Project Code: NWB 03 Client: Waterford Co. Council Date: May 2009
N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Volume 3 Appendix 9: Palaeoenvironmental Analyses Report, Site 34, Newrath Townland, Co. Kilkenny By: Dr Scott Timpany (With contributions by Prof Simon Haslett, Dr Sue Dawson and Dr Jason Jordan) Excavated under Licence: 04E0319 Director: Brendon Wilkins Chainage: 670 NGR: 25921 11446
Project Code: NWB 03 Client: Waterford Co. Council Date: May 2009
N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Volume 3 Appendix 9: Palaeoenvironmental Analyses Report, Site 34, Newrath Townland, Co. Kilkenny By: Dr Scott Timpany (With contributions by Prof Simon Haslett, Dr Sue Dawson and Dr Jason Jordan) Excavated under Licence: 04E0319 Director: Brendon Wilkins Chainage: 670 NGR: 25921 11446
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
Contents Abstract Introduction Methods Pollen and non‐pollen palynomorphs Microscopic charcoal analyses Plant macrofossil analyses Wood identification analyses Loss on Ignition Foraminifera Diatoms Results Radiocarbon dating Stratigraphy Loss on Ignition Pollen Plant macrofossils Foraminifera Diatoms Discussion Stratigraphy, Loss on Ignition and Sea‐level rise Vegetational History and Human agency Conclusion References Appendices Figures and Tables Figure 1 – Loss on Ignition Results Figure 2 – Monolith1 pollen diagram Figure 3 – Monolith 2 pollen diagram, Figure 4 – Monolith 1 plant macrofossil diagram Figure 5 – Monolith 2 plant macrofossil diagram Figure 6 – Reconstructed sea‐level curve for Newrath Table 1 – Radiocarbon results from SUERC Table 2 – Idealised stratigraphy for Area 1 Table 3 – Evidence for Neolithic Agriculture in the Waterford Area
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Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
Abstract The excavation of a former wetland area at Newrath, Co. Kilkenny as part of construction of the new N25 Waterford Bypass has shown it to be an important multi‐period site with finds ranging from Bann flakes of the Later Mesolithic, to scatters of brushwood from the medieval period. Here the palaeoenvironmental evidence from the site is presented, where a multi‐proxy approach was taken using pollen, non‐pollen palynomorph, plant macrofossil, foraminifera and diatom analyses. Results show Newrath was an increasingly wet environment from the Neolithic onwards with a successional sequence of dry land surface ‐ carr‐woodland – reedswamp – saltmarsh. Analyses also show evidence for agricultural practice in both the Neolithic and Bronze Age, with the former taking place during a period of increased storminess. Evidence has also been found for the presence of Trichuris sp, which may be the first archaeological find within Ireland.
Introduction This report is a continuation of palaeoenvironmental work previously undertaken at Site 34 (NGR 14485/59125 and Chainage 600‐710, see Timpany, 2006) and is a progression of the work from that assessment phase, based on the recommendations that were made. Work presented here is concentrated on the sedimentary sequences contained within Monoliths 1 and 2 taken from Area 1 of the site. Following on from results gained during the assessment it was decided that the analyses should focus on the bottom 1m part of the sequence, which consists of primarily peat layers. This conclusion was reached after pollen and stratigraphic assessments showed high potential of sediment mixing and disturbance in the upper 1m part of the sequence, which is dominated by estuarine silts. The lower half of the sequence also contains the stratigraphic layers where the majority of the archaeological features from the site have been found within. The Monoliths were subject to a suite of multi‐proxy analyses that included pollen, non‐ pollen palynomorph, microscopic charcoal, plant macrofossil, wood identification, loss on ignition (LOI), diatom and foraminifera analyses together with further accelerated mass spectrometry (AMS) dating. This report aims to not only present that data, which has been collected from this study but also to relate this back to the multi‐period archaeology present at the site (see Wilkins, main report). In particular discussion will be focused on the changing environment of Newrath and the Waterford area, palaeoenvironmental evidence for the presence of people in the landscape, interaction of people with the landscape and other disturbance factors that can be identified in the palaeoenvironmental record, in particular those relating to tidal influence in relation to sea‐level rise.
Methods
Pollen and non‐pollen palynomorphs Pollen analysis was undertaken on samples of 1cm3 from the two monoliths. Samples were taken at intervals of approximately 2cm to 8cm from both monoliths. Pollen samples were prepared using standard preparation methods (cf. Barber, 1976). A counting method of recording 500 pollen grains excluding spores and obligate aquatics was employed for the assessment of the pollen. Plant taxonomic nomenclature follows the order of Stace (1997). Cereal‐type pollen grains have been identified using the criteria given by Faegri et al (1989) and take into account suggestions of Moore et al (1991). Non‐pollen palynomorphs (e.g.
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Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
fungal spores and testate amoeba) were identified using illustrations and descriptions in publications including van Geel (1978, 1986), van Geel et al (2003) and Ellis and Ellis (1997). All rare types are shown as a cross, where one cross denotes one grain/spore. Pollen diagrams were constructed using the TILIA and TG view; versions 2.0.2 packages (Grimm 2004), and have been zoned using the CONISS package. The pollen diagrams are given in Figures 2 and 3.
Microscopic charcoal analyses During pollen counting microscopic charcoal was identified as either grass‐type (to include Poaceae and Cyperaceae charcoal) or wood microscopic charcoal, where enough of the structure was complete to identify. These counts have been added to the pollen diagrams as total number counted and are not intended to show all microscopic charcoal present, only that which can be safely identified. These counts have been added to aid in sighting trends between the vegetational and microscopic charcoal records. The microscopic charcoal area using the point count method (Clark, 1982) is also given in each pollen diagram, as this shows more clearly the fire history of the site. Microscopic charcoal was counted using the points of the graticule (200 points), with those pieces “touching” the graticule point being added to the count. Generally 10 fields of view were recorded per traverse of the slide, at a magnification of x100. Microscopic charcoal was counted until 50 Lycopodium spores were recorded. This data is presented in the pollen diagrams shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Plant macrofossil analyses The monoliths were sub‐sampled for plant macrofossil analysis at intervals of 4cm. All of the remaining sediment from each level (c. 50ml in volume) was removed for analyses following sub‐sampling for other analyses such as pollen. A glass vial was also filled with sediment from each level of approximately 10g, in case any further study is warranted. Samples were washed through a small stack of sieves with 1mm and 500μm meshes. The remains were sorted and identified using a binocular microscope at magnification of x10, and x40 where greater magnification was needed for identification. Identifications were confirmed using modern reference material and seed atlases including Cappers et al (2006). Plant taxonomic nomenclature used in the table follows the order of Stace (1997). Data is presented in diagram form using the TILIA package outlined above and are shown in Figures 4 and 5.
Wood identification analyses Samples were thin sliced along radial, tangential and transverse sections using a razor blade and then stained using bleach before being mounted on a slide in glycerol and examined under a microscope at x100 and x400 when required. Wood sections were identified using features described by Schweingruber (1978, 1990) and IAWA (1989). The identified wood fragments form part of the plant macrofossil analyses and are included within the diagrams for each monolith.
Radiocarbon dating Samples were washed and sorted using the same method as for the plant macrofossil analysis, with the exception of distilled water being used to wash the samples through the sieves to avoid contamination. Identified plant material was used for dating and was stored in glass vials in distilled water in a refrigerator, again to avoid contamination before being
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Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
sent for AMS radiocarbon dating at SUERC (Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre). A further eight samples were sent for dating and the results of these and the previous five (see Timpany, 2006) are presented in Table 1.
