12 Total facet characters from Site 34 31
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
width (mm) (mm) width
100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 00 00
10 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
50 50
60 60
70 70
length length (mm) (mm)
Fig. 13 Total facet dimensions from Site 34
Fig. 14 Features of a facet (After Sands 1997, 12)
32
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.5
Toolmarks and the archaeological chronology
Worked wood was examined from Early/Middle Bronze Age structures [34005, 34017 and 341512], Later Bronze Age [34505], Iron Age [34006, 34007 and 34015] and from the Medieval period [34504, 34507]. The main end types present during all periods is chisel (Fig. 15), which probably reflects the limited diameter of the material (Fig. 10). In comparison the character of the facets are mainly flat throughout the different time periods (Fig. 16). The Early/Middle Bronze Age facet widths cluster mainly between 27 and 45mm, although there is one example at 60mm (Fig. 17). The Late Bronze Age facets are slightly smaller, clustering mainly between 20 and 34mm in width. The Iron Age facets range from 27 to 62mm in width, while the medieval facets are widely spread, from 22 to 71mm in size. There are no statistical criteria established for dating structures from their toolmarks, indeed two of the major Irish publications (O’Sullivan 1996; O’Neill 2005) which address this issue had quite different results. Bronze Age sequences from the Mountdillon trackways exhibited mainly flat facets, with a small proportion being concave and slightly concave (O’Sullivan 1996). In contrast, in the Lisheen Mine excavations, the Early and Middle Bronze Age facets were concave, with a variation in the depth of the concavity. In the Late Bronze Age, profiles were also concave, although facets were generally smaller and the concavity more pronounced. On structures from the end of the seventh century, the profile changed to being dished, with a wide flat base and very short, curved sides. On structures dating from around 460‐450BC the profiles were very flat. This also includes the Medieval structures (O’Neill 2005). On Iron Age structures at the Mountdillon bogs, the facets were always flat, with very distinct or clean facet junctions. There is some variance in the size of the facets from different time periods, for example O’Sullivan (1996) found that the Early Bronze Age ones were slightly wider than later Bronze Age, and that Iron Age facets were longer. The results from Site 34 show that flat facets predominated on the site from the Early/Middle Bronze Age through to the medieval period.
33
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
14 14 amt. of of samples samples amt.
12 12 10 10 chisel chisel wwedge edge
88 66
pencil pencil
44 22 00 Early/Middle Early/Middle Bronze BronzeAge Age
Late LateBronze BronzeAge Age
Iron IronAge Age
Medieval Medieval
time time period period
Fig. 15 Worked ends per time period
88 77
amt. of of samples samples amt.
66 55
flat flat
44 33
slightly slightly concave concave
22 11 00 Early/Middle Early/Middle Bronze BronzeAge Age
Late LateBronze Bronze Age Age
Iron IronAge Age
Medieval Medieval
time time period period
Fig. 16 Facet profiles per time period
34
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
80 80
70 70 width (mm) (mm) width
60 60
Early Early Middle Middle Bronze BronzeAge Age
50 50 40 40
Late LateBronze BronzeAge Age
30 30 Iron IronAge Age
20 20
10 10
Medieval Medieval
00
00
20 20
40 40
60 60
80 80
100 100
length length (mm) (mm)
Fig. 17 Facet dimensions per time period 8.6
Differences in spit levels
It was considered whether differences in the wood composition would be noted between the different spit levels in structures. Due to the nature of the environment, it may be possible that different structures were repaired, reused or relocated, and sometimes due to adverse excavation conditions, this may not have become immediately apparent. Therefore, the spit results within structures will be compared. This is not applicable to the individual worked wood samples, as it was not generally recorded which spit they were from, but it is applicable to the bulk sample results. As a result of the study, some differences were noted between spit levels in the same structure. In Structure 34005, Spits 2 & 3 and Spit 4 are dominated by roots, whereas in Spit 1 the wood pieces were between 10‐35mm. In Structure 34007, there are more worked pieces in Spit 5 than in Spit 1 and 2. Willow was also identified in Spit 5, while it is not present in Spit 1. In Structure 34015, there are distinctly larger timbers and a greater variety of species in Spit 2 than in Spit 1. In Structure 34507, there are more worked pieces in Spit 1 than in Spit 3 and 5. Therefore, it does appear that there are some definite differences, both in species, level of working and dimensions between spits of the same structure. The most definite of these is in Structure 34007 and Structure 34015. It is likely that the different spit levels in these structures were constructed at different times, or re‐used timbers were used from other constructions. 35
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
It was possible that some of the structures were related to each other, particularly Structures 34015 and 34006 in Area 1 (Wilkins 2005). While the wood types used in the two structures was similar, most worked wood from Structure 34006 were chisel ends with flat facets, while no worked ends or facets were recorded from Structure 34015, any worked wood was in the form of radially split ash. Therefore, there is no worked wood evidence to link the two structures. The excavator noted that many of the structures in Area 1 may be related to each other. Based on the worked wood and species analysis, this is a very real possibility, as similar results were found from many of the structures.
36
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.7
Analysis of signatures Facet marks may record the individual details of a tools edge. Points of damage on a blade, such as a break or a bend, can be registered on the wood surface as either a ridge or groove running down the long axis of the facet produced. The sequence of ridges or grooves created can act like a signature for the use of that particular tool. When the same sequence is found on toolmarks from different timbers, then those timbers may be associated through the single tool used in their working (Sands 1997, 6).
As the majority of the wood from Site 34 was in very good condition and mainly composed of alder, it posed a good basis for a signature study. It is more likely that signatures would survive on alder roundwoods as opposed to harder trees such as oak. Every piece of wood that had a preserved signature, however faint, was noted and put aside for further analysis.
Plate 2 Blade signature on 34W047
Thirty‐one pieces were identified in this manner, primarily roundwoods. All of the wood was laid out together in natural light. The majority of the pieces had depressed, in some cases rather faint lines, caused by a bulge on the axe blade (Plate 2). Approximately 4 to 5 pieces had a raised groove, caused by a nick in the axe blade. The signatures were grouped together based on the six point scale developed by Sands (1997, 19). This basically helps group the signatures together by common patterns. A number of observations were made. 34W4502, Area 4 Structure 341512 had three chop marks, with a distinctive raised ridge. 34W008, Structure 34005, Area 1 also had a very distinctive 37
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
raised ridge. There was a positive match of signatures from Structure 34504 [Area 2, Spit 1, Bulk Sample number 62], between three pieces. There was also a positive match between two pieces from Structure 34507 [Spit 5, Bulk Sample number 53]. This work shows that the same axe was used on two different wood pieces in Structure 34504, and on Structure 34507. The use of the same axe on the same structure is not in itself surprising, and it would have been more rewarding to link separate structures through signatures, but this was not possible. The fact that thirty‐one separate signatures were identified does not necessarily man that this amount of separate axes were used, it just indicates thirty‐one separate episodes of use. When metal and stone axes were sharpened before use in experimental work from the Somerset levels, various irregularities were noted on the blades, which would lead to signatures. By the end of the work, when many hundred blows had been delivered to each tool, almost all of the signatures were smoothed out (Orme and Coles 1985, 30). This suggests that only a matter of days, if not hours passed between the creation of imperfections on the axe blade, and their eradication through work. This contrasts by work from Derryville, where O’Neill (2005) found the same signature on wood cut in the summer and winter. Could this suggest that the wood was felled in its relevant seasons, but worked at the one time?
38
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.8
Tree felling
One of the elements (34W4001) (Plate 3) from Area 2 showed excellent evidence of felling techniques. This oak trunk had been felled at least 40cm above the ground. The tree was felled in quite a specific manner, mainly to control the direction that it would fall in. Two opposing notches were used. A steeply angled notch was cut deep into one side of the trunk, across the pitch, in the direction of where it was to fall. Another notch was then cut higher up into the opposing side of the trunk. The trunk was then axed the whole way through before it fell, as there is no surviving fibrous ridge remaining where the tree fell over. The oak itself was very fast growing, and extremely knotty, showing that it had a lot of branches trimmed off. It is not the ideal choice when prospecting, as the felled roundwood would have been difficult to split, due the fact that the knots would interfere with the cleaving process. However, its rate of fast growth may be what made it desirable, as fast grown oak is more dense and useful than slow grown (Damian Goodburn, pers comm.). The felling and presumably use of such a knotty, oak log indicates that (a) there wasn’t a high availability of straight grown oak trees in the vicinity and (b) the tree grew in fairly optimum conditions, i.e. in an open, non‐woodland, with space to branch out.
Plate 3 Felled oak log 34W001
39
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.9
Cleft timbers
The majority of the wood remains from Site 34 were in the form of roundwoods. However, some of the alder, oak, ash and willow stakes and planks were converted radially, tangentially and half‐ split (Fig. 18). Converting wood radially takes advantage of the natural planes of weakness of the wood. These splitting techniques could have been achieved using heavy mallets, wooden or bone wedges as well as axes (Fig. 19). Seasoned oak chips could have been used as wedges. Radials can be produced by splitting a trunk in quarters, and then by splitting “slices” off each quarter. In experimental work oak has been shown to split easily and cleanly (Orme & Coles, 1983). The side branches, which contained knots showing where the branches would have been, were cleaned off. 12
amt. of samples
10 8 6 4 2 0 half split
radial
tangential
conversion process
Fig. 18 Conversion processes from Site 34
40
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Fig. 19 Cleft timbers; tangential, radial and half‐split (After O’Sullivan 1996, 305). 8.10
Woodcarving and fine woodworking
One chisel ended piece, 34W1057 was split on one side, and hollowed out. Its minimum and maximum external diameters were 30 and 42mm, while the internal diameters were 20 and 28mm. It is unclear how this piece was hollowed out, as there were no chisel marks present. It is likely that it was half the remains of a hollowed out pipe, which would have joined at the sides. It had striations inside which were similar to the Charlesland pipes, a probable Early Bronze Age musical instrument (O’Donnell 2004).
41
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.11
Notched or holed timbers
Two of the elements (34W1595 and 34W2010) (Plate 4) had rectangular to semi‐circular notches carved out of them. 34W1595 was a half‐split alder piece, and its notch was 65 x 30mm. 34W2010 was a radially cleft, fast grown ash. The remains of the notch measured 95mm x 160mm. The plank was insect ridden; probably indicating that it was exposed for a time before use. Both of the pieces were excavated from Area 1, 34W1595 from Structure 34014 and 34W2010 was from Structure 34015. The notches did not serve any function within the structures (Mick Drumm, pers. comm.), so they must have been re‐used from other structures. The notches were quite rectangular in plan, similar to those identified from the Middle and Later Bronze Age levels of the Mountdillon trackways (O’Sullivan 1996). The notches in both cases were cut at right angles to the grain. They were either the remains of full mortices and some of the timber broke away, or they were intentionally carved into half‐ notches.
Plate 4 Notched ash piece (34W2010)
42
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
9. AGE PROFILE OF THE TIMBERS/WOODLAND MANAGEMENT Woodmanship involves the management of woodlands for the production of timber, firewood and rods for assorted uses (Tierney 1998). Evidence of this type of management in Ireland has been found from the Early Bronze Age in Lisheen (Stuijts 2005). Coppicing is a traditional method of woodland management, where young stems are cut down to a low level, or sometimes right down to the ground. In subsequent growth years, many new shoots will grow up, and after a number of years the cycle begins again and the coppiced tree or stool is ready to be harvested again. When let grow for some years, the sucker or shoot produces a long pole, which is straighter and better for working than naturally grown trees which have bends and forks. Frequently there may be remains of heels, i.e. the join between the stump or stool and the rod. When trees are coppiced, often their first one to three rings are fast, probably as a result of increased space for growth. Subsequent extreme regularity in the growth ring pattern is another indicator of the uniform conditions of coppiced growth. Pollarding is similar to coppicing, but the trunk is cut some 2 to 3m above the ground to prevent browsing (Moloney 1993a). The main tree species identified from Site 34 was alder, which is suitable for coppicing, and can be cut about every ten years in the winter. Where possible, the age of each piece was counted. When the results were plotted (Fig. 20), it is clear that there is a very distinct peak in ages between 6‐10 and 11‐15 years old, in fact over 87% of the aged alder roundwoods fall into this category. 500
amt. of pieces
450 400
alder
350
ash
300
hazel
250
pomaceous
200
birch
150
w illow
100
oak
50 0 51-55
46-50
41-45
36-40
31-35
26-30
21-25
16-20
11-15
6-10
0-5
years
Fig. 20 Age profiles of the main wood taxa from Site 34
43
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Most of the material from Site 34 can be classified as brushwood, i.e. less than 60mm in diameter (Moloney 1993a). Therefore, one may expect the wood to have fairly low ages. However, when the ages of the material are compared to the diameters of the bulk samples, age appears to be the discriminatory factor, i.e. there are pieces of ten to fifteen years that measure up to seventy mm in diameter. There is a general trend that larger pieces tend to be older, but in all, it seems that most of the alder selected for construction at Site 34 was based more on age than on size. The concentration of wood between 5 and 15 years of age, combined with the regular spread may indicate a managed as opposed to natural situation. Some of the alder pieces also showed evidence of probable coppiced heels (Plate 5).
Plate 5 Probable coppiced alder heels from Site 34 Where the age patterns of the material were grouped according to time period, the majority of the brushwood elements were commonly recorded from the structures dating to the medieval period (Fig 21). During the Medieval period, it appears that there was a good supply of young roundwoods growing in the vicinity of the site.
44
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
450 400
350
No. of wood counts
300
1‐10 yrs
250
11‐20 yrs
200
21‐30 yrs
150
30+ yrs
100
50
0
EBA/MBA
LBA
Iron Age
Medieval
P eriods
Fig. 21 Age profiles of wood identified from dated structures 10.
COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE WOOD AND POLLEN RECORD
Since a pollen record was established for Site 34, this offered a unique opportunity for the wood and pollen results to be compared and to establish any trends or changes that may have occurred in the local woodland. It is important to mention however that pollen dispersal is a natural occurrence that is dependent on wind, water or insects for transportation, while wood recorded from archaeological sites, as at Site 34, represents a bias selection of materials brought to a site by human activity. It is also important to note that certain species such as willow and crab apple are insect‐pollinated and therefore can be under‐represented in the pollen rain, while species such as alder and hazel are wind pollinated and can be over‐represented in the pollen record so this should be taken into account when comparing both results. On the pollen diagram, Units III to IV correspond with the Bronze Age wooden structures. Oak with a probable understory of hazel was present throughout this time. This contrasts with the wood results, where the values for oak are consistently low. Betula pubescens (hairy/downy birch) was also identified. It is not possible to discriminate between the two species of birch (hairy and silver) through wood anatomy, but the pollen indicates that it may represent the downy variety. Alder and
45
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
willow were also important during this time, and may signify an alder‐ sedge carr woodland as indicated in the pollen results (Timpany 2006, 11). The Iron Age structures are represented in the pollen diagram by Units VI to VII. At this stage there is a significant decline in oak, followed by hazel and alder declines. They recover towards the end of the zone. Carr – woodland dominated by alder, with birch and willow are still present (Timpany 2006, 13). The wood identifications from the Iron Age are dominated by alder, followed by ash. In general, the pollen and wood remains correlate well as both point to the presence of alder carr woodland. 11.
DISCUSSION
The estuarine setting of Site 34 facilitated the growth alder carr. A variety of primarily native Irish species were also used to construct the trackways, platforms and structures across the alluvial/estuarine wetland. The main wood used was alder, which would have been freely available in the surrounding environment. Alder also has the added advantage of resisting decay in a wet environment almost indefinitely, a property which would have made it very suitable and long lasting in the wetland environment of Site 34. One of the premise of wood analysis from archaeological sites is the theory that structural wood and firewood will probably be gathered from as near to the site as possible, for convenience. The weight and density of large trees would have prohibited them being carried long distances, and there is no need to go further to gather firewood, presuming there is suitable material in the vicinity. Therefore, it is most likely that the people building the brushwood trackways and platforms at Site 34 had easy access to alder forest or carr. The people building their trackways and platforms at Site 34, Newrath didn’t feel it necessary to bring wood in from the nearby marginal and dryland areas, which the pollen evidence shows had ample oak and hazel growing. The smaller roundwood nature of the material from Site 34 indicates that larger, well built trackways or platforms were simply not necessary to go across the estuarine area. This may have some reflection on the use of the site if animals were being herded across the area then more substantial plank built trackways would be necessary, while the more insubstantial structures at the site were more likely for human use. The estuarine area would have provided resources, such as fish, birds, tubers, reeds for weaving, sedges which could be used for bedding etc.
46
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Where bark was present on the roundwoods, in a number of cases it was noted that the pieces had a full outer ring. This means they were cut at the end of the growth season, in winter or early spring. This was probably the season when the greatest need was for platforms or trackways, for example when the water‐table would be high and the area liable to flooding. Interestingly, while under excavation, the area completely flooded in winter 2004. Much of the wood was also quite crudely prepared, with bark still present and some of the material was knarled or twisted. This could signify that little was done to dress the wood for construction of these structures and perhaps they were viewed as necessary but temporary features which only served a short‐term practical purpose. The relatively haphazard nature of the construction also indicates that it was simply unnecessary to carefully lay down carefully built, dressed trackways, of the calibre found at Mountdillon (Raftery 1996) , that dumps of alder brushwood would suffice perfectly well. The dynamic landscape in which the site was situated would have inevitably been unpredictable from time to time and so maybe these wooden structures needed to be of a more make‐shift design. This too may explain the use of brushwood elements within the structures, where there would have been low‐level felling and gathering involved. The tool mark evidence is dominated by worked ends, indicating the alder roundwoods were probably simply chopped down where they grew. Alder is frequently used for building in wetland settings. This is presumably because of easy access due to its common presence in the local environment. Another lactustrine site at Clowanstown, Co. Meath contained wood from Mesolithic and Neolithic levels dominated by alder, followed by hazel, while the charcoal results were dominated by hazel (O’Donnell 2008). At a probable Late Bronze Age fulacht fiadh trough at Coonagh West, Co. Limerick, alder was gathered from the surrounding area, as it would have grown well in the wetland area which surrounded the site. These trees grew in a natural situation, and were between thirty and sixty years old. Growth was slow, indicating marginal conditions (O’Donnell 2005). At Inchagreenoge, Co. Limerick, wood from an Early Bronze Age fulacht fiadh was identified as mainly alder, with some hazel and ash also recorded (Taylor 2007, 281‐284). At Derryville bog, Co. Tipperary hazel, followed by alder, ash and willow was the most commonly used wood on archaeological sites. The marginal forest was composed primarily of alder (Stuijts
47
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
2005). At the Mountdillon trackway, Co. Longford, again hazel dominated the brushwood and lighter woods, while oak was the main species for larger split timbers (Moloney 1996). In comparison, at the Mount Gabriel mines, Co. Cork, hazel again was the dominant species, followed by oak (Mc Keown 1994). At Clonfinlough, Co. Offaly ash was the dominant species (Moloney et al 1993b), while in the Blackwater survey, Co. Mayo, birch, followed by ash and hazel were the dominant wood types (Moloney et al 1995). At a Late Bronze Age fulacht fiadh at Cahiracon, Co. Clare, oak was used to line the trough, while alder, hazel and holly stakes were used to peg it into position (Dennehy 2007, 188‐189). The high values for alder from the estuarine site at Site 34 highlights the key difference between alluvial and bog land archaeological results. Few trees will generally grow in raised bogs, with the exception of trees such as birch and yew. Therefore, trees are generally brought in from the nearby marginal woodlands for construction (for example Stuijts 2005). In the estuarine site of Site 34, and similarly at Clowanstown, people used the trees which were growing naturally on the lake edge, in each case alder, for building. There was no evidence for stone axes being used anywhere on the site. Across the three areas, the worked end type was typically chisel, cut at shallow or very shallow angles. The size of most of the roundwoods (typically smaller than 60mm in diameter) probably influenced this worked end pattern. Flat facets with clean or stepped junctions predominate, demonstrating that axes with a blade width of at least 60mm were used in all areas, the size of which does not vary greatly between areas. Jam curves demonstrated that during the Early Bronze Age, tools with tightly curved blades of widths from 23 30mm were used, along with broader curved convex shaped blades of up to 68mm in width. However, a jam curve recorded from the medieval contexts was markedly different, it was longer (83mm), and more rectangular shaped. The study of signatures from various wood pieces showed that there were at least thirty one episodes of tool use, with some very distinct signatures. Signatures were positively matched between roundwoods from Structures 34507 and 34504. Split planks were quite rare, but were generally radial or half‐splits. The remains of notched holes or possible mortices were identified from two split pieces. Most of the alder roundwoods were between five and fifteen years old, which, coupled with even growth rates indicates that some form of management was probably being practiced in the area.
48
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Adzing was not recorded from the Site 34 material. This is sometimes a difficult toolmark to recognize, and as the whole point of adzing is to finish the timber, as generally a skilled adze person will leave no marks. Good examples of adzing an oak plank have been found by the author from a fulacht fiadh site in Clare (Dennehy 2007) and also by O’Sullivan at the Iron Age trackway site of Corlea 1, Co. Longford (1996). There is also no evidence for sawing from the Site 34 material. The first conclusive evidence for the use of a saw in Dublin comes from Dublin Castle excavations, from the 16th century, where the marks were found on timber framed house‐beams. Evidence for sawing includes a distinctive type of tool mark of closely parallel, straight ridges across the width of the timber (O’Sullivan, 2000). In the worked wood from the Mountdillon trackways, O’Sullivan (1996) examined wood from Neolithic through to Iron Age contexts. He realized that the Neolithic facets were characterised by relatively narrow, short concave shaped facets, with ragged facet junctions. The dominant end type was wedge, while split and split‐and‐axed ends were also common. Cutting angles tended to be shallow. When axe marks from the Early Bronze Age were compared to the Neolithic results, it became apparent that the facets were broader and longer, with clean junctions. The cutting angles were reduced on the worked ends, and split and split‐and‐axed ends disappeared from the archaeological record. In their place, chisel and wedge ends were the main end type. These were also the predominant end type in the Middle and Later Bronze Age, and minimum cutting angles were also similar. During the Middle and Late Bronze Age, facets tended to be typically flat and of medium size, less wide than the Early Bronze Age examples. Planks with mortices were used in the Late Bronze Age. During the Iron Age, the facets tended to be longer and thinner, with an almost complete dominance of very shallow cutting angles. The worked ends were typically chisel or wedge ends (O’Sullivan 1996). The wood from Site 34 compares to that of the Mountdillon trackways in a number of ways. The most common end types in the Bronze Age/Iron Age material was chisel, followed by wedge, although there is more of a definite bias towards chisel ends in the Site 34 material than in the Mountdillon trackways. All facets from metal toolmarks had clean or stepped junctions. While the dimensions of the Site 34 Early Bronze Age facets and the jam curves are very similar to those from the Mountdillon trackways, the facet profile is not predominantly flat as it is during that time period at Mountdillon. In the Site 34 Iron Age wood, the facets are mainly, flat, similar to those from the Iron Age material in Mountdillon. However, while some of the Iron Age facets from Site 34 were as long as those from
49
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Iron Age worked ends in Mountdillon, many were not. Comparative results were encountered by Sands, in his analysis of Iron Age toolmarks from the Oakbank Crannóg excavations. Here he found that the facets appeared to be generally shorter than those established for Iron Age material by O’Sullivan, but longer than those characterised by the Middle to Bronze Age in his work (Sands 1997). Interestingly, the jam curve from the medieval structure in Site 34 (34504) was very comparable to those from an Iron Age structure at Derraghan More (O’Sullivan 1996). 12.
SUMMARY
The structures recorded at Site 34 were composed mainly of alder roundwoods, which could have been chopped easily at the lakes edge, and would have survived well in a waterlogged environment. Alder was the main tree used from all time periods identified on the site. Pollen results indicate that during the Bronze Age and Iron Age, an alder‐sedge carr was present near the site, which correlates well with the wood results. The wood is dominated by roundwoods, with a focus on young stems of limited diameter, between 20mm and 50mm. The roundwoods were predominantly chisel ended, with shallow to very shallow cutting angles. This, coupled with the clean or stepped facet junctions, indicates that metal axes were used on all the timbers examined. When the material between different areas and structures were compared, the results were very similar, with chisel ended, flat facetted alder roundwoods used frequently. Jam curves lifted from Early Bronze Age and medieval dated wood demonstrated different cutting edges. The Bronze Age axes tended to have broad, convex edges or smaller tightly curved ones, while the Medieval jam curve showed the use of an axe which had a wider blade, and was more rectangular. A pattern was noted within the Early Bronze Age material, of mixed facet profiles and end types, compared to the Iron Age and Medieval material, which tended to have flat facets and chisel ends. Few of the timbers were split, but when they were the main converting processes were half‐split and radially. When comparisons were made between signatures from different pieces of wood, they were both from the same structure. The age profile of the alder roundwoods was concentrated between five and fifteen years, there was also evidence of coppiced heels within the material. Most of the material examined was cut at the end of the growth season, in winter or early spring. This may have been a time of increased wetness on the site and therefore a greater need to build such structures across these alluvial sediments.
50
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
13.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to Dr. Tim Holden and Mhairi Hastie of Headland Archaeology Ltd for their thoughts and advice on the sampling strategies and to Dr. Scott Timpany for his help with interpreting the palaeoenvironmental results from the site. Thanks also to Brendon Wilkins and Mick Drumm for their help with the on‐site interpretations of the material and finally a special thanks to Clodagh Carroll, Ian Dorgan and Noirín Gleeson who helped with the post‐excavation works.
51
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
14.