Loss on Ignition Loss on ignition is used to assess the relative organic content of the samples, and thus detect mineral inwash levels through the peat profile. Dry samples are weighed before and after prolonged heating: the difference in mass being taken as a measure of organic content. The method employed for this analysis was high temperature (800+° C) ignition, to allow full ignition of the relatively high organic content of the peat. The samples were not thought to contain a significant carbonate component, so it was not necessary to use low temperature ignition to avoid the decomposition of carbonates (Rowell 1994).
Foraminifera (Prof Simon Haslett) Twelve foraminifera samples were sub‐sampled from Monoliths 1 and 2 and sent to Professor Simon Haslett at Bath University for analysis. For details on method see separate report on foraminifera given in Appendix I.
Diatoms (Dr Jason Jordan) Twelve diatom samples were taken from Monoliths 1 and 2 and sent to Dr Jason Jordan at Coventry University for analysis. For details on method see separate report on diatoms given in Appendix II.
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Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
Results Radiocarbon dating The radiocarbon dating results are presented in Table 1. Radiocarbon dates have been calibrated using OxCal version 3.10 (Bronk Ramsay, 2005) to 95.4% probability. Table 1 Radiocarbon results from SUERC Monolith Sample Dating Date BP Date Radiocarbon determination no depth material Calibrated (cm) 1870±35BP 1 84‐85 Monocotyledon 1870±35 Cal AD plant tissue (SUERC‐ 60‐240 10124) Atmospheric data from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
Radiocarbon determination
2100BP 2000BP 1900BP
68.2% probability 80AD (57.5%) 170AD 190AD (10.7%) 210AD 95.4% probability 60AD (95.4%) 240AD
1800BP 1700BP 1600BP
200CalBC
CalBC/CalAD
200CalAD
400CalAD
Calibrated date
1
99‐100
Monocotyledon 1665±35 plant tissue (SUERC‐ 14680)
Cal AD 250‐530
Radiocarbon determination
Atmo sp h eric d ata fro m Reimer et al (2 0 0 4 );Ox Cal v 3 .1 0 Bro n k Ramsey (2 0 0 5 ); cu b r:5 sd :1 2 p ro b u sp [ch ro n ]
1665±35BP
1900BP
68.2% probability 340AD (68.2%) 425AD 95.4% probability 250AD (91.1%) 440AD 480AD ( 4.3%) 530AD
1800BP 1700BP 1600BP 1500BP 1400BP 1300BP
CalBC/CalAD
200CalAD
400CalAD
600CalAD
Calibrated date Atmo sp h eric d ata fro m R eimer et al (2 0 0 4 );Ox Cal v 3 .1 0 Bro n k Ramsey (2 0 0 5 ); cu b r:5 sd :1 2 p ro b u sp [ch ro n ]
124‐125 Monocotyledon 1965±35 plant tissue (SUERC‐ 14681)
50 Cal BC to Cal AD 50
1965±35BP
2200BP Radiocarbon determination
1
68.2% probability 20BC ( 0.9%) 10BC AD (67.3%) 75AD 95.4% probability 50BC (91.0%) 90AD 100AD ( 4.4%) 130AD
2100BP 2000BP 1900BP 1800BP 1700BP
200CalBC
CalBC/CalAD
200CalAD
400CalAD
Calibrated date
149‐150 Monocotyledon 2045±40 plant tissue (SUERC‐ 14682)
170 Cal BC to Cal AD 60
2400BP Radiocarbon determination
1
Atmo sp h eric d ata fro m Reimer et al (2 0 0 4 );Ox Cal v 3 .1 0 Bro n k Ramsey (2 0 0 5 ); cu b r:5 sd :1 2 p ro b u sp [ch ro n ]
2045±40BP 68.2% probability 150BC ( 1.9%) 140BC 110BC (66.3%) 10AD 95.4% probability 170BC (95.4%) 60AD
2300BP 2200BP 2100BP 2000BP 1900BP 1800BP
400CalBC
200CalBC
CalBC/CalAD
200CalAD
Calibrated date Atmospheric data from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
168‐169 Rubus sp. Seeds
4150±35 (SUERC‐ 10125)
2880‐2620 Cal BC
4400BP Radiocarbon determination
1
4150±35BP 68.2% probability 2870BC (14.7%) 2830BC 2820BC ( 5.7%) 2800BC 2780BC (47.8%) 2660BC 95.4% probability 2880BC (95.4%) 2620BC
4300BP 4200BP 4100BP 4000BP 3900BP
3000CalBC
2800CalBC
2600CalBC
Calibrated date
6
2400CalBC
400CalAD
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
Atmo sp h eric d ata fro m Reimer et al (2 0 0 4 );Ox Cal v 3 .1 0 Bro n k Ramsey (2 0 0 5 ); cu b r:5 sd :1 2 p ro b u sp [ch ro n ]
209‐210 Prunus spinosa 4505±35 fruit stone (SUERC‐ 14687)
3360‐3090 Cal BC
4800BP
4505±35BP Radiocarbon determination
1
4700BP
68.2% probability 3340BC (11.3%) 3310BC 3300BC ( 7.6%) 3260BC 3240BC (49.4%) 3100BC 95.4% probability 3360BC (95.4%) 3090BC
4600BP 4500BP 4400BP 4300BP 4200BP 4100BP
3600CalBC
3400CalBC
3200CalBC
3000CalBC
2800CalBC
Calibrated date
233‐234 Quercus and 4850±35 Betula buds and (SUERC‐ bud scales. 10126)
3710‐3620 Cal BC
5200BP Radiocarbon determination
1
Atmospheric data from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
4850±35BP 68.2% probability 3700BC ( 7.0%) 3680BC 3670BC (51.2%) 3630BC 3560BC ( 9.9%) 3540BC 95.4% probability 3710BC (73.7%) 3620BC 3580BC (21.7%) 3530BC
5100BP 5000BP 4900BP 4800BP 4700BP 4600BP 4500BP
4000CalBC
3800CalBC
3600CalBC
3400CalBC
3200CalBC
Calibrated date
124‐125 Monocotyledon 2360±35 plant tissue (SUERC‐ 10127)
540‐370 Cal BC
2360±35BP
2700BP Radiocarbon determination
2
Atmospheric data from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
68.2% probability 510BC (31.0%) 430BC 420BC (37.2%) 380BC 95.4% probability 720BC ( 2.1%) 690BC 540BC (93.3%) 370BC
2600BP 2500BP 2400BP 2300BP 2200BP 2100BP
800CalBC
600CalBC
400CalBC
200CalBC
Calibrated date
134‐135 Monocotyledon 2210±40 plant tissue (SUERC‐ 14688)
390‐180 Cal BC
2500BP Radiocarbon determination
2
Atmospheric d ata from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
2210±40BP 68.2% probability 360BC ( 8.5%) 340BC 330BC (59.7%) 200BC 95.4% probability 390BC (95.4%) 180BC
2400BP 2300BP 2200BP 2100BP 2000BP 1900BP
600CalBC
400CalBC
200CalBC
CalBC/CalAD
200CalAD
Calibrated date
157‐158 Rubus fruticosus 3935±35 fruits (SUERC‐ 14689)
2500‐2290 Cal BC
Radiocarbon determination
2
Atmospheric d ata from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
3935±35BP
4300BP
68.2% probability 2490BC (68.2%) 2340BC 95.4% probability 2570BC ( 7.7%) 2520BC 2500BC (87.7%) 2290BC
4200BP 4100BP 4000BP 3900BP 3800BP 3700BP
3000CalBC
2800CalBC
2600CalBC
2400CalBC
2200CalBC
2000CalBC
Calibrated date
189‐190 Alnus and 4540±40 Betula buds and (SUERC‐ bud scales 14690)
3370‐3090 Cal BC
Atmospheric d ata from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
4540±40BP Radiocarbon determination
2
68.2% probability 3370BC (19.1%) 3320BC 3280BC ( 0.8%) 3260BC 3240BC (48.3%) 3110BC 95.4% probability 3370BC (95.4%) 3090BC
4800BP
4600BP
4400BP
4200BP
3800CalBC
3600CalBC
3400CalBC
3200CalBC
Calibrated date
7
3000CalBC
2800CalBC
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
200‐201 Quercus and 4580±40 Betula buds and (SUERC‐ bud scales 14691)
3380‐3260 Cal BC
Atmospheric d ata from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
4580±40BP Radiocarbon determination
2
68.2% probability 3500BC (12.5%) 3460BC 3380BC (32.3%) 3330BC 3220BC (12.3%) 3180BC 3160BC (11.1%) 3120BC 95.4% probability 3500BC (18.8%) 3430BC 3380BC (39.7%) 3260BC 3240BC (36.9%) 3100BC
4800BP
4600BP
4400BP
4200BP
3800CalBC
3600CalBC
3400CalBC
3200CalBC
3000CalBC
2800CalBC
Calibrated date
211‐212 Quercus and 4765±35 Betula buds and (SUERC‐ bud scales. 10128)
3640‐3380 Cal BC
Radiocarbon determination
2
Atmospheric data from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
4765±35BP
5000BP
68.2% probability 3640BC ( 8.7%) 3620BC 3610BC (59.5%) 3520BC 95.4% probability 3640BC (86.0%) 3500BC 3430BC ( 9.4%) 3380BC
4900BP 4800BP 4700BP 4600BP 4500BP
3800CalBC
3600CalBC Calibrated date
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3400CalBC
3200CalBC
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
Stratigraphy The stratigraphic units from within the monoliths have been previously discussed during the assessment stage but are returned to here briefly to present an addendum of that information, particularly in regard to the added radiocarbon dates (see Table 1). The radiocarbon dated levels have been used as index points in the construction of a sea‐level curve for the site and this is presented in Figure 6. Table 2 Idealised stratigraphy for Area 1. Unit Stratigraphy description Context Dates Depth numbers (cm) IX VIII
34008 34001 34002 34003 34045 34035 Estuarine silt/reed peat 34034 transition 34013 34038
Modern
0‐10 10‐100
Top: c. 1870±35 BP (GU‐ 13996; 60‐240 cal AD)
100‐ 125/150
VI
Reed peat
V
Reed/wood peat 34004 B transition (possible non‐ 34031 sequence here) Wood peat – with 34004 A intercalated silts* 34003 A 34021* 34046
Top; 2045±40 (SUERC‐14682; 125/150‐ 170 cal BC to cal AD 60) to 160 2360±35 BP (GU‐13999; 540‐ 370 cal BC) Top: 3935±35 (SUERC‐14689; 160‐170 2500‐2290 cal BC)
VII
IV
III II I
Topsoil Series of estuarine silts – base of which is probable erosion surface
Dryland surface Glacial till Bedrock?
34033 B
34100 34021 Not seen
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Top: 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐ 10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC) Silt layer: 4540±40 (SUERC‐ 14690; 3370‐3090 cal BC) to 4580±40 (SUERC‐14691; 3380‐ 3260 cal BC) Base: 4765±35 BP (GU‐14000; 3430‐3380 cal BC) to 4850±35 BP (SUERC‐10126; 3710‐3620 cal BC) Late Mesolithic
170‐230
‐ 235‐? ‐
Relevant pollen zone ‐ ‐
NWB1f NWB1e NWB2f NWB2e NWB1e NWB1d NWB2d NWB1c NWB2c NWB1c NWB1b NWB1a NWB2c NWB2b NWB2a
‐ ‐ ‐
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
Loss on Ignition Results for the Loss on Ignition study are provided below in Figure 1. Figure 1 ‐ Loss on Ignition Results
% L.O.I. NWB Monolith 1 100.00 90.00 80.00
% L.O.I.
70.00 60.00 %L.O.I.
50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 226
210
194
162
154
138
132
123
114
106
94
80
Depth (cm)
% L.O.I. NWB Monolith 2 100.00 90.00 80.00
% L.O.I.
70.00 60.00 %L.O.I.
50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 208
198
196
193
176
160
148
130
122
Depth (cm)
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Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
The Loss on Ignition study shows a general increase in organic content following the initiation of peat. The curve for Monolith 1 increases sharply from 20% to 51% as peat develops and then begins to level out with organic content remaining high within the 50% margin throughout the wood peat (Unit IV) and wood peat‐reed peat transition stage (Unit V). The curve for Monolith 1 shows an initial dip after peat develops, falling from 30% to 22%. This dip ties in with a layer of silt being present within the wood peat and highlights the high minerogenic content of this layer. Following this initial deposition of silts organic content begins to rise as peat accumulation increases, with values increasing to over 70% within Unit V. Organic content values are then seen to decline in both Monoliths as sediments change from being predominantly peat based to minerogenic based signalled by a change in the stratigraphic record from reedswamp (Unit VI) to eventual estuarine conditions (Unit VIII) as the site becomes inundated. In Monolith 1 this change can be seen by a rapid fall in values from 50‐20% and then levels out at around 10% as the site is submerged. Monolith 2 also shows a rapid decline in values of organic content from 72‐28%, however, values then rise to 54% within the reedswamp‐estuarine silts transition stage (Unit (VII), highlighting a period within this stage of high organic content, possibly of renewed peat development.
Pollen Results of pollen analysis for both monoliths are shown in the pollen diagrams given in Figures 2 and 3.
Monolith 1 Zone NWB1a (234‐210cm) The pollen assemblage indicates that Quercus (oak) woodland dominated the landscape with values of 40‐60% TLP (Total Land Pollen). Along with Quercus, pollen values for Alnus glutinosa (alder) and Corylus avellana (hazel) are also high at 10‐20% TLP indicating they formed significant parts of the wooded landscape. Poaceae (grasses) and Cyperaceae (sedges) are present at around 10% TLP suggesting they formed the dominant field layer. Small peaks in herbaceous species such as Aster‐type (michaelmas daisies) and Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain) can be seen together with the appearance of Hordeum group (barely) pollen. Some background micro‐charcoal can also be seen Zone NWB1b (210‐185cm) Quercus pollen values remain high in this zone although fall slightly from the previous zone to c.40% TLP. Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana values gradually rise in this zone to form approximately 20% TLP by the end of the zone. A small peak in Ilex (holly) pollen occurs in this zone. Poaceae pollen values fall slightly to the end of the zone from around 10‐5% TLP. A large peak can be seen in Filipendula (meadow sweet) pollen values of up to 15% TLP, while smaller peaks occur in Aster‐type and Galium‐type (bedstraws). Micro‐charcoal is again present at low values. No pollen was recorded on slides from 206‐208cm indicating high minerogenic content of these levels. Zone NWB1c (185‐160cm) Alnus glutinosa, Quercus and Corylus avellana pollen continue to dominate the arboreal assemblage at between 17‐40% TLP. There are small rises in the pollen of Salix (willow) and Fraxinus excelsior (ash) within this zone. There is a small rise also in Cyperaceae pollen to c.17% TLP, Poaceae values remain consistent at around 10% TLP, while Filipendula pollen declines. Micro‐charcoal levels increase slightly during this zone.