REFERENCES
Brazier, J D and Franklin, G L, 1961 Identification of hardwoods: a microscopic key. London: H.M Stationary Office Brunning, R and O’ Sullivan, A, 1997 ‘Late Bronze Age species selection, woodworking techniques and tools at Caldicot’, in N. Nayling (ed.) Excavations at Caldicot, Gwent: Bronze Age palaeochannels in the Lower Nedern Valley. York: Council for British Archaeology, 157‐291 Burgess, C, 1979 ‘The background of early metalwork in Ireland and Britain’, in M. Ryan (ed.) The Origins of Metallurgy in Atlantic Europe, Proceedings of the Fifth Atlantic Colloquium. Dublin: Stationary Office, 207‐214 Carruthers, S, 1978 ‘Examination of timbers for evidence of decay and microbial activity’, in J.M. Coles (ed) Somerset Levels Papers Number 4, 10 Caseldine, C J and Hatton, J M, 1996 ‘Early land clearance and wooden trackway construction in the third and fourth millennium BC at Corlea, C. Longford’, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 95B, 1‐9 Coles, J M, 1978 Somerset Levels Papers 4. Hertford: Stephen Austin & Sons Ltd Coles, J M, and Orme, B J, 1985 ‘Prehistoric woodworking from the Somerset Levels: 3. Roundwood’, Somerset Levels Papers 11, 25‐50 Dennehy, E, 2007 ‘122a Cahiracon’, in E. Grogan, L. O’Donnell and P. Johnston (eds) The Bronze Age Landscapes of the Pipeline to the West: An integrated archaeological and environmental assessment, 188‐189 Edlin, H L, 1951 British plants and their uses London: B T Batsford Edlin, H L, 1973 Woodland crafts in Britain. Devon: David and Charles Newtown Abbot Gale, R & Cutler, D, 2000 Plants in Archaeology: Identification manual of artefact of plant origin from Europe and the Mediterranean. Westbury and the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Greig, J, 1991 ‘The British Isles’ in van Zeist, Wasylikowa & Behre (eds) Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany, 299–334. Rotterdam Harbison, P, 1969 ‘The axes of the Early Bronze Age in Ireland’, Prahistorische Bronzefunde 9 (1) Munchen: C.H. Beck Herity, M & Eogan, G, 1977 Ireland in Prehistory., Dublin: Routeledge and Kegan Hickie, D, 2002 Native trees & forests of Ireland. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan Kelly, F, 1976 ‘The old Irish tree‐list’, Celtica, 11, 107‐124 Milner, J E, 1992 The tree book. Collins and Brown Mitchell, G F, 1953/4. ‘A Pollen Diagram from Lough Gur, Co. Limerick’. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy Vol 56, Sec C, 481‐488 52
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Moloney, A, Jennings, D, Keane, M and McDermott, C, 1993a Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit Transactions: Volume 1 Survey of the raised bogs of County Longford. Dublin: Crannóg Publication Moloney, A, Jennings, D, Keane, M and McDermott, C, 1993b Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit Transactions: Volume 2. Excavations at Clonfinlough, Co. Offaly. Dublin: Crannóg Publication Maloney, A, Bermingham, N, Jennings, D, Keane, M, McDermott, C, and O’Carroll, E, 1995. Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit. Transactions; Volume 4. Blackwater Survey and excavations Artefact deterioration in peatlands Loughmore, Co. Mayo. Dublin: Crannóg Publication Moloney, A, 1996 ‘Wood analysis’ in B. Raftery (ed) Trackway excavations in the Mountdillon Bogs, Co. Longford 1985 – 1991. Dublin: Crannòg publication 343‐358 Mc Keown, S, 1994 ‘The analysis of wood remains from Mine 3, Mount Gabriel’ in W O’Brien (ed) Mount Gabriel, Bronze Age mining in Ireland. Galway: Galway University Press, 135‐162 O’Donnell, L, 2005 ‘Analysis of the worked wood from Coonagh West, Co. Limerick (A005/2021)’. Unpublished report for TVAS Ltd O’Donnell, L, 2008 ‘Analysis of the worked wood from Clowanstown, Co. Meath (E3064 A008/011)’ Unpublished report for ACS Ltd’ O’Neill, J, 2005 ‘Worked wood’, in M. Gowen, J. O Neill and M. Philips (eds) The Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project 1996‐8. Wordwell: Bray 329‐340 O’Sullivan, A, 1996 ‘Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age’, in B. Raftery (ed) Trackway excavations in the Mountdillon Bogs, Co. Longford 1985 – 1991. Dublin: Crannóg Publication 291 – 243 Orme, B J & Coles, J M, 1983 ‘Prehistoric woodworking from the Somerset Levels: 1: Timbers’, Somerset Levels Papers 9, 19 – 43 Orme, B J and Coles, J M, 1985 ‘Prehistoric woodworking from the Somerset levels: 2: Species selection and prehistoric woodlands’. Somerset Levels papers, 11, 7‐24 Pilcher, J and Hall, V, 2001 Flora Hibernica. The wild flowers, plants and trees of Ireland. Cork: The Collins Press Preston, C D, Pearman, D A and Dines, T D, 2002 New Atlas of the British & Irish Flora. Oxford: Oxford University Press Pryor, F French, C & Taylor, M, 1986 ‘Flag Fen, Fengate, Peterborough I: discovery, reconnaissance and initial excavation (1982‐1985)’. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 52, 1‐24 Rackham, O, 1980 Ancient woodland: its history, vegetation and uses in England. London: Arnold Rackham, O, 1995 Trees and woodland in the British landscape. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson Raftery, B, 1996 Trackway excavations in the Mountdillon Bogs, Co. Longford 1985 – 1991. Dublin: Crannóg Publication Sands, R, 1997 Prehistoric woodworking: the analysis and interpretation of Bronze & Iron Age toolmarks. London: London Institute of Archaeology
53
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Schweingruber, F H, 1978 Microscopic wood anatomy. Birmensdorf: Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research Stuijts, I, 2003‐2004 ‘Appendix II. Charcoal remains’, in O’Donovan, E ‘A Neolithic House at Kishoge, Co. Dublin’, The Journal of Irish Archaeology XII and XIII, 18‐21. Stuijts, I, 2005 ‘Wood and charcoal identification’, in M. Gowen, J. O Neill and M. Philips (eds) The Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project 1996‐8. Wordwell: Bray 137‐186 Taylor, K, 2008 ‘Inchagreenoge’, in E. Grogan, L. O’Donnell and P. Johnston (eds) The Bronze Age Landscapes of the Pipeline to the West: An integrated archaeological and environmental assessment, 281‐284 Taylor, M & Pryor, F, 1990 ‘Bronze Age building techniques at Flag Fen, Peterborough, England’, World Archaeology 21 (3), 425‐434 Tierney, J, 1998 ‘Wood and woodlands in Early Medieval Munster’, in Michael A. Monk and John Sheehan (eds) Early Medieval Munster Archaeology, History and Society. Cork: Cork University Press, 53‐ 58 Timpany, S, 2006 ‘New Waterford Bypass, Site 34 Palaeoenvironmental Assessment Report’, Unpublished technical report for Headland Archaeology Ltd Van der Meiden, H A, 1961 ‘De els in populierenbeplantingen’, Nederlands Bosbouwtijdschrift 33 (6), 168‐71 Wallace, P, 1992 The Viking Age Buildings of Dublin, National Museum of Ireland Medieval Dublin Excavations 1962‐81, Series A, Vol 1, Parts 1‐2. Royal Irish Academy: Dublin: Royal Irish Academy Wheeler, E A, Bass, P & Gasson, P E, 1989 IAWA list of microscopic features for hardwood identification. IAWA Bulletin nos. 10 (3): 219‐332. Rijksherbarium: Leiden Wilkins, B, 2005 ‘Structure sequence from Site 34’, Unpublished report for Headland Archaeology Ltd
54
N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Volume 2 Appendix 8: Integrated wood report for Site 34, Newrath Townland, Co. Kilkenny By: Susan Lyons & Lorna O’Donnell Excavated under Licence: 04E0319 Director: Brendon Wilkins Chainage: 670 NGR: 25921 11446
Project Code: NWB 03 Client: Waterford Co. Council Date: May 2009
N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Volume 2 Appendix 8: Integrated wood report for Site 34, Newrath Townland, Co. Kilkenny
By: Susan Lyons & Lorna O’Donnell Excavated under Licence: 04E0319 Director: Brendon Wilkins Chainage: 670 NGR: 25921 11446
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2 Table of Contents 1. INTRODUCTION
Page
1
2.
SCOPE OF WOOD ANALYSIS
2
3.
SAMPLING STRATEGY
3
3.1
On‐site strategy
3
3.2
Wood analysis strategy
3
4
4.
5.
METHODOLOGY
4.1
Wood identification
4
4.2
Wood size
4
4.3
Growth ring count & ring width analysis
5
4.4
Preservation & evidence of decay
5
4.5
Toolmarks
6
4.5.1
Background to the analysis of worked wood and the tools used
6
4.5.2
Toolmarks from metalworking implements
7
8
5.1
Results of the wood identification and analysis
8
5.2
Wood size
5.3
Ring count analysis
RESULTS
9
10
11
6.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD SPECIES
7.
WOOD RESULTS AND THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY
15
7.1
Early/Middle Bronze Age period
15
7.2
Later Bronze Age period
16
7.3
Iron Age period
16
7.4
Medieval period
17
7.5
Overview of the wood assemblage from the Bronze Age to the medieval period 18
8.
WORKED WOOD ANALYSIS
22
8.1
Individual structures
22
8.2
Worked ends
25
8.3
Jam curves
26
8.4
Facets
30
8.5
Toolmarks and the archaeological chronology
32
8.6
Differences in spit levels
34
8.7
Analysis of signatures
36
8.8
Tree felling
38
8.9
Cleft timbers
39
8.10
Woodcarving and fine woodworking
40
ii
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2 8.11
Notched or holed timbers
9.
41
AGE PROFILE OF THE TIMBERS/WOODLAND MANAGEMENT
42
10.
COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE WOOD AND POLLEN RECORD
45
11.
DISCUSSION
46
12.
SUMMARY
50
13.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
50
14.
REFERENCES
51
iii
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2 List of Figures
Page
9
Fig. 2 Percentage of the general wood sizes recorded from Site 34
10
Fig. 3 Age profiles of wood recorded from Site 34
10
Fig. 4 Distribution of wood species from EBA/MBA dated structure
16
Fig. 5 Distribution of wood species from Iron Age dated structures
17
Fig. 6 Distribution of wood species from Medieval dated structures
18
Fig. 7 Wood species identified from dated structures
20
Fig. 8 Wood sizes identified from dated structures
21
Fig. 9 Total worked ends from Site 34
25
Fig. 10 End types and diameters from Site 34
26
Fig. 11 Jam curves from Site 34
28/29
Fig. 12 Total facet characters from Site 34
30
Fig. 13 Total facet dimensions from Site 34
31
Fig. 14 Features of a facet (After Sands 1997, 12)
31
Fig. 15 Worked ends per time period
33
Fig. 16 Facet profiles per time period
33
Fig. 17 Facet dimensions per time period
34
Fig. 18 Conversion processes from Site 34
39
Fig. 19 Cleft timbers; tangential, radial and half‐split (After O’Sullivan 1996, 305).
39
Fig. 20 Age profiles of the wood taxa from Site 34
Fig. 1 Percentage of wood species identified from Site 34
Fig. 21 Age profiles of wood identified from dated structures
iv
42
44
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2 List of Plates
Page
Plate 1 Medieval jam curve on 34W3524
27
Plate 2 Blade signature on 34W047
36
Plate 3 Oak trunk 34W001
38
41
43
Plate 4 Notched radially split ash 34W2010
Plate 5 Probable coppiced alder heels from Site 34 v
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2 1.
INTRODUCTION
This report presents the results of the wood analysis carried out on a number of wooden structures excavated at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny. Archaeological excavations were undertaken at the site under excavation licence number 04E0319 by Brendon Wilkins of Headland Archaeology Ltd on behalf of Waterford City Council and the National Road Authority (NRA) in 2004, as part of the archaeological mitigation program associated with the N25 Waterford Bypass. A total of 22 structures were identified at the site dating from the Bronze Age to the medieval period and potentially into Early Modern times. The structures themselves ranged in form from large trackways and platforms, primarily constructed of timbers and large roundwood elements, to lighter brushwood scatters of small and medium roundwoods. The analysis of the wood from Site 34 was undertaken by Susan Lyons and Lorna O’Donnell from 2005 to 2006. The wood identification and analysis of bulk wood samples was carried out by Susan Lyons, formerly of Headland Archaeology Ltd, while the wood identification and tool technology analysis of the individual worked wood elements was recorded by Lorna O’Donnell of Margaret Gowen & Co. Ltd. Both authors have combined their results for the purpose of this report, to create one wood report which would incorporate the results from all wood identifications and worked wood analysis. The report will discuss the wood assemblage chronologically according to time periods based on known radiocarbon dates obtained for the site. It will be structured to outline the scope of wood identification analysis, the sampling strategies and methodologies employed, along with a series of discussion points, which will include the total results of wood identifications from sampled elements, the characteristics of the wood species identified at Site 34, results of the wood analysis with reference to the archaeological chronology for the site and comparisons with the results from the pollen study undertaken by Dr. Scott Timpany (2006). The discussion will also incorporate the results of the worked wood assemblage, carried out by Lorna O’Donnell and will detail the evidence for possible woodland management and selection at the site. Due to the large volume of raw data collated during this project, a more detailed description of the wood results of the individual structures and a table of all wood identifications recorded will be available to view on a CD disc with will accompany this report. 1
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
2.
SCOPE OF WOOD ANALYSIS
The overall aim of the wood study from Site 34 was to provide a sufficient record of the wood species selected for the construction of the structures recorded at the site along with a record of the types of tools used. The wood results would also give information on the species composition of the marginal woodland and perhaps some indication of the wider wooded landscape. By comparing these results with those from the pollen analysis, it is envisaged that changes or trends in how the local woodland was utilised from the Bronze Age to the medieval period may be highlighted. The wood analysis would also serve to identify if woodland management or a selection process was employed at the site by studying the size (diameter), age ranges and growth ring patterns of the material.
2
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
3.
SAMPLING STRATEGY
3.1
On‐site strategy
A comprehensive wood sampling strategy was devised in consultation with a number of environmental and wood specialists. The sampling strategy was also formulated to accommodate inevitable project constraints and the seasonal flooding experienced at the site, which made for difficult working conditions. It was recommended that at least one third (30%) of the exposed wood assemblage at Site 34 be sampled. This strategy is commonplace on wetland sites that produce a large number of wooden elements and follows a similar strategy that was employed at Derryville Bog in Co. Tipperary (Stuijts, 2005) and by the wetland excavations undertaken by the Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit (IAWU) between1998 to 2005. On‐site sampling of the wood assemblage from Site 34 was carried out two ways: 1) individual worked wood pieces were recorded and sampled as single entities, each getting a separate sample and find number. The worked wood sampling strategy evolved during the course of the excavation. Initially all worked wood elements were sampled but this strategy was subsequently followed by a representative portion of the worked elements being sampled. 2) bulk wood samples, where each sample contained multiple wood elements, were randomly sampled from each known structure and recorded as one whole sample, with each sample allocated a bulk sample number. Each sample was packed in a peat matrix to aid preservation and appropriately wrapped for ease of storage and transportation. 3.2
Wood analysis strategy
The sampling procedure used in the analysis of the bulk samples was developed in consultation with Dr. Tim Holden and Mhairi Hastie of Headland Archaeology Ltd, whereby a representative number of the bulk wood samples from each sampled structure would undergo species identification and analysis. It was agreed that where there were several hundred wood elements associated with any one structure, between 30% and 50% of the assemblage would be studied which would reflect a good representation of the wood used within each structure. The only exception was from Structure 34505 in Area 2 Cutting G, where a small number of wood elements were sampled on site. As a result all wood from bulk sample numbers 59 and 60 were identified and analysed. All of the individual wood
3
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
pieces present in Headland Archaeology’s post excavation facility were selected for identification and analysed for wood working techniques by Lorna O’Donnell. 4.