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Dates (BP)
4150±35
4505±35
4850±35 Depth (cm)
95
1665±35
1965±35
2045±40
235
Lithology
20 40 60 lu t i
20 20 20 20 20 10
he r
hr u b bs
rf s
s
Dwarf shrubs
dw a
Shrubs
bs
Trees
sh ru
no sa Ti l ia Ile xa Fr q u ax ifo Co inu lium r yl s e us xce a v ls Sa ell io r lix an So a rb u Pu snu typ Pr s s e un p. Pr us s un p Cr us ino s a ta pa aVib eg d us typ ur n u s - typ e Vib u sp e ur n m o . He u pu d e m l lus Lo r a h a nt n e a Ca ice ra lix na ll Ra un a pe ric n v ly Ur un c u lg a m e t ic ula r is n u m ce My a ae r Ch ica g e a Ca no po le r d Ly yop h iace ch yl a Di nis lace e an - ty a Po t hu pe e in de ly st. Ru gon typ e m e um Hy x o - ty pe bt pe Ri ric usi be u m fo Ro s- ty sp liu s -ty sa p e . pe c Ch e r ys a e Fil os sp ip e p l . nd eni ula u m Po off ten ici Fa til na b a la leLo ce typ tu s ae e Tr -t y ind if o pe e t. Ly lium t hr -t Ap um ype ia s Er cea p . yn e An g iu thr m -t Ap isc ype ium ust Ci cu inu yp e Pe ta v nda uc iro tu m He e d sa- - t r ac a nu typ yp e Pla le m e nta um p al Pla go sp us nta ind h on t re Pla g e t. dy t yp o liu e n mPla ta g cor o o t yp n nta m op e Me g a r us o i t l i Ga am p lanc m a liu yr u e ol Va m- t m- at a ler yp typ e Su ia n e a c As cisa dio t er p r ica La -t y a te -t yp pe n s e c is La tu ca ctu e Ta ca ra s Ar xa c a tiva te m um - t An is - ty yp e the ia- t pe Cy m yp pe is- t e ra c yp ea e Po e ac ea e Po a Ho ce a r de e > M i um 3 5 um cr o g -ch ro ar c up tr e oa es l
Be tu Aln la us g
Pin u Ul s m Qu u s er c us
NWB03 Monolith1 pollen diagram (500 counts) Herbs
105
110
125
130
150
155
170
175
200
205
225
230
20 40 60 80 100
Zone
100
NWB1f
115
120
NWB1e
135
140
145
NWB1d
160
165
NWB1c
180
185
190
195
NWB1b
210
215
220
NWB1a
Dates (BP)
4150±35
4505±35
4850±35 Depth (cm)
95
1665±35
1965±35
2045±40
Lithology
Ny m N u ph ph aea M ar a yri s lba M oph p. en y St yan llum ra t h a Po tiot es lte t a es trif rnif T y mo alo olia lor p g id t u Eq ha l et on es a m uis atif Pt et oli er um a op Os sida m (m Ad un on o ian da Pi t u reg let e lul m a ) in a l i c H y ria ap s de t. m g illu l e o Po n s ly p oph bulif -ve Pt od yll era ne ris er iu um idi m um Th ely D r pt yo eri Sp pt e s p ha ris alu T y gn st r pe um is Ty 2 p (G T y e 3B ela s p T y e 4 (Ple inos p (A o p T y e 7A nt h s po ora ra r p r T y e 8 (C h ost o s p etic u pe (A ae me p) lis po T y 10 -G) tom lla ra pe (C ium fue ) T y 11 on g sp ian pe idi .) a) T y 14 a) pe `( T y 1 Me pe 6 lio la T y 19 cf . pe nie T y 20 pe ss lea T y 22 p na ) T y e 25 (H er pe (c po T y 27 f. C tric p h T y e 2 (T ill last iella pe 8 ( eti ero s T y 44 Sp a s sp pp pe (U erm ph ori ) T y 47 st a agn um uli top i) pe ca na ho T y 55 ri c de res pp A/ inu us o T y e 7 B (S m ta) f C ) pe 2 o r ( o T y 90 Al da pe on ria pe dp a Ty 1 od s ru pp pe 12 a) st i ) T y 11 (C c a) pe 6 erc T y 12 (C y op pe 1 m he ati ra T y 12 os sp pe 5 ph . ) T y 14 ae pe 0 ra T y 14 ) pe 3 T y 16 (D i p 9 po ro Ty e 1 the 7 pe 0 ca T y 20 (R pe 7 ivu rh iz o ( l T y 26 Gl ar ph p 2 om ia-t ilia T y e 35 us yp ) e pe 7 cf . ) ( T y 35 Pu fas pe 9d c c cic T y 40 (B ini ula pe 6 ac a-t tum Ty 4 tro ype pe 94 de ) ) T y 52 sm p 7 ium T y e 70 be pe 7 tu ( T y 70 C u lic pe 8a lc ola it a T y 70 ) lna pe 8b T y 72 ac pe 9 hr as Am 9 po 3 0 p ra Ba alli c ) c tr fer Ba od ina c tr es la Sp od miu uri or es m T r os miu ob ich ch m o M uri is m ab v atu icr s - a o- ty p mi rupt m c h e ra um bil ar Fo co e al ra W min oo if Gr d m era as icr t re s m o-c h es ic ro ar -ch coa ar l co sh al ru bs dw ar fs hr he ub rb s s
NWB03 Monolith1 pollen diagram (500 counts) Aquatics
20
Spores
20
NPP's
105
125
130
150
155
170
175
200
205
225
230
235
10 5 5 20 40 60 80 100
Zone
100
NWB1f
110
115
120
NWB1e
135
140
145
NWB1d
160
165
NWB1c
180
185
190
195
NWB1b
210
215
220
NWB1a
3935±35
4540±40
4580±40
4765±35 D epth ( c m)
D ates BP
95
2360±35
2210±40
215
Lithology
20 40 60 20 40 tin os a
Trees Shrubs
20
Dwarf shrubs
20
Po a A v c eae e Ho na-T >35u rd r m S e eumiti cum c Mi al e c grou grou c ro er p p -c h eal arc e g oa rou tre p l es sh ru bs dw arf sh ru he bs rbs
Ca rp Ti l i nus ia be Il e tul xa us q Fr ax ui fo Co i nus li um ry l ex us c e av l s io Sa ell li x an r a So rbu Ma s-t lu y p P u s -ty e p n P r us s e un p. P r us s un p Cr us p i nos at a aV ib aeg dus- ty pe urn us s ty p V ib um p. e u V ib rnum sp. u He rnum opul u d Ca era lant s l lu he an E m na li x a pe vul g Ra tr u ar is nu m n Ur ti c cul a ce My a ae r ic Ch a g al e Ca nopo e r d S c y oph i ace le y a Ly rant ll ace e c h hu ae Ru nis - s -ty i nd me typ pe et. Hy x a e p c Ro er ic u etos sa m a-t Ch c ea s p. ype r e Fi l y sos s p. i pe pl Ru ndu eniu bu l a m o ff P o s- ty ic in ten pe al e Fa ti ll -ty ba a pe Lo cea tu e V ic s-ty i nde t. ia- pe Tr ty p ifo e Ly l ium thr -t A p um y pe s ia E r c ea p. yn e A p gi um iu Ci m in type cu u P e ta v n d a t uc i ros um He eda a- t - ty rac nu ype pe Lit le m ho um pa S y s pe sp lus t m r m ho re P la phy um ndy -ty p nta tum - ty p l ium e P la go of e -ty nta in fic in pe P la go det al e- t nta co . yp P la go ron e n ta m o p S c go ar it us r im Ga ophu lanc a l iu l ar eol V a m-t ia- ata ler y p ty p e S c i an e ab a d S u i os i oic cc a c a-t S e is a ol u ype rra pr a mb A s tula ten ari a te s La r- typ type is c e Ci tuc a ch e La ori u ctu m Ta c a i nch rax s a ub A r ac tiv a ustem um -ty ty Cy is i -ty p pe pe pe a-ty e ra ce pe Po ae ac ea e
Be tu A ln l a us gl u
P in u Ul s mu Qu s er cu s
NWB03 Monolith 2 pollen diagram (500 counts) Herbs
105
110
130
135
155
170
175
195
210
20 40 10 20 40 60 80 100
Zone
100
NWB2f
115
120
125
NWB2e
140
145
150
NWB2d
160
165
NWB2c
180
185
190
NWB2b
200
205
NWB2a
Dates BP
3935±35
4540±40
4580±40
4765±35 Depth (cm)
95
2360±35
2210±40
215
Lithology
Nu p Hy ha r dr o sp Ca co . litr tyle Ali ich sm e- vu lg St a- typ a ri s- t ra t typ e yp i Po ote e e tam s a Ty o lo i ph ge d e Eq a la t on s ui ti Pt set u folia er o m ps id a Os (m mu on Ad n d ole ian a r t e) Po t u eg ind lyp m c alis et. Pt od ap er i iu illu d iu m s-v m en Th e ri e ly s Dr pte yo ri Sp pt er s p a is lus h t ris Ty a gn pe um Ty 1 pe (G Ty 2 ( elas pe G e sin Ty 3B las o s pe ( P ino po Ty 4 s ra l pe (A n eo sp po ra sp p Ty 7A th r o ra r e ) pe ( C os sp t icu t o 8 h Ty p lisp pe (A -G ae to me l ) or a m i la f Ty 10 ) ) um u e pe ( C g ia Ty 11 on s p id i pe .) na ) a Ty 14 ) pe ` (M Ty 16 eli ola p Ty e 19 cf. pe nie Ty 20 ss pe lea Ty 22 na pe ( H ) Ty 25 er pe ( c po Ty 27 f. C tr ich pe ( T la ie Ty 28 ille ster lla s pe ( S t ia os p p Ty 44 p e sp p or ) pe ( U r m hag ium Ty 47 stu a to ni) ca pe lin pho r ic a d re Ty 55 A inu eu s o pe /B m) sta f C Ty 61 (S op ) pe ( Z or d ed Ty 72 yg a r po i m pe ( A as a da Ty 90 lon t ac pp ) pe a r ea ) u s cf Ty 11 tic . g pe 2 a) r ac ( Ty 11 Ce illim pe 6 r co ( a) Ty 12 Cy ph pe 1 m a e r tio a s Ty 12 sp p .) pe 5 ha Ty 14 er a pe 0 ) Ty 14 pe 3 Ty 16 (Dip pe 9 o ro Ty 17 the pe 0 ca Ty 20 (Riv rh i pe 7 u zo ph Ty 26 (G lo lar ia ilia pe 2 mu - ty p ) Ty 35 s c e) p 3 f. f Ty e 35 A as pe 7 cic ( P u la Ty 35 pe 9d ucc tu m Ty 40 ( B inia ) pe 6 act - ty ro d p e Ty 49 pe 4 es ) mi Ty 52 um pe 7 be Ty 56 t ul 9 pe ico Ty 70 la) pe 7 ( Ty 70 Cu pe 8a lci ta l Ty 70 na pe 8b ac Ty 72 hr a pe 9 sp An 93 or a tho 0c ) Am st o p m Ba a llife e lla c r f Ba tr od in a o rm ctr esm la u osa ri Pe od zic esm iu m Pr ula iu ob o ot o liv m v Sp cr e ide ab r a tum or o a a up f t um a Tr sc ich h i rin o M i ur i sma sa cr o s-t -ch ype m ir a b il ar c e Fo oa r am l ini fe r W a oo d Gr m as ic tr e s m ro -c e s icr h a o- c r co sh ru ha a l b rco dw s al a rf he shr u r bs bs
NWB03 Monolith 2 pollen diagram (500 counts)
20
Aqautics Spores
20
NPPs
105
110
130
135
155
170
175
195
210
10 20 50 100
Zone
100
NWB2f
115
120
125
NWB2e
140
145
150
NWB2d
160
165
NWB2c
180
185
190
NWB2b
200
205
NWB2a
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
Zone NWB1d (160‐144cm) Quercus pollen values begin to fall during this zone to c.20% TLP, while pollen values of Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana rise slightly from the previous zone. Cyperaceae pollen values remain at around 10‐20% within this zone, with Poaceae pollen rising to around 15% TLP by the end of the zone. Plantago lanceolata pollen values begins to rise towards the end of this zone as do Pteridium (bracken), Pteropsida (monolete) indet (ferns) and micro‐charcoal values. Zone NWB1e (144‐114cm) Pollen values of Quercus and Alnus glutinosa decline slightly through this zone to around 17% TLP and 15% TLP, respectively. Corylus avellana values remain consistent through this zone, while small increases are seen in the pollen values of Salix, Fraxinus excelsior and Betula. Poaceae pollen now dominates the herbaceous assemblage at over 20%, while Cyperaceae pollen remains level at around 10% TLP before gradually declining to the end of the zone. Hordeum‐group pollen appears in this zone, wile Plantago lanceolata and Lactuca sativa‐type (lettuces) become more consistent through the zone. A large increase in Pteridium values takes place as do micro‐charcoal values. Zone NWB1f (114‐96cm) A slight rise occurs in pollen values of Corylus avellana and Salix, while there is a very slight decline in the values of Quercus and Alnus glutinosa to around 15% and 10% TLP, respectively. Cyperaceae values also slightly fall to around 7% TLP, while Poaceae pollen remains high at around 20% TLP. Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot) pollen values rise slightly in this zone, while Lactuca sativa‐type pollen also remains at around 2.5% TLP. Hordeum‐group pollen is again present. Pteropsida (monolete) indet and Pteridium values decline during this zone while there is a large increase in micro‐charcoal.