METHODOLOGY
The wood samples were washed and prepared for analysis at the Headland Archaeology Ltd post‐ excavation facility located in the Europa Business Park, Midleton Co. Cork between May 2005 and October 2005. The individual worked wood and each wood element from the bulk wood samples were unwrapped, washed and visually examined for the presence of bark, bubs and any other obvious external features which would aid identification. The individual worked wood elements were analysed and recorded separately (Lorna O’Donnell), while the multiple wood fragments from the bulk samples were categorised according to size (diameter width), colour and texture (knottiness) by Susan Lyons. Where worked wood was recorded from bulk samples, these were merged with the worked wood assemblage and analysed for wood working technology. 4.1
Wood identification
Wood species identifications were undertaken in accordance with Section 25 of the National Monuments Act 1930, as amended by Section 20 of the National Monuments Amendment Act 1994, to alter an archaeological object. A portion of each wooden element was sawn off to reveal an unexposed surface. Exposing a fresh surface would rid the wood of any degradation or possible fungal attack which may hinder species identification. Thin slivers were cut with a razor blade to obtain the three sectional planes (transverse, radial and tangential sections) necessary for microscopic wood identification. The thin sections were mounted onto a glass slide with a temporary water medium and sealed with a cover slip. Identifications were conducted under a transcident light microscope at magnifications of 40x to 400x where applicable. Wood species identifications were made using wood keys devised by Franklin and Brazier (1961), Schweingruber (1978) and the International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA) wood identification manuals by Wheeler, Bass and Gasson (1989). 4.2
Wood size
Each wood piece chosen for analysis was also measured along the cross section (mm) to determine the size of the element, which would be useful with interpreting if a selection process based on
4
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
physical size was being used at the site. The wood elements were categorised into those that were identified as timbers (split radially or tangentially), roundwoods and root material. Due to the large number of roundwood elements from the assemblage, this category was further divided into sub categories of small roundwoods (<25mm), medium roundwoods (26mm‐60mm) and large roundwoods (61mm‐100mm). Irregular fragments which did not fit into any of the aforementioned categories are grouped as miscellaneous. 4.3
Growth ring count & ring width analysis
Where possible each of the wood pieces selected for species identification were also studied for growth ring count and ring width analysis in order to determine an age profile for the wood and evidence for possible woodland management, in the form of coppicing. This was undertaken by using a calibrated stereoscopic microscope. 4.4
Preservation & evidence of decay
The study of wood can also reveal evidence of decay which can help to determine the environmental conditions to which the various components of the structures had been exposed. Fungi are responsible for most wood degradation, while bacteria accounts for a limited amount of decay under specialized conditions. White rot is when the wood appears white, is very soft and fibrous, while brown rot, where the wood is brown, causes the wood to become powdery and cracks cubically when dry. These are both produced by Basidiomycetes (eg toadstools) and are not found in waterlogged conditions or environments devoid of oxygen, which indicates that the wood was exposed to the air when they invaded it (Carruthers, 1978). Wood which has been in very wet conditions experience soft rot, which is when the outer layer of wood becomes very soft. Here the rate of decay is much slower and is caused by Ascomycetes and Hyphomycetes (eg cup fungi) (Carruthers 1978). Where wood is attacked by bacteria the cell walls become thin, and in extreme cases give the wood the pliability of plasticine. This type of decay is also found in very wet anaerobic conditions and usually observed in extremely old wood (Carruthers, 1978). In the case of the wood assemblage from Site 34, the majority of the material was in a relatively good state of preservation, where wood could be easily sectioned for identification. The only evidence for poor degradation was noted in some of the roundwoods and root material from Structures 34005, 34007, 34015 and 34017 from Area 1, Structure 34507 from Area 2 and Structure 341513 from Area 4.
5
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
The wood recorded here was very soft and in some cases hindered full species identification or ring counts. This could indicate a degree of soft rot in the material, which would be consistent with the waterlogged environment from which the wood was subjected to. 4.5
Toolmarks
Toolmark analysis followed methods employed by O’Sullivan (1996), O’Neill (2005) and Coles and Orme (1985). Facet measurements were taken using calipers. Each piece of wood was also examined for blade signatures. Worked ends were classified in three different ways; chisel, wedge and pencil ended. Chisel ends are worked on one side, wedge‐ends worked on both sides and pencil ends are worked on three sides or more. Facets were recorded in millimeters. 4.5.1
Background to the analysis of worked wood and the tools used
The excavation and publication of wooden trackways and platforms from the Somerset levels have provided the background to current worked wood analysis (e.g. Orme and Coles, 1983; Coles and Orme 1985). Other British work includes the wood assemblage from Caldicot, South Wales (Brunning and O’Sullivan 1997). A considerable amount of woodworking evidence has been published from a Late Bronze Age platform at Flag Fen in Cambridgeshire (Pryor et al 1986; Taylor and Pryor 1990), and individual issues such as blade signatures have been addressed in Sands (1997). Recent Irish work comes from excavations along the Mountdillon trackways (O’Sullivan 1996), Mount Gabriel mines (Mc Keown 1994), Derryville Bog (O’Neill 2005) and various excavations by the Irish Archaeological Wetland unit (Maloney 1993a and b; 1995). By analysing the conversion process, facets and worked ends from Site 34, the woodworking evidence can be compared to the existing body of data form Irish archaeological sites. Many important changes occurred from the Bronze Age to the medieval period, such as hafting mechanisms, blade edge diameters and the evolution of specialist tools. These changes are reflected in the shape of the facets, and the diversity of timber joinery. For this reason a brief overview of the published corpus of Bronze, Iron and Medieval woodworking tools is presented below. Early Bronze Age The earliest Irish metal axes were made from copper and were flat, trapezoidal axes with thick butts and straight sides. These developed into thick‐butted axes with a slightly curving edge. The last truly copper axe had curved sides and thin butts (Burgess 1979). When the technology to make harder bronze was introduced, the first widespread bronze axes in Ireland were broad and approximately
6
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
triangular in shape, with a shallow crescent shaped cutting edge. Most are flat with thin butts and some are decorated. Important changes occur with the development of axes when low raised edges were put on the faces, creating slight flanges and a transverse bevel which appears on the middle of the axe (O’Sullivan 1996, 313). One of the last axe types in the Early Bronze Age are fairly small, with straight and more or less parallel sides which curve out abruptly to an expanded crescentic cutting edge. Butts are usually flat, low hammered flanges are present in many cases, and a median thickening or ridge often occurs (Harbison, 1969). Middle Bronze Age There is a large range of palstaves and flanged axes in the Middle Bronze Age however the cutting edges remain very similar in terms of width, cross‐section and curvature (Herity and Eogan 1977). Flanged axes and palstaves are characterised by the height of flanges and nature of the stop. The flanges and stops introduced increase the weight of the axehead (O’Sullivan 1996). Late Bronze Age Possible wood working tools from the Late Bronze Age include socketed axes and gouges, knives and tanged chisels (Herity and Eogan 1977; O’Sullivan 1996, 321). The weight and the cutting edge width of socketed axes were smaller than previously. As these flanged, socketed and looped axes and palstaves were smaller, they probably would not have suited purposes such as tree felling, but would have been suitable for chopping smaller roundwoods (Edlin 1973; O’Sullivan 1996, 321). Iron Age A small number of looped, socketed axeheads and shaft‐hole axeheads are known from Ireland in the Iron Age (Herity and Eogan 1977). These shaft‐hole axes had a wider cutting edge than the looped and socketed axes, being up to 9cm in width. Iron Age adzes have also been identified, for example the small socketed adze from Newgrange, Co. Meath (O’Sullivan 1996, 331). Dedicated chisels also emerge in the Late Bronze Age (O’Neill 2005, 335). Medieval period During the Medieval period, woodworking tools would have consisted of axes, billhooks, adzes, knives, chisels, saws and augers (Wallace 1982). 4.5.2
Toolmarks from metal woodworking implements
7
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Metal axes can produce flat, slightly concave or concave facets. The facet junctions are normally clean or stepped, as the metal can cut far more cleanly through the wood than stone axes. Roundwoods are cut at quite shallow angles, and are generally not snapped or torn. 5.
RESULTS
The results of the wood analysis from Site 34 will be outlined and discussed under a) results of the wood identifications and analysis and b) results of the worked wood analysis. Approximately 30% of the wood assemblage from Site 34 was chosen for full identification and analysis. Of the 22 structures identified at the site, fourteen structures contained a workable number of wood samples suitable for wood identification and analysis. Eleven wood taxa totalling 2,191 identifications were recorded from structures 34005, 34006, 34007, 34014, 34015, 34017, 34504, 34505, 34507, 341501, 341507, 341509, 341512 and 341513. The majority of the wood samples still had the bark or traces of still attached, and in some cases, elements from the bulk wood samples were noted as being knarled and/or knotty. Most of the wood was free of any obvious insect damage and suggests that the wood used in the construction of these structures may have been chopped down just before deposition. Approximately 5% of the wood assemblage analysed had insect damage, which may indicate that some woods were lying exposed or used for other purposes prior to being utilised in the structures. 5.1
Results of the wood identification and analysis (Fig. 1)
The majority of the wood elements were in a relatively good state of preservation and identifications could be made to genus level for the most part, i.e. Quercus (oak), Betula (birch), Salix (willow), Sambucus (elder), Taxus baccata (yew), Cornus (dogwood) and Carpinus (hornbeam). In cases where the species was considered to be the most likely represented, these included Alnus glutinous (alder/black alder), Fraxinus excelsior (ash) and Corylus avellana (hazel). The identification of the Pomoideae group proved more difficult to separate. The pomaceous fruit wood species includes the genera Malus (apple), Pyrus (pear), Sorbus (rowan or whitebeam) and Crataegus (hawthorn). They are anatomically very similar and in the absence of bark, buds and leaves cannot be differentiated between each other very often.
8
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Alder (Alnus glutinous) was by far the most dominant wood species recorded from the study, accounting for 72% of the identifiable material. Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) was the second most significant wood type making up 10% of the assemblage. Almost equal quantities of oak (Quercus sp.) and willow (Salix sp.) were recorded at 6% each, while just 2% of birch (Betula sp.), and 1% or less of hazel (Corylus avellana), pomaceous woods (Pomoideae spp.), elder (Sambucus sp.), yew (Taxus baccata), dogwood (Cornus sp.) and hornbeam (Carpinus sp.) were identified. The preservation quality of some wood fragments hindered further identification in some cases and this material was labelled as indeterminate wood (wood indet.) and accounted for 2% of the analysed material.
<1% <1% <1% <1% <1% <1% 1% 1% <1% <1% <1% 2% <1% 2% 2% 2% 6% 6%
Alder Alder Ash Ash
6% 6%
Willow Willow Oak Oak Birc Birchh Hazel Hazel
10% 10%
Pomac Pomaceous spp eous spp Elder Elder Dogwood Dogwood Yew Yew Hornbeam Hornbeam 72% 72%
Wood Indet Wood Indet
Fig. 1 Percentage of wood species identified from Site 34 5.2
Wood size (Fig. 2)
The majority of the wood analysed from Site 34 was made up of small roundwoods (<25mm diameter width), which accounted for 48% of the assemblage. Medium roundwoods (26mm‐60mm) made up 14% of the assemblage, while just 5% of the wood analysed was categorised as larger roundwoods (61mm‐100mm). Split timbers and root material each accounted for just 3% of the assemblage. Up to
9
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
27% of the wood samples were noted as irregular fragments and therefore categorised as miscellaneous wood. While all the miscellaneous wood fragments underwent wood species identification, they were deemed unsuitable for growth ring count analysis or ring width analysis and will therefore not be included in these sections. Structures 34006, 34007, 34014, 34017, 34504 and 341512 contained the majority of the small and medium roundwoods recorded, while the only structures to contain a notable number of larger roundwoods and timbers were Structures 34007, 34015, 34505 and 341507.
3% 3% 5% 5%
27% 27%
14% 14% Timbers Timbers
Lrg rwds Lrg rwds
Med rwds Med rwds
SSm rwds m rwds
3% 3%
Root Root
Misc Misc
48% 48%
Fig. 2 Percentage of the general wood sizes recorded from Site 34 5.3
Ring count analysis (Fig. 3)
Where possible, the number of growth rings was recorded from each of the roundwood elements. A total of 1518 roundwoods were sectioned and the growth rings counted. The majority of the analysed wood elements (51%) were aged to between 11 and 20 years, with 40% of the assemblage aged to between 1 and 10 years. More mature trees were recorded in much lesser numbers, where 6% were aged to between 21 and 30 years with just 3% accounting for elements aged over 30 years.
10
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
6% 6%
3% 3%
40% 40%
1‐10 yrs 1‐10 yrs 11‐20 yrs 11‐20 yrs
21‐30 yrs 21‐30 yrs
30+ yrs 30+ yrs
51% 51%
Fig. 3 Age profiles of wood recorded from Site 34 6.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD SPECIES
Alnus glutinous L. Gärtner (alder or black alder) Alder is usually found growing close to running water, rivers or in damp woodland, in the latter often with oak (Orme and Coles, 1985; Rackham, 1995). In marshland alder grows as a shrub frequently mixed with willow and alder buckthorn to form alder carr (Cutler and Gale, 2000). It can also grow well in and on fen peat. Germination and early growth of alders requires a constant supply of water, however once the tree reaches maturity its root system makes the tree less dependent on high water levels (Stuijts, 2005). Alders commonly produce root nodules which contain nitrogen‐ fixing bacteria, known as Schinzia alni which enables alder to enrich soils through its fallen leaves hence allowing the tree to survive in poorer soil conditions (Milner cited in Culter and Gale, 2000; van der Meiden cited in Stuijts, 2005). In suitable conditions alder growth is fast, usually reaching a height of 25m with a maximum girth of 1m and can grow to an age of sixty to one hundred years (Strotelder cited in Stuijts, 2005). While alder makes for poor fuel, it produces good quality charcoal (Edlin, 1951). The wood can quickly turn a reddish colour after cutting and once dry it is water resistant and does not split easily. Once in a waterlogged state, alder is very durable and is often used in the construction of underwater bridge piles, houses and scaffolding (Culter and Gale, 2000). Alder is traditionally used in the making of smaller objects such as bowls, handles and broomsticks and its bark can be used in the tanning of leather (Rackham, 1980).
11
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Fraxinus excelsior L. (ash) Ash is a wood that thrives well on nutrient‐rich soils but is also a common woodland species and grows in mixed woodland with oak on damp, slightly acidic soils (Gale & Culter, 2000). It generally avoids very wet environments although where soils are mineral‐rich, it can sometimes be found in marginal forests and on stream beds. While ash is a light‐loving species, the seedlings prefer shaded areas to grow. It can grow up to 45m in height and can reach an age of 150 years. It produces very good firewood and its timber is valued for its durability and elasticity and is commonly used in making furniture, shafts, spears, handles and agricultural equipment. Upon exposure, ash is prone to rotting. Pollen analysis indicates that ash became more common in the pollen record from the Neolithic period onwards (Mitchell, 1953/4). This could be as a result of more clearance due to agricultural practices at the time, where ash was able to germinate and grow more vigorously as secondary woodland and in marginal areas and hedges (Kelly, 1976). Quercus spp. L. (oaks) Oak is a tall deciduous woodland tree, often growing in association with hazel and ash. Most species prefer damp, non‐calcareous soils on lowland or montane sites. Of the 27 European species, pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea) are native to Ireland. Pedunculate oak is common on heavy clay lowland soils whereas sessile oak thrives on the lighter loams characteristic of higher ground (Culter & Gale, 2000). The two native Irish oaks are usually distinguished by their acorns: the sessile oak has acorns with no stalks, while the pedunculate oak has acorns with long stalks (peduncles). Sessile oak can be found on less fertile, acidic soils than the pedunculate oak. The latter is usually found growing on heavy, lowland soils where it can also tolerate flooding. Oaks can reach a height of 40 metres and live for 1,000 years or more (Hickie, 2002, 60). It makes excellent firewood. It splits and works well, which combined with durable heartwood makes it a preferred species for all larger structural timbers. Salix spp. (willows). There are a number of different species of willow which cannot be differentiated through wood anatomy. They grow rapidly, and can be easily propagated from cuttings. General comments only about the genus can be made, as there are different varieties of it. They are not naturally a woodland species, although shrubby growth may occur under light woodland cover. All willows appear to favour wet conditions, and it may be a pioneer species on wet soils. The use of willow depends on the
12
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
species concerned, for some grow as shrubs and others as trees, and a species may be particularly suited to some purpose. In general, the flexibility of willow shoots has led to coppicing or pollarding to produce the raw materials for baskets, frames, hurdling etc. (Orme & Coles, 1985). The main Irish native willows are grey willow (Salix cinera), goat willow (Salix caprea) and eared willow (Salix aurita). Betula spp. (birches) Birch was one of the first tress to arrive to Ireland after the end of the last glaciation. It grows as trees or shrubs with a preference for light and thrives on non‐calcareous soils. It is often associated with heathland and successional oak woods, but can rapidly form secondary woodland in cleared areas and on abandoned peat cuttings. Birch species are generally short‐lived, although some examples have known to reach ages of up to 70 and 80 years. Through most of its woodland history, birch played a minor role since its timber was too weak for structural purposes and rots easily outdoors and therefore not greatly valued. Birch wood however, makes a hot but short‐lived fuel and produces high quality charcoal (Lines cited in Gale & Culter, 2000). It is best suited in the manufacturing of fine objects, such as furniture, bowls and tool handles. Birch bark has also been used in making shoes and roofs. Corylus avellana L. (hazel) Hazel woodlands replaced birch in the early post‐glacial forests and remains on some shallow limestone soils to the present day (Pilcher & Hall, 2001). The species can tolerate most soil types, but not waterlogged conditions and forms a small deciduous tree or shrub. It commonly occurs in the understorey of oak and/or ash woodlands, where it may grow to a height of 10m or more. In open areas or woodland glades hazel grows as a shrub. Hazel is a common species recorded from Irish archaeological sites and its widespread presence is highlighted in pollen diagrams from the Neolithic to the medieval period (Caseldine, 1996). It produces good firewood and is a suitable wood for kindling. The wood is soft enough to be split yet flexible and strong enough to be used in rope making and basketry. It has also proved a useful resource in the construction of hurdles, wattling, palisades and trackways from prehistoric times (Pilcher & Hall, 2001). Pomoideae spp. (pomaceous fruit woods) The pomaceous fruit wood species includes the genera Malus (apple), Pyrus (pear), Sorbus (rowan or whitebeam) and Crataegus (hawthorn). They are anatomically very similar and in the absence of bark, buds and leaves cannot be differentiated between each other very often. The pomaceous wood types are small deciduous spiny trees or shrubs and are common to the scrub margins of woodlands and
13
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
hedgerows (Gale & Culter, 2000). The apple species, often crab apple (Malus sylvertris) in woodlands, is a light‐demanding tree and is often found in open oak woods. When dry, crab apple makes for good firewood. While its wood is durable and tough, its crooked trunks and small branches make this species unsuitable for most construction works and instead it is used in making small implements, such as tool handles, bodkins and screws. Pear, grown as wild pear (Pyrus pyraster), is good as fuel. Its wood is hard and fine grained and used in high‐quality turning and making instruments. Rowan and whitebeam grow well in light soils and avoids clays and limestone. Their timber is durable yet not of any economic value, since large trees are scarce. The wood is smooth, fine‐grained and suitable for turnery, household utensils and small decorative woodwork. Hawthorn is shade‐tolerant and forms understorey in ash and hazel woodland. Both hawthorn and apple‐type (Malus sp.) produce edible fruits which would have been gathered as a foodstuff from the prehistoric period (Greig, 1991). These wood types burn slow and steady and provide excellent heat with minimal smoke (Culter & Gale, 2000). Sambucus nigra L. (elder) This is a small tree or shrub of fertile soils in a wide range of habitats, including woodland, hedgerows, grassland, scrub and waste ground (Preston et al 2002, 597). Elder is normally shrubby, it can become arborescent with a trunk up to 25m in diameter. It is synathropic, thriving on the nitrogen‐rich soils associated with human habitation. The trunk wood is extremely hard (Gale & Cutler, 2000). It burns quickly and with little heat. Taxus baccata (yew) Yew has been a component of the Irish native woodland since the post‐glacial period, although not as prominent as scots pine or the deciduous species of oak, elm, ash, hazel and birch. It grows on many soil types, usually under the shade of other trees and often as a solitary tree. Its timber is of great strength and elasticity and resists decay when exposed. It makes for very good firewood and is traditionally used in the manufacturing of bows, turned domestic objects, furniture and fence posts (Cutler and Gale 2000). Just four wood elements were identified as yew and confined to Early/Middle Bronze Age structures 34017 and 341512. Cornus sp. (dogwood)
14
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
This shrub can be found in woodlands, scrub and hedgerows, on limestone soils or base rich clays, sometimes dominant in hedges and scrub on chalk (Preston et al 2002, 422). Carpinus sp. (hornbeam) This is a long lived deciduous tree, found in pure and mixed woodland on base‐poor sandy or loamy clays, or clay‐with‐flints (Preston et al 2002, 135). 7.
WOOD RESULTS AND THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY
Of the fifteen structures studied as part of this wood analysis report, eleven dates from the following structures were obtained from single wood elements by AMS dating: Early/Middle Bronze Age (EBA/MBA) Structure 34005: 1680‐1500 cal BC Structure 34017: 2112‐1884 cal BC Structure 341501: 2133‐1901 cal BC Structure 341512: 2200‐1980 cal BC Structure 341514: 2855‐2488 cal BC Later Bronze Age (LBA) Structure 34505: 1488‐1309 cal BC Iron Age Structure 34006: 344‐48 cal BC Structure 34007: 173 cal BC‐cal AD 4 Structure 34015: 256 cal BC‐cal AD 414 Medieval period Structure 34504: 1324‐1441 cal AD Structure 34507: 1316‐1436 cal AD
15
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
From this point forward it will be these dated structures [34005, 34006, 34007, 34015, 34017, 34504, 34505, 34507, 341501, 341512 and 341514], which will be discussed in relation to the archaeological chronology recorded at the site. 7.1
Early/Middle Bronze Age period
Five structures were dated to the Early/Middle Bronze Age [34005, 34017, 341501, 341512 and 341514]. The structures were primarily constructed of alder, with much lesser evidence for ash, willow and birch (Fig 4). Oak, hazel and dogwood were only recorded from Structure 34005 and this seems to be the most substantial structure dating to this period. The only evidence for yew was recorded from Structures 34017 and 341512. Structures 34017 and 341501 contained very few wood elements (<100 elements each) and therefore may not be a viable assemblage from which to draw any interpretations from. It is possible that these structures are more scatters of wood which may be a) the remnants of an existing structure, b) have been deposited to facilitate the maintenance or repair of an existing structure or c) may represent the dislodged remains of another structure.
200 200
180 180
160 160
No. of wood pieces No. of wood pieces
Alder Alder
140 140
Ash Ash
120 120
Willow Willow Birc Birchh
100 100
Oak Oak Hazel Hazel
80 80
Dogwood Dogwood
60 60
Yew Yew
40 40 20 20 00 34005 34005
34017 34017
341501 341501 Structures Structures
341512 341512
341514 341514
Fig. 4 Distribution of wood species from Early/Middle Bronze Age dated structures
16
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
7.2
Later Bronze Age period
Structure 34505 was dated to the early later Bronze Age period and represents the only structure to date to this period. All woods were recorded as brushwood elements. Just forty five wood samples were identified from one bulk sample associated with 34505 and as a result very little can be postulated about this particular feature. Alder, oak and ash were recorded from here, but with values of less than twenty for each species, it is difficult to ascertain the composition of wood species used in constructing this feature or indeed how this reflects on the local woodland during this period. Once again it is possible that 34505 represents the remains of a once larger structure, or may be a scatter of wood deposited for repair, or as part of a foundational layer. 7.3
Iron Age period
Three structures were dated to the Iron Age [34006, 34007 and 34015]. Alder is the dominant wood species identified within these structures, however there is obviously more ash and willow recorded from this assemblage (Fig. 5). Oak too is present, but values for hazel still remains low. The slight emphasis on more ash and willow here may just reflect the nature of the wood composition in this structure rather than an increase in the use of these wood types or a change in local woodland resources during the Iron Age. The use of alder, ash and oak together in more notable quantities may also reflect the construction of more durable structures in the Iron Age period. All three species are renowned for their timber strength and sustainability when deposited in waterlogged conditions.
70 70
60 60
50 50
No. of wood pieces No. of wood pieces
Alder Alder Ash Ash
40 40
Willow Willow Oak Oak
30 30
Hazel Hazel 20 20
Pomac Pomaceous eous Elder Elder
10 10 00 34006 34006
34007 34007
34015 34015
Structures Structures
17
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Fig. 5 Distribution of wood species from Iron Age dated structures 7.4
Medieval period
The structures dating to the medieval period [34505 and 34507] were predominantly constructed of alder, while less than 10 identifications of ash, willow, birch, pomaceous fruit woods and hornbeam were also recorded (Fig 6). Structure 34504 was possibly the more substantial structure since it contained almost 600 wooden elements. The majority of the wood was brushwood, with approximately 15 timbers identified as oak from Structure 34504.
700 700
600 600
No. of wood pieces No. of wood pieces
500 500
Alder Alder Ash Ash Willow Willow
400 400
Birc Birchh Oak Oak Pomac Pomaceous eous
300 300
Dogwood Dogwood Wood indet Wood indet Hornbeam Hornbeam
200 200
100 100
00 34504 34504
34507 34507 Structures Structures
Fig. 6 Distribution of wood species from Medieval dated structures 18
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
7.5
Overview of the wood assemblage from the Bronze Age to the medieval period
The wood species identified from the structures associated with each of these time frames are presented in Fig. 7 and help to highlight the composition of wood types that were present from the Bronze Age to the medieval dated structures. Alder is the dominant wood species recorded at Site 34 from the Early Bronze Age to the medieval period, while values for all other wood species identified from the assemblage were recorded in much lower incidences. Accounting for just 220 identifications, ash is the second most used wood at the site during the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age and Iron Age periods. Since the ash counts from the Late Bronze Age structure 34505 were based on such a small number of wood identifications, it may be too ambitious to discuss the low incidences of this species here. During the medieval period however, the use of ash has noticeably declined at the site. Oak has been a popular choice of wood used in construction from the prehistoric period, but plays but a minor role in the construction of the structures at Site 34. Oak values, while low, remain relatively consistent from the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age to the Late Bronze Age and into the Iron Age. A slight rise in the use of oak is evident during the medieval dated phase at the site and it becomes the second to alder in the construction of these features. While values for willow are also low throughout the construction phases at the site, it too remains consistent during the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age and medieval periods. The use of birch at the site is noted during the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age phase of the site, but fails to make an appearance in the structures again until the medieval phase of construction and at that is not used in the same capacity as in the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age phase. Birch is not favoured for the structural quality of its wood and may have proved useful elsewhere. The scrubby wood species of the pomaceous woods are absent from the earlier construction phases at the site and instead make an appearance in the Iron Age and medieval dated structures along with dogwood and hornbeam. Similarly, elder is recorded in the Iron Age structures only, but was not in use beyond this. In later prehistoric periods, pomaceous woods are more prevalent in the landscape, perhaps as a result of more opening up of larger areas of land or the fencing off of certain areas (Stuijts, 2003/4, 20).
19
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
An interesting observation is the low values for hazel at the site during all four phases of construction. Hazel is identified in very low numbers from the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age dated structures and again in the Iron Age structures, but fails to become a prominent wood species used in these construction phases. Although not a water tolerant species, hazel is a hardy shrub that is quick to colonise marginal areas, growing close to oak and ash especially in areas exposed to light. Traditionally it is the wood of choice for making brushwood or hurdles and would have been most suitable in the construction of the structures recorded at Site 34.
800 800
750 750
700 700
650 650
600 600
550 550
No. of wood pieces No. of wood pieces
Alder Alder Ash Ash
500 500
Willow Willow
450 450
Oak Oak
400 400
Birc Birchh
350 350
Hazel Hazel Pomac Pomaceous spp eous spp
300 300
Dogwood Dogwood Elder Elder
250 250
Hornbeam Hornbeam
200 200
150 150 100 100 50 50 00 EBA/MBA EBA/MBA
LBA LBA
Iron Age Iron Age
Medieval Medieval
PPeriods eriods
Fig. 7 Wood species identified from dated structures
20
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
While there are slight shifts in some woods used in the structures at Site 34, the composition of the wood species generally stays relatively uniform from period to period and suggests that the local vegetation did not alter too much during this time. The similarity of wood results from each structure in each phase indicates that the local woodland was primarily used in the construction of these features. The use of alder at the site certainly highlights that this species was growing in plentiful supply in and around the site and as such would have been frequently exploited. Since all categories of woods (timbers, large, medium and small roundwoods and roots) were represented by alder, it reaffirms the availability of this wood species in and around the site as all parts of the tree were potentially used in constructing or maintaining the structures at the site. The measurements taken from the diameter of the roundwood samples revealed that smaller roundwood material (<25mm diameter) was commonly used in the construction of the structures specifically from the Early/ Middle Bronze Age and in particularly the medieval period. This would support the on‐site interpretation of brushwood elements being commonplace at the site and as Fig. 8 below shows, very little in the way of larger roundwoods or timbers being present within these structures. Based on the wood size alone, if a selection process was in place to collect woods of a certain size, then perhaps the people constructing these structures were in need of small but compact and durable wooden structures to allow for easy access or increase stability across pockets of wetter areas of the site that would have become more waterlogged during times of flash flooding.
700 700
600 600
No. of wood counts No. of wood counts
500 500
Timbers Timbers Lrg rwds Lrg rwds
400 400
Med rwds Med rwds SSm rwds m rwds
300 300
Root Root Misc Misc
200 200
100 100 00 EBA/MBA EBA/MBA
LBA LBA
Iron Age Iron Age PPeriods eriods
Medieval Medieval
Fig. 8 Wood sizes identified from dated structures
21
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
A degree of organisation and effort would have been needed if larger roundwoods and timbers were used at the site. These elements would need to have been felled, perhaps stripped of branches and twigs and, if timbers, split and possibly worked around the edges. Perhaps then the present of bark from the many of the samples analysed and little in the way of smoothing out the wood surface suggests that very little preparation was used in dressing the wood for use in such structures. Where timbers of oak and ash and larger roundwoods of alder, ash, oak and willow are used, it is possible that they were brought to the site for other constructive purposes and re‐used in the structures themselves from time to time. 8.