Monolith 2 Zone NWB2a (211‐205cm) Quercus pollen dominates this zone with values of up to 50% TLP, while Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana pollen values are also high at around 20% TLP. Pinus (pine) pollen is also present at around 5% TLP. Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen values dominate the herbaceous assemblage at around 10% TLP. Micro‐charcoal is present in low values. Zone NWB2b (205‐184cm) Pollen values of Corylus avellana and Alnus glutinosa remain consistent at around 15‐20% TLP during this zone, while Quercus pollen continues to dominate the assemblage at around 40% TLP. There are peaks in Ilex pollen during this zone at up to 10% TLP, together with smaller peaks in Ulmus (elm). Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen values are around 10% TLP, while cereal type pollen is present with the appearance of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐Triticum‐ group (oat‐wheat). Peaks in Filipendula, Plantago lanceolata and Cicuta virosa‐type (cowbane) pollen also occur in this zone. There is a peak in micro‐charcoal in this zone. Zone NWB2c (184‐160cm) There is large increase in Alnus glutinosa pollen values in this zone, peaking at over 40% TLP, while Quercus pollen values remain high at around 40% TLP, as do Corylus avellana values at c.15% TLP. Cyperaceae pollen values increase slightly in this zone to just over 10% TLP, while Poaceae values remain consistent at around 5‐10% TLP. There is an appearance of Avena‐Triticum‐group pollen in this zone, with small peaks in Ranunculaceae (buttercup) and
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Potentilla‐type (cinquefoils) pollen, while Filipendula pollen is consistently present. Micro‐ charcoal values also rise slightly towards the end of this zone. Zone NWB2d (160‐146cm) Alnus glutinosa and Quercus pollen values dominate the arboreal assemblage both at around 35% TLP. Corylus avellana values continue to increase slightly up to around 17%, while there are small peaks in Ulmus, Fraxinus excelsior and Salix. Cyperaceae and Poaceae pollen values rise towards the end of the zone, while there are appearances of Avena‐Triticum‐group and Secale cereale‐group (rye) pollen. There are also small peaks of Plantago lanceolata and Heracleum sphondylium‐type (hogweed) towards the end of this zone. Pteropsida (monolete) indet values rise towards the end of the zone as do micro‐charcoal values. Zone NWB2e (146‐120cm) Quercus pollen values begin to decline slightly in this zone to around 20% TLP, while values of Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana pollen continue to gradually rise to 40% and 20% TLP respectively. Pinus values also rise slightly in this zone. Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen values continue to rise during this zone peaking at around 15% TLP; Hordeum‐group pollen also appears. Pteridium values rise rapidly in this zone, while there is also an increase in Pteropsida (monolete) indet and micro‐charcoal values remain high. Zone NWB2f (120‐96cm) There is a decline in the pollen of Quercus and Alnus glutinosa in this zone as they fall to around 15% and 10% respectively. Corylus avellana values remain consistent at around 15% TLP. Poaceae values rise sharply in this zone up to around 35% TLP, while Cyperaceae pollen values also rise to around 15% TLP. There is a more consistent presence of Hordeum‐ group pollen in this zone, together with rises in the pollen of Plantago lanceolata, Aster‐type (michaelmas daisies), Filipendula and Plantago coronopus (buck’s horn plantain). Pteridium values and Pteropsida (monolete) indet values remain high, while there is significant increase in micro‐charcoal values.
Plant macrofossils The plant macrofossil results are presented in Figures 4 and 5 and have been zoned using the corresponding zones given in the pollen diagrams.
Monolith 1 Zone NWB1a (234‐210cm) Plant macrofossils of Quercus and Betula buds and scales dominate this zone with buds and scales of Crataegus (hawthorn) also present. A fruit stone of Prunus spinosa (blackthorn) was also recovered alongside herbaceous plant macrofossils from species including Rubus fruticosus (bramble), Schoenoplectus lacustris (common club‐rush) and Ranunculus flammula (lesser spearwort). Some charcoal fragments are also present within this zone. Zone NWB1b (210‐185cm) There is a decline in the number of plant macrofossils of Quercus and Betula in this zone compared to that previous. Alnus glutinosa seeds ands buds appear in this zone as do seeds of Carpinus betulus (hornbeam). Fruit stones of Prunus spinosa and Prunus padus (bird cherry) are more prominent within this zone, while there are also increases in the abundance of Ranunculus flammula and Rubus fruticosus.
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Zone NWB1c (185‐160cm) Plant macrofossils from arboreal species are seen to decline within this zone as do indeterminate wood fragments. There is a general decline to in herbaceous macrofossils, although there is an increase in the fruits of Rubus fruticosus and Rubus sp. (bramble sp.) during this zone and appearances from species such as Polygonum aviculare (knotgrass) and Carex sylvatica (wood sedge). Zone NWB1d (160‐144cm) There is a virtual absence of plant macrofossils during this zone with only fungal sclerotia present in any numbers and a single Betula sp seed. Monocotyledon fragments remain at high numbers with some small number of wood fragments indet also present. Zone NWB1e (144‐114cm) There is a significant increase in the numbers of plant macrofossil present within this zone with particularly high representation of herbaceous species. Ranunculaceae species are well represented with high numbers of Ranunculus sceleratus (celery‐leaved buttercup) present together with Ranunculus flammula and Ranunculus aquatilis (common water crow‐foot). Small number of other herbaceous species such as Carex rostrata (bottle sedge), Schoenoplectus lacustris and Persicaria minor (small water pepper) are also present. Some arboreal taxa are also represented with small numbers of Betula and Alnus glutinosa seeds also recovered. Some charcoal fragments are also present in this zone. Zone NWB1f (114‐96cm) Herbaceous macrofossils continue to dominate this zone, in particular the fruits of Ranunculus sceleratus with Ranunculus lingua (greater spearwort) and Ranunculus aquatilis fruits also present from this family. Smaller numbers of other taxa such as Persicaria minor, Carex aquatilis and Eleocharis sp (spike rushes) are also present, together with a small number of Alnus glutinosa seeds.
Monolith 2 Zone NWB2a (211‐205cm) High numbers of Betula buds and bud scales dominate this zone, particularly towards the base of the zone. Other arboreal species are also evidenced as being present with the recovery of Quercus, Alnus glutinosa and Viburnum sp (viburnums) wood fragments. A limited number of herbaceous species are present in the form of Rubus fruticosus fruits and nutlets of Carex sp (sedges) and Carex aquatilis (water sedge). Charcoal fragments are also present in this zone. Zone NWB2b (205‐184cm) This zone sees an increase in the numbers of plant macrofossils present particularly those relating to arboreal species with Quercus, Betula, Alnus glutinosa, Carpinus betulus and Crataegus among those represented. There is an increase to in the numbers of Rubus sp and Rubus fruticosus fruits, with smaller numbers of herbaceous taxa such as Carex rostrata, Carex acuta (slender tufted sedge) and Schoenoplectus lacustris present. Zone NWB2c (184‐160cm) Arboreal taxa continue to be well represented in this zone with a high presence of Quercus, Betula and Alnus glutinosa in particular. Other arboreal species represented include Viburnum sp, Crataegus monogyna (midlands hawthorn), Prunus padus and Corylus avellana. Herbaceous species are also well represented in this zone with Rubus fruticosus fruits present in significant
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numbers together with smaller numbers of Lychnis flos‐cuculi (ragged robin) seeds, Persicaria minor fruits and Carex acuta nutlets. Wood fragments are also prominent within this zone. Zone NWB2d (160‐146cm) There is a gradual decrease in the number of arboreal macrofossils during this zone, with only Alnus glutinosa, Betula sp and Quercus sp present in any number. Outside of these species Prunus spinosa and Salix are also represented. There is a large increase in the fruits of Rubus sp and Rubus fruticosus during this zone, together with nutlets of Carex species. This zone also sees a large peak in moss fragments. Zone NWB2e (146‐120cm) Arboreal species are now near absent in the plant macrofossil record during this zone, with only Betula, Alnus glutinosa, Viburnum and Crataegus monogyna present in small numbers. Other plant macrofossils are also sparse throughout this zone with small numbers of herbaceous species such as Carex rostrata and Ranunculus lingua present. A significant decline is also seen in the numbers of Rubus sp and Rubus fruticosus fruits. A large peak in fungal sclerotia, however, does take place in this zone. Zone NWB2f (120‐96cm) Plant macrofossils from arboreal taxa are again sparse during this zone with only buds of Salix present in any volume. There is a large increase in the numbers of Ranunculus sceleratus during this zone and herbaceous species as a whole are better represented, with species such as Schoenoplectus lacustris, Carex aquatilis and Ranunculus flammula also present. There is an increase in the number of monocotyledon plant fragments also during this zone.