WORKED WOOD ANALYSIS
8.1
Individual structures
Early/Middle Bronze Age [34005] This structure was roughly linear, and mainly made of brushwood, secured by upright posts and stakes. The material was primarily composed of alder, followed by ash and birch. Hazel, willow oak and dogwood were also identified. Three end types were recorded, the main one was chisel, followed by wedge and pencil, all cut at very shallow angles. The largest facet was 55m long and 50mm wide. An ash pencil ended stake from here was blunted at one end, showing where it was hammered into the ground. [34017] This was a small arrangement of stakes. Alder, ash and yew were present. Three worked pieces only were recorded, with mixed end types, the largest facet was flat measuring 40mm wide, 53mm long and blunted at one end, showing where it was hammered into the ground. [341512] This was either a small trackway or platform. It was dominated by alder with some pomaceous fruitwood, ash, oak and yew. The end types were wedge and chisel. Flat facets were present, the largest of which was 60mm wide and 75mm long.
22
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Later Bronze Age [34505] This was made from upright vertical posts and pegs, brushwood and lesser amounts of larger roundwood elements. Alder, oak and ash were mainly used for construction, although hazel, willow and pomaceous fruitwood were also identified. The predominant end type was chisel, all cut at shallow angles. Facets were flat, the largest of which was 35mm wide and 76mm long. Iron Age [34006] This was rough platform or dump, composed mainly of brushwood with some larger roundwoods. Alder, ash and willow were the main woods used for this structure. The worked ends were chisel, and two flat facets were recorded, the largest of which was 25mm wide and 35mm long. [34007] This was a north/south running liner arrangement of brushwood and roundwoods. A number of individual worked pieces were recorded from here and comprised of alder, oak and pomaceous fruitwood. The pieces were pencil, chisel and wedge ended. Cutting angles were shallow. Flat and slightly concave facets were recorded, the largest of which was 62mm wide and 71mm long. Willow, ash, oak, elder and hazel were also identified from here. [34015] This structure was defined as a spread of brushwood. Alder, ash, oak, pomaceous fruitwood and willow were identified from here. No worked ends were evident. Worked wood was composed of mainly half split ashes and oaks. A radially cleft ash with a rectangular shaped notch was excavated from here. Medieval [34504] This was the main part of a continuous linear spread of brushwood. It has been dated to the medieval period. Alder was the main component, while other wood such as oak, pomaceous fruitwood, willow, ash, dogwood and birch were also used. A high number of chisel ended pieces (46) were recorded from this structure, with a small percentage of wedge and pencil ends. Facets were
23
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
predominantly flat, the largest of which was 71 x 62mm. A large rectangular shaped jam curve was lifted from an oak roundwood, which was 83mm in width. [34507] This structure was mostly composed of brushwood branches laid parallel and adjacent to each other. Again, alder was the dominant wood selected, with lesser amounts of hazel, willow and pomaceous fruitwood. The worked ends were mainly chisel, cut at shallow angles. Three flat facets were recorded, the largest of which was 50mm long and 48mm wide. Undated [34014] This was a linear arrangement of brushwood and roundwood. A large amount of worked wood was analysed from here. Alder, willow and ash were the main wood types identified. Hazel, yew, pomaceous fruitwood and oak were also present. The roundwoods were mainly chisel ended, with flat facets. Nineteen facets were recorded, the largest of which was 36mm wide and 75mm long. An alder half split with a notch was identified. [34519] This was located underneath structure [34505] and may be part of its substructure. Alder was the main wood used, with some hazel. A variety of facet types were recorded, these were concave, slightly concave and flat. Some of these were quite long, one being 82mm long by 21mm in width. One of the wood pieces from this structure has been dated to the Early Bronze Age. [341501] Alder, hazel and ash were identified from here. Worked ends were wedge, pencil and chisel. Facets ranged in length from 93 to 37mm. Concave, slightly concave and flat facets were evident. An interesting aspect of this site was an alder roundwood log (34W4595), which had a very well preserved concave shaped void profile of an axe preserved in it. It was difficult to measure this accurately however the base of the axe would have been at least 79mm in width. A positive silicone gel mould will be made of this, which will provide details of the width of the axe blade.
24
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
25
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.2
Worked ends
Three types of worked ends were represented in the Site 34 material, these were chisel, wedge and pencil ends. The main roundwood species used was alder. This can be chopped cleanly, the bark does not strip or tear but there is a tendency for the roundwood to split (Orme and Coles 1985, 32). The predominant end type was clearly chisel (Fig. 9) which may be a reflection of the diameters of the roundwoods, which tended to range between 11 and 55mm. It appears that it was simply unnecessary to chop many of the roundwoods more than once to fell them, and demonstrates the efficiency of the axe blades. The cutting angles of the material were all very similar, tending to be very shallow (0‐20°) and shallow (20‐40°). This strongly suggests the use of metal axes, with sharp blades, which could cut the wood fibres at acute angles (O’Sullivan 1996, 314). The similar cutting angles were dispersed throughout Areas 1, 2 and 4, an indication that metal axes were used across the site. When the end types were plotted against the diameter, pieces of smaller diameter tended to be cut on one side, while pencil and wedge ends were used throughout (Fig. 10). In the Derryville bog excavations, a simple but definite pattern emerged, that of wedge ends displacing chisel‐ends as the predominant type, with a concurrent increase in diameters. Pencil ends would then displace wedge ends for large diameters (O’Neill 2005, 333). Split and axed ends as evidenced in the Neolithic period from the Mountdillon trackways (O’Sullivan 1996) were totally absent in the Site 34 material, which suggests that splitting techniques were no longer necessary and that larger trees could now be felled exclusively by means of an axe.
amt. of of pieces pieces amt.
180 180 160 160 140 140 120 120 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 00 chisel chisel
wedge wedge
pencil pencil
end end type type
Fig. 9 Total worked ends from Site 34
26
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
25 25
amt. of of pieces pieces amt.
20 20
15 15
chisel chisel pencil pencil
10 10
wwedge edge
55 00 1-5 1-5
i
1111- F 212115 25 15 25
313135 35
414145 45
515155 55
616165 65
717175 75
818185 85
919195 95
diameter diameter (mm) (mm)
g Fig. 10 End types and diameters from Site 34 8.3
Jam curves
These occur when the blade gets jammed in the wood and had to be withdrawn, effectively leaving a clear imprint of the axe blade. It is the most effective method for accurately recording blade dimensions. Jam curves were recorded from six structures in Site 34; 34504, 34519, 34005 and 34017 from Area 2 and 341501 and 341512 from Area 4 (Fig. 11). Three of the structures with clear jam curves were dated‐ Structures 34519 and 341501 were dated to the Early Bronze Age, while Structure 34504 yielded a medieval date. Broad jam curves were recorded from the Early Bronze Age structures, reflecting wide, convex edged blades. The jam curves from 34W3026 (Structure 34519) and 34W4602 (Structure 341501) were both very similar in dimensions and curve profile, broad and widely curved, 58mm and 68mm in width respectively. However, in contrast to this, from Structure 34519, two tightly curved jam curves were lifted from 34W3029 and 34W3019, of dimensions 23 and 30mm in width. While some of the larger jam curves are comparable within the Early Bronze Age material, clearly different axes were used on the same structure. The Medieval axe mark was extremely different to those from the earlier periods. This jam curve was 83mm in width, and was very rectangular shaped, with a straight cutting edge (34W3524, Structure
27
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
34504). This straight edge was very different to the curved edges of the earlier material. It was obviously a heavy axe, capable of cutting deeply into oak heartwood (Plate 1). Similar jam curves were also identified from the same structure, for example from 341512 in Area 4, where four broad, convex shaped jam curves were recorded (ca. 60mm in length). Therefore, distinctly different axe shapes can be discerned from the jam curves. Some of the curves showed the use of broad, heavy blades with curved edges, for example in Structure 341512. In contrast, smaller, more tightly curved convex edged blades were recorded from Structure 34519. A flat, broad, almost rectangular edged blade with almost straight cutting edges was used on Structure 34504 (Fig. 7).
9
10
11
Plate 1. Rectangular edged jam curve from 34W3524
28
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
12
13
Fig. 11 Jam curves from Site 34
14 29
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
15 Fig. 11 Jam curv es from Site 34 (cont ’d)
16
30
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.4
Facets
In all events, one should measure the most complete facet (O’Sullivan 1996) but when working with roundwoods as small as 20mm in diameter, the full facet will not always be preserved. This is why the comparability of the larger facets probably reflects more accurately the dimensions of the axes used to fell and shape the trees. The facet junction, where the blade has not gone straight through the wood but has come out across a previous facet (Coles and Orme 1985, 27) was clean or stepped in all cases, which suggests the use of metal axes . Stone axes tend to leave ‘ragged’ facet junctions, as they are not as capable of cutting the wood cleanly as metal axes. Facets were recorded from fifty six pieces of wood from Site 34. The predominant profile from the site was clearly flat (Fig. 12), although slightly concave and concave were also represented. The facet dimensions can be seen in Fig. 13. The facet study from Site 34 demonstrated that metal axes with blade widths of at least 62mm were used to chop the wood. The various features of a facet can be seen in Fig. 14.
amt. of of samples samples amt.
50 50 45 45 40 40 35 35 30 30 25 25 20 20 15 15 10 10 55 00 flat flat
slightly slightly concave concave
concave concave
Facet Facet profile profile
Fig. 12 Total facet characters from Site 34 31
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
width (mm) (mm) width
100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 00 00
10 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
50 50
60 60
70 70
length length (mm) (mm)
Fig. 13 Total facet dimensions from Site 34
Fig. 14 Features of a facet (After Sands 1997, 12)
32
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.5
Toolmarks and the archaeological chronology
Worked wood was examined from Early/Middle Bronze Age structures [34005, 34017 and 341512], Later Bronze Age [34505], Iron Age [34006, 34007 and 34015] and from the Medieval period [34504, 34507]. The main end types present during all periods is chisel (Fig. 15), which probably reflects the limited diameter of the material (Fig. 10). In comparison the character of the facets are mainly flat throughout the different time periods (Fig. 16). The Early/Middle Bronze Age facet widths cluster mainly between 27 and 45mm, although there is one example at 60mm (Fig. 17). The Late Bronze Age facets are slightly smaller, clustering mainly between 20 and 34mm in width. The Iron Age facets range from 27 to 62mm in width, while the medieval facets are widely spread, from 22 to 71mm in size. There are no statistical criteria established for dating structures from their toolmarks, indeed two of the major Irish publications (O’Sullivan 1996; O’Neill 2005) which address this issue had quite different results. Bronze Age sequences from the Mountdillon trackways exhibited mainly flat facets, with a small proportion being concave and slightly concave (O’Sullivan 1996). In contrast, in the Lisheen Mine excavations, the Early and Middle Bronze Age facets were concave, with a variation in the depth of the concavity. In the Late Bronze Age, profiles were also concave, although facets were generally smaller and the concavity more pronounced. On structures from the end of the seventh century, the profile changed to being dished, with a wide flat base and very short, curved sides. On structures dating from around 460‐450BC the profiles were very flat. This also includes the Medieval structures (O’Neill 2005). On Iron Age structures at the Mountdillon bogs, the facets were always flat, with very distinct or clean facet junctions. There is some variance in the size of the facets from different time periods, for example O’Sullivan (1996) found that the Early Bronze Age ones were slightly wider than later Bronze Age, and that Iron Age facets were longer. The results from Site 34 show that flat facets predominated on the site from the Early/Middle Bronze Age through to the medieval period.
33
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
14 14 amt. of of samples samples amt.
12 12 10 10 chisel chisel wwedge edge
88 66
pencil pencil
44 22 00 Early/Middle Early/Middle Bronze BronzeAge Age
Late LateBronze BronzeAge Age
Iron IronAge Age
Medieval Medieval
time time period period
Fig. 15 Worked ends per time period
88 77
amt. of of samples samples amt.
66 55
flat flat
44 33
slightly slightly concave concave
22 11 00 Early/Middle Early/Middle Bronze BronzeAge Age
Late LateBronze Bronze Age Age
Iron IronAge Age
Medieval Medieval
time time period period
Fig. 16 Facet profiles per time period
34
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
80 80
70 70 width (mm) (mm) width
60 60
Early Early Middle Middle Bronze BronzeAge Age
50 50 40 40
Late LateBronze BronzeAge Age
30 30 Iron IronAge Age
20 20
10 10
Medieval Medieval
00
00
20 20
40 40
60 60
80 80
100 100
length length (mm) (mm)
Fig. 17 Facet dimensions per time period 8.6
Differences in spit levels
It was considered whether differences in the wood composition would be noted between the different spit levels in structures. Due to the nature of the environment, it may be possible that different structures were repaired, reused or relocated, and sometimes due to adverse excavation conditions, this may not have become immediately apparent. Therefore, the spit results within structures will be compared. This is not applicable to the individual worked wood samples, as it was not generally recorded which spit they were from, but it is applicable to the bulk sample results. As a result of the study, some differences were noted between spit levels in the same structure. In Structure 34005, Spits 2 & 3 and Spit 4 are dominated by roots, whereas in Spit 1 the wood pieces were between 10‐35mm. In Structure 34007, there are more worked pieces in Spit 5 than in Spit 1 and 2. Willow was also identified in Spit 5, while it is not present in Spit 1. In Structure 34015, there are distinctly larger timbers and a greater variety of species in Spit 2 than in Spit 1. In Structure 34507, there are more worked pieces in Spit 1 than in Spit 3 and 5. Therefore, it does appear that there are some definite differences, both in species, level of working and dimensions between spits of the same structure. The most definite of these is in Structure 34007 and Structure 34015. It is likely that the different spit levels in these structures were constructed at different times, or re‐used timbers were used from other constructions. 35
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
It was possible that some of the structures were related to each other, particularly Structures 34015 and 34006 in Area 1 (Wilkins 2005). While the wood types used in the two structures was similar, most worked wood from Structure 34006 were chisel ends with flat facets, while no worked ends or facets were recorded from Structure 34015, any worked wood was in the form of radially split ash. Therefore, there is no worked wood evidence to link the two structures. The excavator noted that many of the structures in Area 1 may be related to each other. Based on the worked wood and species analysis, this is a very real possibility, as similar results were found from many of the structures.