Foraminifera (Prof Simon Haslett) An additional 12 samples were sent for foraminiferal analyses, following the results garnered from the assessment report (see Haslett, 2006). Only seven of all the samples sent for analyses were found to contain foraminifera, all from Monolith 1 (samples 70, 82, 98, 110, 112, 142 and 190cm); no samples from Monolith 2 were found to contain foraminifera. Samples 70, 82, 110 and 142cm contained only Jadamina marascens, which represents the monospecific assemblage of Haslett et al, (2001), which inhabits the lower part of the tidal zone between MHWST (Mean High Water Spring Tide) and HAT (Highest Astronomical Tide). Samples 98, 122 and 190cm contained the most diverse range of foraminifera containing Trochammina inflata, Miliammina fusca and Jadamina marascens. This assemblage is typical of deposition around MHWST. Although containing no foraminifera, samples 50, 118, 134, 147, 158, 209 and 230cm (all from Monolith 1) did contain sponge spicules, which may represent a non‐marine depositional environment. For further details see Appendix I.
Diatoms (Dr Jason Jordan and Dr Sue Dawson) Twelve additional diatom samples were prepared for analysis from Monoliths 1 and 2 by Dr Jason Jordan. Unfortunately only two of the additional samples were found to yield any diatoms; Sample 110cm from Monolith1 and Sample 128cm from Monolith 2. Sample 110cm contained only two diatoms both of which were Paralia sulcata, a marine diatom indicative of storm deposits. Sample 128 was fund to contain only a single diatom, identified as Gramatophora serpentine a marine diatom indicative of marine waters and coastal deposits. Of the first twelve samples analysed by Dr Sue Dawson, from Monolith1 only one sample (230cm) was found to contain no diatoms, while three samples (98, 118 and 122cm) were found to contain abundant numbers, where full counts of 300 diatom valves could be obtained. The remaining seven samples (18, 34, 50, 70, 82, 142, 158 and 190cm) contained
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Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
sparse numbers of diatoms. The diatoms indicate deposition within an initial freshwater environment through species such as Fragilaria construens, which then changes to a high intertidal environment highlighted by the presence of species including Diploneis interrupta. There is then a gradual increase in marine waters, from freshwater through to brackish and finally deep, marine waters by the upper sediments sampled, signalled by the presence of species such as Podosira stelliger and Cocconeis scutellum. For further details on both sets of analyses see Appendix II.
Discussion
Stratigraphy, Loss on Ignition and Sea‐level rise Below is a discussion of the stratigraphic sequence outlined in Table 2, together with the Loss on Ignition data and the reconstructed sea‐level curve for Newrath based on radiocarbon dated index points from within the monolith sequences. It is important to understand the sedimentary history of the site in order to be able to interpret the vegetational and anthropogenic history of the site. The deepest parts of the stratigraphic sequence (Units I to III) are not present within the studied monoliths and have been included here from recorded section drawings taken during excavation in the field. The dryland surface has been dated from the finding Bann flakes indicating this surface was present until at least the later Mesolithic (Woodman et al, 1999). This report focuses on those organic layers overlying these units, following the initiation of peat development (Units IV to VII), the more minerogenic and modern units (VIII to IX) have been omitted from this study due to the problems of sediment mixing and disturbance outlined in Timpany (2006). At approximately 4850±35 BP (SUERC‐10126; 3710‐3620 Cal BC) wood peat (Unit IV) developed on the dryland surface indicating a rise in ground water occurred at this time. This elevation in ground water would have been caused by rising sea‐level, which can be seen in the reconstructed sea‐level curve shown in Figure 6. Pollen and plant macrofossil evidence show that this peat was soon colonised by woodland species including Quercus and Betula with Alnus glutinosa colonising at around 4500 BP. This local woodland period lasts for c. 600 years to approximately 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐2620 Cal BC). Within this unit there is evidence for a possible marine incursion with a band of silt within Monolith 2 at 190‐200cm. This band has been radiocarbon dated to have been deposited between 4540±40 BP (SUERC‐14690; 3370‐3090 Cal BC) and 4580±40 BP (SUERC‐14691; 3380‐ 3260 Cal BC). This narrow date range suggests a rapid period of deposition likely to have been caused by a short‐lived event such as a tidal surge. Unfortunately foraminifera and diatoms proved to be absent from samples sent to specialists from these levels (see above), however, some foraminifera were observed on pollen slides from corresponding depths, suggesting some evidence of tidal deposition (see Figures 2 and 3). Although no corresponding silt band has been observed in Monolith 1 it is suggested from pollen preservation as at around 4500 BP within this monolith pollen becomes sparse (between 208‐ 206cm pollen is absent from the slides) indicating increased minerogenic content. This increase in minerogenic content is likely to be part of the same event as that, which can be witnessed in Monolith 1. Unfortunately this has not been picked up in the Loss on Ignition results for Monolith 1, with this area of the monolith not having been sampled. However, the Loss on Ignition curve for Monolith 2 (see Figure 1) does show a decrease in the amount of organic content from the level of peat initiation (211cm) to when the minerogenic silt began to
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be deposited (c. 198cm) from 30% to 22%. Organic content then begins to increase again suggesting that the main period of deposition was at the base of this silt layer with organic content remaining high for the rest of this unit at between 42‐58% (see Figure 1). There is some foraminifera evidence for the site being affected by tidal events during this period with species indicative of MHWST (Mean High Water Spring Tide) being found in Monolith 1 at 190cm. From approximately 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC) to 3935±35 BP (SUERC‐ 14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC) a retrogressive succession begins to take place with the stratigraphic evidence from wood peat (Unit IV) to a wood‐reed peat transition (Unit V). This is signalled in the sequence by a change within the peat as wood fragments decrease within this layer, which is also shown in the plant macrofossil records (see below). This change is once more thought to have been brought on by rising sea‐level causing the backing up of water along the growing estuarine environment and heightening the watertable. This does not seem to have affected the organic content of the deposits, however, as it remains high at between 51‐ 72% (see Figure 1). This change to reedswamp is shown in Unit VI and lasts from around 3935±35 BP (SUERC‐ 14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC) to between 2045±40 BP (SUERC‐14682; 170 cal BC to cal AD 60) and 2360±35 BP (GU‐13999; 540‐370 cal BC). The sea‐level curve together with foraminifera and diatom evidence shows that the site had now become truly intertidal within this period, placing it in the MHWST tidal window (see Figure 6). The corresponding increase in minerogenic sediments being brought in by the tide can be seen in the Loss on Ignition results, where in Monolith 1 organic content can be seen to rapidly decline from 50% to 20% (see Figure 1). There is some evidence of sediment mixing within this layer seen from the radiocarbon dates from this unit in Monolith 2, where a date from monocotyledon plant tissue from below the date from the top of this unit (also dated from monocotyledon plant tissue) has provided a younger date; 2210±40 BP (SUERC‐14688; 390‐180 cal BC). Further concern is raised by the short depth of sediment for this unit in Monolith 1, where approximately 10cm of sediment is banded by dates of 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC) to 2045±40 BP (SUERC‐ 14682; 170 cal BC to cal AD 60); in Monolith 2 where this unit has a depth of 35cm. Despite some mixing of