36
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.7
Analysis of signatures Facet marks may record the individual details of a tools edge. Points of damage on a blade, such as a break or a bend, can be registered on the wood surface as either a ridge or groove running down the long axis of the facet produced. The sequence of ridges or grooves created can act like a signature for the use of that particular tool. When the same sequence is found on toolmarks from different timbers, then those timbers may be associated through the single tool used in their working (Sands 1997, 6).
As the majority of the wood from Site 34 was in very good condition and mainly composed of alder, it posed a good basis for a signature study. It is more likely that signatures would survive on alder roundwoods as opposed to harder trees such as oak. Every piece of wood that had a preserved signature, however faint, was noted and put aside for further analysis.
Plate 2 Blade signature on 34W047
Thirty‐one pieces were identified in this manner, primarily roundwoods. All of the wood was laid out together in natural light. The majority of the pieces had depressed, in some cases rather faint lines, caused by a bulge on the axe blade (Plate 2). Approximately 4 to 5 pieces had a raised groove, caused by a nick in the axe blade. The signatures were grouped together based on the six point scale developed by Sands (1997, 19). This basically helps group the signatures together by common patterns. A number of observations were made. 34W4502, Area 4 Structure 341512 had three chop marks, with a distinctive raised ridge. 34W008, Structure 34005, Area 1 also had a very distinctive 37
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
raised ridge. There was a positive match of signatures from Structure 34504 [Area 2, Spit 1, Bulk Sample number 62], between three pieces. There was also a positive match between two pieces from Structure 34507 [Spit 5, Bulk Sample number 53]. This work shows that the same axe was used on two different wood pieces in Structure 34504, and on Structure 34507. The use of the same axe on the same structure is not in itself surprising, and it would have been more rewarding to link separate structures through signatures, but this was not possible. The fact that thirty‐one separate signatures were identified does not necessarily man that this amount of separate axes were used, it just indicates thirty‐one separate episodes of use. When metal and stone axes were sharpened before use in experimental work from the Somerset levels, various irregularities were noted on the blades, which would lead to signatures. By the end of the work, when many hundred blows had been delivered to each tool, almost all of the signatures were smoothed out (Orme and Coles 1985, 30). This suggests that only a matter of days, if not hours passed between the creation of imperfections on the axe blade, and their eradication through work. This contrasts by work from Derryville, where O’Neill (2005) found the same signature on wood cut in the summer and winter. Could this suggest that the wood was felled in its relevant seasons, but worked at the one time?
38
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.8
Tree felling
One of the elements (34W4001) (Plate 3) from Area 2 showed excellent evidence of felling techniques. This oak trunk had been felled at least 40cm above the ground. The tree was felled in quite a specific manner, mainly to control the direction that it would fall in. Two opposing notches were used. A steeply angled notch was cut deep into one side of the trunk, across the pitch, in the direction of where it was to fall. Another notch was then cut higher up into the opposing side of the trunk. The trunk was then axed the whole way through before it fell, as there is no surviving fibrous ridge remaining where the tree fell over. The oak itself was very fast growing, and extremely knotty, showing that it had a lot of branches trimmed off. It is not the ideal choice when prospecting, as the felled roundwood would have been difficult to split, due the fact that the knots would interfere with the cleaving process. However, its rate of fast growth may be what made it desirable, as fast grown oak is more dense and useful than slow grown (Damian Goodburn, pers comm.). The felling and presumably use of such a knotty, oak log indicates that (a) there wasn’t a high availability of straight grown oak trees in the vicinity and (b) the tree grew in fairly optimum conditions, i.e. in an open, non‐woodland, with space to branch out.
Plate 3 Felled oak log 34W001
39
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.9
Cleft timbers
The majority of the wood remains from Site 34 were in the form of roundwoods. However, some of the alder, oak, ash and willow stakes and planks were converted radially, tangentially and half‐ split (Fig. 18). Converting wood radially takes advantage of the natural planes of weakness of the wood. These splitting techniques could have been achieved using heavy mallets, wooden or bone wedges as well as axes (Fig. 19). Seasoned oak chips could have been used as wedges. Radials can be produced by splitting a trunk in quarters, and then by splitting “slices” off each quarter. In experimental work oak has been shown to split easily and cleanly (Orme & Coles, 1983). The side branches, which contained knots showing where the branches would have been, were cleaned off. 12
amt. of samples
10 8 6 4 2 0 half split
radial
tangential
conversion process
Fig. 18 Conversion processes from Site 34
40
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Fig. 19 Cleft timbers; tangential, radial and half‐split (After O’Sullivan 1996, 305). 8.10
Woodcarving and fine woodworking
One chisel ended piece, 34W1057 was split on one side, and hollowed out. Its minimum and maximum external diameters were 30 and 42mm, while the internal diameters were 20 and 28mm. It is unclear how this piece was hollowed out, as there were no chisel marks present. It is likely that it was half the remains of a hollowed out pipe, which would have joined at the sides. It had striations inside which were similar to the Charlesland pipes, a probable Early Bronze Age musical instrument (O’Donnell 2004).
41
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
8.11
Notched or holed timbers
Two of the elements (34W1595 and 34W2010) (Plate 4) had rectangular to semi‐circular notches carved out of them. 34W1595 was a half‐split alder piece, and its notch was 65 x 30mm. 34W2010 was a radially cleft, fast grown ash. The remains of the notch measured 95mm x 160mm. The plank was insect ridden; probably indicating that it was exposed for a time before use. Both of the pieces were excavated from Area 1, 34W1595 from Structure 34014 and 34W2010 was from Structure 34015. The notches did not serve any function within the structures (Mick Drumm, pers. comm.), so they must have been re‐used from other structures. The notches were quite rectangular in plan, similar to those identified from the Middle and Later Bronze Age levels of the Mountdillon trackways (O’Sullivan 1996). The notches in both cases were cut at right angles to the grain. They were either the remains of full mortices and some of the timber broke away, or they were intentionally carved into half‐ notches.
Plate 4 Notched ash piece (34W2010)
42
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
9. AGE PROFILE OF THE TIMBERS/WOODLAND MANAGEMENT Woodmanship involves the management of woodlands for the production of timber, firewood and rods for assorted uses (Tierney 1998). Evidence of this type of management in Ireland has been found from the Early Bronze Age in Lisheen (Stuijts 2005). Coppicing is a traditional method of woodland management, where young stems are cut down to a low level, or sometimes right down to the ground. In subsequent growth years, many new shoots will grow up, and after a number of years the cycle begins again and the coppiced tree or stool is ready to be harvested again. When let grow for some years, the sucker or shoot produces a long pole, which is straighter and better for working than naturally grown trees which have bends and forks. Frequently there may be remains of heels, i.e. the join between the stump or stool and the rod. When trees are coppiced, often their first one to three rings are fast, probably as a result of increased space for growth. Subsequent extreme regularity in the growth ring pattern is another indicator of the uniform conditions of coppiced growth. Pollarding is similar to coppicing, but the trunk is cut some 2 to 3m above the ground to prevent browsing (Moloney 1993a). The main tree species identified from Site 34 was alder, which is suitable for coppicing, and can be cut about every ten years in the winter. Where possible, the age of each piece was counted. When the results were plotted (Fig. 20), it is clear that there is a very distinct peak in ages between 6‐10 and 11‐15 years old, in fact over 87% of the aged alder roundwoods fall into this category. 500
amt. of pieces
450 400
alder
350
ash
300
hazel
250
pomaceous
200
birch
150
w illow
100
oak
50 0 51-55
46-50
41-45
36-40
31-35
26-30
21-25
16-20
11-15
6-10
0-5
years
Fig. 20 Age profiles of the main wood taxa from Site 34
43
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Most of the material from Site 34 can be classified as brushwood, i.e. less than 60mm in diameter (Moloney 1993a). Therefore, one may expect the wood to have fairly low ages. However, when the ages of the material are compared to the diameters of the bulk samples, age appears to be the discriminatory factor, i.e. there are pieces of ten to fifteen years that measure up to seventy mm in diameter. There is a general trend that larger pieces tend to be older, but in all, it seems that most of the alder selected for construction at Site 34 was based more on age than on size. The concentration of wood between 5 and 15 years of age, combined with the regular spread may indicate a managed as opposed to natural situation. Some of the alder pieces also showed evidence of probable coppiced heels (Plate 5).
Plate 5 Probable coppiced alder heels from Site 34 Where the age patterns of the material were grouped according to time period, the majority of the brushwood elements were commonly recorded from the structures dating to the medieval period (Fig 21). During the Medieval period, it appears that there was a good supply of young roundwoods growing in the vicinity of the site.
44
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
450 400
350
No. of wood counts
300
1‐10 yrs
250
11‐20 yrs
200
21‐30 yrs
150
30+ yrs
100
50
0
EBA/MBA
LBA
Iron Age
Medieval
P eriods
Fig. 21 Age profiles of wood identified from dated structures 10.
COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE WOOD AND POLLEN RECORD
Since a pollen record was established for Site 34, this offered a unique opportunity for the wood and pollen results to be compared and to establish any trends or changes that may have occurred in the local woodland. It is important to mention however that pollen dispersal is a natural occurrence that is dependent on wind, water or insects for transportation, while wood recorded from archaeological sites, as at Site 34, represents a bias selection of materials brought to a site by human activity. It is also important to note that certain species such as willow and crab apple are insect‐pollinated and therefore can be under‐represented in the pollen rain, while species such as alder and hazel are wind pollinated and can be over‐represented in the pollen record so this should be taken into account when comparing both results. On the pollen diagram, Units III to IV correspond with the Bronze Age wooden structures. Oak with a probable understory of hazel was present throughout this time. This contrasts with the wood results, where the values for oak are consistently low. Betula pubescens (hairy/downy birch) was also identified. It is not possible to discriminate between the two species of birch (hairy and silver) through wood anatomy, but the pollen indicates that it may represent the downy variety. Alder and
45
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
willow were also important during this time, and may signify an alder‐ sedge carr woodland as indicated in the pollen results (Timpany 2006, 11). The Iron Age structures are represented in the pollen diagram by Units VI to VII. At this stage there is a significant decline in oak, followed by hazel and alder declines. They recover towards the end of the zone. Carr – woodland dominated by alder, with birch and willow are still present (Timpany 2006, 13). The wood identifications from the Iron Age are dominated by alder, followed by ash. In general, the pollen and wood remains correlate well as both point to the presence of alder carr woodland. 11.
DISCUSSION
The estuarine setting of Site 34 facilitated the growth alder carr. A variety of primarily native Irish species were also used to construct the trackways, platforms and structures across the alluvial/estuarine wetland. The main wood used was alder, which would have been freely available in the surrounding environment. Alder also has the added advantage of resisting decay in a wet environment almost indefinitely, a property which would have made it very suitable and long lasting in the wetland environment of Site 34. One of the premise of wood analysis from archaeological sites is the theory that structural wood and firewood will probably be gathered from as near to the site as possible, for convenience. The weight and density of large trees would have prohibited them being carried long distances, and there is no need to go further to gather firewood, presuming there is suitable material in the vicinity. Therefore, it is most likely that the people building the brushwood trackways and platforms at Site 34 had easy access to alder forest or carr. The people building their trackways and platforms at Site 34, Newrath didn’t feel it necessary to bring wood in from the nearby marginal and dryland areas, which the pollen evidence shows had ample oak and hazel growing. The smaller roundwood nature of the material from Site 34 indicates that larger, well built trackways or platforms were simply not necessary to go across the estuarine area. This may have some reflection on the use of the site if animals were being herded across the area then more substantial plank built trackways would be necessary, while the more insubstantial structures at the site were more likely for human use. The estuarine area would have provided resources, such as fish, birds, tubers, reeds for weaving, sedges which could be used for bedding etc.
46
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Where bark was present on the roundwoods, in a number of cases it was noted that the pieces had a full outer ring. This means they were cut at the end of the growth season, in winter or early spring. This was probably the season when the greatest need was for platforms or trackways, for example when the water‐table would be high and the area liable to flooding. Interestingly, while under excavation, the area completely flooded in winter 2004. Much of the wood was also quite crudely prepared, with bark still present and some of the material was knarled or twisted. This could signify that little was done to dress the wood for construction of these structures and perhaps they were viewed as necessary but temporary features which only served a short‐term practical purpose. The relatively haphazard nature of the construction also indicates that it was simply unnecessary to carefully lay down carefully built, dressed trackways, of the calibre found at Mountdillon (Raftery 1996) , that dumps of alder brushwood would suffice perfectly well. The dynamic landscape in which the site was situated would have inevitably been unpredictable from time to time and so maybe these wooden structures needed to be of a more make‐shift design. This too may explain the use of brushwood elements within the structures, where there would have been low‐level felling and gathering involved. The tool mark evidence is dominated by worked ends, indicating the alder roundwoods were probably simply chopped down where they grew. Alder is frequently used for building in wetland settings. This is presumably because of easy access due to its common presence in the local environment. Another lactustrine site at Clowanstown, Co. Meath contained wood from Mesolithic and Neolithic levels dominated by alder, followed by hazel, while the charcoal results were dominated by hazel (O’Donnell 2008). At a probable Late Bronze Age fulacht fiadh trough at Coonagh West, Co. Limerick, alder was gathered from the surrounding area, as it would have grown well in the wetland area which surrounded the site. These trees grew in a natural situation, and were between thirty and sixty years old. Growth was slow, indicating marginal conditions (O’Donnell 2005). At Inchagreenoge, Co. Limerick, wood from an Early Bronze Age fulacht fiadh was identified as mainly alder, with some hazel and ash also recorded (Taylor 2007, 281‐284). At Derryville bog, Co. Tipperary hazel, followed by alder, ash and willow was the most commonly used wood on archaeological sites. The marginal forest was composed primarily of alder (Stuijts
47
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
2005). At the Mountdillon trackway, Co. Longford, again hazel dominated the brushwood and lighter woods, while oak was the main species for larger split timbers (Moloney 1996). In comparison, at the Mount Gabriel mines, Co. Cork, hazel again was the dominant species, followed by oak (Mc Keown 1994). At Clonfinlough, Co. Offaly ash was the dominant species (Moloney et al 1993b), while in the Blackwater survey, Co. Mayo, birch, followed by ash and hazel were the dominant wood types (Moloney et al 1995). At a Late Bronze Age fulacht fiadh at Cahiracon, Co. Clare, oak was used to line the trough, while alder, hazel and holly stakes were used to peg it into position (Dennehy 2007, 188‐189). The high values for alder from the estuarine site at Site 34 highlights the key difference between alluvial and bog land archaeological results. Few trees will generally grow in raised bogs, with the exception of trees such as birch and yew. Therefore, trees are generally brought in from the nearby marginal woodlands for construction (for example Stuijts 2005). In the estuarine site of Site 34, and similarly at Clowanstown, people used the trees which were growing naturally on the lake edge, in each case alder, for building. There was no evidence for stone axes being used anywhere on the site. Across the three areas, the worked end type was typically chisel, cut at shallow or very shallow angles. The size of most of the roundwoods (typically smaller than 60mm in diameter) probably influenced this worked end pattern. Flat facets with clean or stepped junctions predominate, demonstrating that axes with a blade width of at least 60mm were used in all areas, the size of which does not vary greatly between areas. Jam curves demonstrated that during the Early Bronze Age, tools with tightly curved blades of widths from 23 30mm were used, along with broader curved convex shaped blades of up to 68mm in width. However, a jam curve recorded from the medieval contexts was markedly different, it was longer (83mm), and more rectangular shaped. The study of signatures from various wood pieces showed that there were at least thirty one episodes of tool use, with some very distinct signatures. Signatures were positively matched between roundwoods from Structures 34507 and 34504. Split planks were quite rare, but were generally radial or half‐splits. The remains of notched holes or possible mortices were identified from two split pieces. Most of the alder roundwoods were between five and fifteen years old, which, coupled with even growth rates indicates that some form of management was probably being practiced in the area.
48
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Adzing was not recorded from the Site 34 material. This is sometimes a difficult toolmark to recognize, and as the whole point of adzing is to finish the timber, as generally a skilled adze person will leave no marks. Good examples of adzing an oak plank have been found by the author from a fulacht fiadh site in Clare (Dennehy 2007) and also by O’Sullivan at the Iron Age trackway site of Corlea 1, Co. Longford (1996). There is also no evidence for sawing from the Site 34 material. The first conclusive evidence for the use of a saw in Dublin comes from Dublin Castle excavations, from the 16th century, where the marks were found on timber framed house‐beams. Evidence for sawing includes a distinctive type of tool mark of closely parallel, straight ridges across the width of the timber (O’Sullivan, 2000). In the worked wood from the Mountdillon trackways, O’Sullivan (1996) examined wood from Neolithic through to Iron Age contexts. He realized that the Neolithic facets were characterised by relatively narrow, short concave shaped facets, with ragged facet junctions. The dominant end type was wedge, while split and split‐and‐axed ends were also common. Cutting angles tended to be shallow. When axe marks from the Early Bronze Age were compared to the Neolithic results, it became apparent that the facets were broader and longer, with clean junctions. The cutting angles were reduced on the worked ends, and split and split‐and‐axed ends disappeared from the archaeological record. In their place, chisel and wedge ends were the main end type. These were also the predominant end type in the Middle and Later Bronze Age, and minimum cutting angles were also similar. During the Middle and Late Bronze Age, facets tended to be typically flat and of medium size, less wide than the Early Bronze Age examples. Planks with mortices were used in the Late Bronze Age. During the Iron Age, the facets tended to be longer and thinner, with an almost complete dominance of very shallow cutting angles. The worked ends were typically chisel or wedge ends (O’Sullivan 1996). The wood from Site 34 compares to that of the Mountdillon trackways in a number of ways. The most common end types in the Bronze Age/Iron Age material was chisel, followed by wedge, although there is more of a definite bias towards chisel ends in the Site 34 material than in the Mountdillon trackways. All facets from metal toolmarks had clean or stepped junctions. While the dimensions of the Site 34 Early Bronze Age facets and the jam curves are very similar to those from the Mountdillon trackways, the facet profile is not predominantly flat as it is during that time period at Mountdillon. In the Site 34 Iron Age wood, the facets are mainly, flat, similar to those from the Iron Age material in Mountdillon. However, while some of the Iron Age facets from Site 34 were as long as those from
49
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Iron Age worked ends in Mountdillon, many were not. Comparative results were encountered by Sands, in his analysis of Iron Age toolmarks from the Oakbank Crannóg excavations. Here he found that the facets appeared to be generally shorter than those established for Iron Age material by O’Sullivan, but longer than those characterised by the Middle to Bronze Age in his work (Sands 1997). Interestingly, the jam curve from the medieval structure in Site 34 (34504) was very comparable to those from an Iron Age structure at Derraghan More (O’Sullivan 1996). 12.
SUMMARY
The structures recorded at Site 34 were composed mainly of alder roundwoods, which could have been chopped easily at the lakes edge, and would have survived well in a waterlogged environment. Alder was the main tree used from all time periods identified on the site. Pollen results indicate that during the Bronze Age and Iron Age, an alder‐sedge carr was present near the site, which correlates well with the wood results. The wood is dominated by roundwoods, with a focus on young stems of limited diameter, between 20mm and 50mm. The roundwoods were predominantly chisel ended, with shallow to very shallow cutting angles. This, coupled with the clean or stepped facet junctions, indicates that metal axes were used on all the timbers examined. When the material between different areas and structures were compared, the results were very similar, with chisel ended, flat facetted alder roundwoods used frequently. Jam curves lifted from Early Bronze Age and medieval dated wood demonstrated different cutting edges. The Bronze Age axes tended to have broad, convex edges or smaller tightly curved ones, while the Medieval jam curve showed the use of an axe which had a wider blade, and was more rectangular. A pattern was noted within the Early Bronze Age material, of mixed facet profiles and end types, compared to the Iron Age and Medieval material, which tended to have flat facets and chisel ends. Few of the timbers were split, but when they were the main converting processes were half‐split and radially. When comparisons were made between signatures from different pieces of wood, they were both from the same structure. The age profile of the alder roundwoods was concentrated between five and fifteen years, there was also evidence of coppiced heels within the material. Most of the material examined was cut at the end of the growth season, in winter or early spring. This may have been a time of increased wetness on the site and therefore a greater need to build such structures across these alluvial sediments.
50
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
13.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to Dr. Tim Holden and Mhairi Hastie of Headland Archaeology Ltd for their thoughts and advice on the sampling strategies and to Dr. Scott Timpany for his help with interpreting the palaeoenvironmental results from the site. Thanks also to Brendon Wilkins and Mick Drumm for their help with the on‐site interpretations of the material and finally a special thanks to Clodagh Carroll, Ian Dorgan and Noirín Gleeson who helped with the post‐excavation works.
51
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
14.
REFERENCES
Brazier, J D and Franklin, G L, 1961 Identification of hardwoods: a microscopic key. London: H.M Stationary Office Brunning, R and O’ Sullivan, A, 1997 ‘Late Bronze Age species selection, woodworking techniques and tools at Caldicot’, in N. Nayling (ed.) Excavations at Caldicot, Gwent: Bronze Age palaeochannels in the Lower Nedern Valley. York: Council for British Archaeology, 157‐291 Burgess, C, 1979 ‘The background of early metalwork in Ireland and Britain’, in M. Ryan (ed.) The Origins of Metallurgy in Atlantic Europe, Proceedings of the Fifth Atlantic Colloquium. Dublin: Stationary Office, 207‐214 Carruthers, S, 1978 ‘Examination of timbers for evidence of decay and microbial activity’, in J.M. Coles (ed) Somerset Levels Papers Number 4, 10 Caseldine, C J and Hatton, J M, 1996 ‘Early land clearance and wooden trackway construction in the third and fourth millennium BC at Corlea, C. Longford’, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 95B, 1‐9 Coles, J M, 1978 Somerset Levels Papers 4. Hertford: Stephen Austin & Sons Ltd Coles, J M, and Orme, B J, 1985 ‘Prehistoric woodworking from the Somerset Levels: 3. Roundwood’, Somerset Levels Papers 11, 25‐50 Dennehy, E, 2007 ‘122a Cahiracon’, in E. Grogan, L. O’Donnell and P. Johnston (eds) The Bronze Age Landscapes of the Pipeline to the West: An integrated archaeological and environmental assessment, 188‐189 Edlin, H L, 1951 British plants and their uses London: B T Batsford Edlin, H L, 1973 Woodland crafts in Britain. Devon: David and Charles Newtown Abbot Gale, R & Cutler, D, 2000 Plants in Archaeology: Identification manual of artefact of plant origin from Europe and the Mediterranean. Westbury and the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Greig, J, 1991 ‘The British Isles’ in van Zeist, Wasylikowa & Behre (eds) Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany, 299–334. Rotterdam Harbison, P, 1969 ‘The axes of the Early Bronze Age in Ireland’, Prahistorische Bronzefunde 9 (1) Munchen: C.H. Beck Herity, M & Eogan, G, 1977 Ireland in Prehistory., Dublin: Routeledge and Kegan Hickie, D, 2002 Native trees & forests of Ireland. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan Kelly, F, 1976 ‘The old Irish tree‐list’, Celtica, 11, 107‐124 Milner, J E, 1992 The tree book. Collins and Brown Mitchell, G F, 1953/4. ‘A Pollen Diagram from Lough Gur, Co. Limerick’. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy Vol 56, Sec C, 481‐488 52
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Moloney, A, Jennings, D, Keane, M and McDermott, C, 1993a Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit Transactions: Volume 1 Survey of the raised bogs of County Longford. Dublin: Crannóg Publication Moloney, A, Jennings, D, Keane, M and McDermott, C, 1993b Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit Transactions: Volume 2. Excavations at Clonfinlough, Co. Offaly. Dublin: Crannóg Publication Maloney, A, Bermingham, N, Jennings, D, Keane, M, McDermott, C, and O’Carroll, E, 1995. Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit. Transactions; Volume 4. Blackwater Survey and excavations Artefact deterioration in peatlands Loughmore, Co. Mayo. Dublin: Crannóg Publication Moloney, A, 1996 ‘Wood analysis’ in B. Raftery (ed) Trackway excavations in the Mountdillon Bogs, Co. Longford 1985 – 1991. Dublin: Crannòg publication 343‐358 Mc Keown, S, 1994 ‘The analysis of wood remains from Mine 3, Mount Gabriel’ in W O’Brien (ed) Mount Gabriel, Bronze Age mining in Ireland. Galway: Galway University Press, 135‐162 O’Donnell, L, 2005 ‘Analysis of the worked wood from Coonagh West, Co. Limerick (A005/2021)’. Unpublished report for TVAS Ltd O’Donnell, L, 2008 ‘Analysis of the worked wood from Clowanstown, Co. Meath (E3064 A008/011)’ Unpublished report for ACS Ltd’ O’Neill, J, 2005 ‘Worked wood’, in M. Gowen, J. O Neill and M. Philips (eds) The Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project 1996‐8. Wordwell: Bray 329‐340 O’Sullivan, A, 1996 ‘Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age’, in B. Raftery (ed) Trackway excavations in the Mountdillon Bogs, Co. Longford 1985 – 1991. Dublin: Crannóg Publication 291 – 243 Orme, B J & Coles, J M, 1983 ‘Prehistoric woodworking from the Somerset Levels: 1: Timbers’, Somerset Levels Papers 9, 19 – 43 Orme, B J and Coles, J M, 1985 ‘Prehistoric woodworking from the Somerset levels: 2: Species selection and prehistoric woodlands’. Somerset Levels papers, 11, 7‐24 Pilcher, J and Hall, V, 2001 Flora Hibernica. The wild flowers, plants and trees of Ireland. Cork: The Collins Press Preston, C D, Pearman, D A and Dines, T D, 2002 New Atlas of the British & Irish Flora. Oxford: Oxford University Press Pryor, F French, C & Taylor, M, 1986 ‘Flag Fen, Fengate, Peterborough I: discovery, reconnaissance and initial excavation (1982‐1985)’. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 52, 1‐24 Rackham, O, 1980 Ancient woodland: its history, vegetation and uses in England. London: Arnold Rackham, O, 1995 Trees and woodland in the British landscape. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson Raftery, B, 1996 Trackway excavations in the Mountdillon Bogs, Co. Longford 1985 – 1991. Dublin: Crannóg Publication Sands, R, 1997 Prehistoric woodworking: the analysis and interpretation of Bronze & Iron Age toolmarks. London: London Institute of Archaeology
53
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2
Schweingruber, F H, 1978 Microscopic wood anatomy. Birmensdorf: Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research Stuijts, I, 2003‐2004 ‘Appendix II. Charcoal remains’, in O’Donovan, E ‘A Neolithic House at Kishoge, Co. Dublin’, The Journal of Irish Archaeology XII and XIII, 18‐21. Stuijts, I, 2005 ‘Wood and charcoal identification’, in M. Gowen, J. O Neill and M. Philips (eds) The Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project 1996‐8. Wordwell: Bray 137‐186 Taylor, K, 2008 ‘Inchagreenoge’, in E. Grogan, L. O’Donnell and P. Johnston (eds) The Bronze Age Landscapes of the Pipeline to the West: An integrated archaeological and environmental assessment, 281‐284 Taylor, M & Pryor, F, 1990 ‘Bronze Age building techniques at Flag Fen, Peterborough, England’, World Archaeology 21 (3), 425‐434 Tierney, J, 1998 ‘Wood and woodlands in Early Medieval Munster’, in Michael A. Monk and John Sheehan (eds) Early Medieval Munster Archaeology, History and Society. Cork: Cork University Press, 53‐ 58 Timpany, S, 2006 ‘New Waterford Bypass, Site 34 Palaeoenvironmental Assessment Report’, Unpublished technical report for Headland Archaeology Ltd Van der Meiden, H A, 1961 ‘De els in populierenbeplantingen’, Nederlands Bosbouwtijdschrift 33 (6), 168‐71 Wallace, P, 1992 The Viking Age Buildings of Dublin, National Museum of Ireland Medieval Dublin Excavations 1962‐81, Series A, Vol 1, Parts 1‐2. Royal Irish Academy: Dublin: Royal Irish Academy Wheeler, E A, Bass, P & Gasson, P E, 1989 IAWA list of microscopic features for hardwood identification. IAWA Bulletin nos. 10 (3): 219‐332. Rijksherbarium: Leiden Wilkins, B, 2005 ‘Structure sequence from Site 34’, Unpublished report for Headland Archaeology Ltd
54
Related Documents
Final Report Mou Contract
June 2020 6