sediments it appears likely that this short depth of sediment for this layer represents a period where sediment deposition/accumulation was in equilibrium with tidal action thus the sea‐level curve can be seen to almost “flat‐line” during this period (see Figure 6), leading to relatively stable conditions for the area. This period of stability also sees the greatest period of anthropogenic activity at Newrath as preserved in the archaeological record, with people accessing and utilising this reedswamp environment, evidenced by the construction of trackways and platforms (see below). Following the period of relative stability a significant environmental change takes place, evidenced in the stratigraphic record from a change from reed peat (Unit VI) to estuarine silt/reed peat (Unit VII) as a rapid rise in sea‐level (see Figure 6) occurs, which inundated the site. This is shown in the Loss on Ignition data for Monolith 1 where organic content drops further to 11‐10% (see Figure 1). Again there is further evidence of sediment mixing within this layer, likely to have been caused by tidal action. This is shown in the radiocarbon dates in Monolith 1, where again a younger date lies below an older date (again dated material was monocotyledon plant tissue); 1665±35 BP (SUERC‐14680; cal AD 250‐530) underlying 1870±35 BP (SUERC‐10124; 60‐240 cal AD). It is likely that this rapid increase in sea‐level led to the abandonment of the area by people as the tidal action destroyed structures such as trackways
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Intertidal MHWST
Terrestrial
0
MHWST
4505+-35
Altitude m OD
1
4540+-40 4580+-40 4765+-35 4850+-35
MHWST to HAT
4150+-35
Saltmarsh (Barren Zone)
3935+-35
Estuarine Intertidal
2360+-35
2
Foraminifera Study
1665+-35 1965+-35 1870+-35 2045+-40 2210+-40
Diatom 3 Study
Freshwater Terrestrial
-1
-2 0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Radiocarbon Years BP (Uncalibrated)
5000
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as the site was submerged. The submergence of the site was complete by the deposition of Unit VIII an estuarine silt layer, overlying this unit. There is some Loss on Ignition data for this unit within Monolith 1, which again shows low organic content at around 12‐10% (see Figure 1).
Vegetational history and human agency The following part of the discussion focuses on the vegetational history of the site as reconstructed through the pollen, non‐pollen palynomorph and plant macrofossil analyses. It will also focus on evidence for human agency discovered within these records together with looking at the archaeological evidence from the site and those other sites, which have been excavated from this part of the road scheme around Newrath and Waterford. The discussion will take place chronologically covering those periods represented in the study levels, namely the Neolithic through to the Iron Age.
The Neolithic period ‐ 4500‐2300 cal BC (Pollen Zones: NWB1a‐c, NWB2a‐c) The palaeovegetational record for Newrath begins with the initiation of peat development at approximately 4850±35 BP (SUERC‐10126; 3710‐3620 cal BC) (see Zones NWB1a and NWB2a). The pollen and plant macrofossil assemblages show that the peat was soon colonised by vegetation. Local growth of plants on this peat surface is shown in the plant macrofossil record with trees such as Betula and Quercus being early invaders into this forming wetland environment. Although the plant macrofossil data has been unable to define these taxa to species level it is likely that they represent the more damp tolerant taxons of Betula pubescens (downy birch) and Quercus robur (sessile oak), which are the more common species found in wet woodlands (Clapham et al, 1962; Rodwell, 1991) . The plant macrofossil assemblage also shows other wet‐tolerant tree types as being present with the occurrence of Crataegus monogyna buds, together with wood fragments of Salix and Alnus glutinosa. The plant macrofossil assemblage suggests that this zone depicts the beginnings of carr‐woodland formation with Betula, Alnus and Salix often among the first arboreal species to invade such developing wetlands (Rodwell, 1991). This is also reflected in the pollen record, albeit in low values for Salix and Betula. Salix is commonly underrepresented in pollen diagrams due to it being insect pollinated (Faegri et al, 1989), therefore having its pollen dispersed by insects rather than being wind dispersed. The low value of Betula pollen, however, is likely to be a result of the location of the sampling site. The location of Area 1 on the intermediate area between the dryland and wetland (see Wilkins, main report) places it in a catchment where pollen within the sediments will be recruited from both the local wetland environment and the surrounding dryland environment. Therefore, the pollen record contains information about both environments, with the plant macrofossil record aiding in distinguishing one from another. The wooded environment of the Neolithic shown in both the pollen and plant macrofossil record also has implications for the taphonomy of the site and interpretation of the pollen record. The density of the woodland canopy will have an impact on the size of catchment from which pollen can be expected to represent. Dense woodland, with only minor interruptions in the canopy space will provide a very local pollen signal (Mitchell, 1988, Brown 1997a), dominated by local source components, often leading to high representation of arboreal taxa and low representation of herbaceous taxa (Tauber, 1965; Delcourt and Delcourt, 1991; Odgaard, 1999). It is this high arboreal woodland signal that can be seen in the pollen diagrams. For Zones NWB1a and NWB2a it is the dryland woodland signal, which dominates the
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assemblage. This is due to the woodland on the wetland only beginning to develop at this time, in comparison to the well‐established woodland of the dryland. This later begins to change as woodland on the wetland further develops. The dryland woodland can then be seen to be dominated by Quercus and Corylus, a trend, which has been suggested from palaeoenvironmental evidence from other sites in the area such as Rathpatrick (Site 17), Granny (Site 27) and the pollen study at Woodstown (Farrell and Coxon, 2004). This woodland‐type also ties in well with that suggested by Bennett (1989) for this part of the southeast of Ireland at c.5000 BP from collated pollen studies. Together with these two taxa a number of other arboreal species can be seen in the pollen evidence to have been part of the composition of this woodland including Pinus, Ulmus, Prunus spinosa and Prunus padus, together with other canopy component such as Hedera helix (ivy). The variety in species type within this woodland shows that it had a mosaic character with these taxa either growing as integrated components of the woodland or as individual stands within the canopy. It is likely that this dryland woodland would have had a dense canopy, investigations by other authors into the character of this woodland, that authors such as Rackham (2003) and Peterson (1996) have termed “Wildwood” or “Primeval”, respectively have leaned towards this view (e.g. Mitchell, 2005; Timpany, 2005; Bell, 2007), despite recent posturing that it was a more open environment (e.g. Vera, 200). Openings, within this woodland would have existed though, created through anthropogenic mechanisms, such as woodland clearance together with natural mechanisms, such as storm damage, allowing periods where more shade‐intolerant species could flourish and there is evidence for this in the pollen record (see below). In comparison to the dense nature of the dryland, the emerging woodland environment of the wetland would have been much more open at this time as trees begin to colonise the forming peat surface. The wet and boggy nature of this surface is illustrated by the presence of a number of taxa in the plant macrofossil and pollen assemblages that inhabit wet places such as Ranunculus flammula fruits together with Lotus‐type (birds‐foot trefoil), Hypericum sp (St John’s wort), Potentilla, and Galium‐type pollen (Clapham et al, 1962) (see Zones NWB1a and NWB2a). These taxa, together with Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen are indicative of the formation of tall‐herb fen communities spreading across the wetland, which are likely to have been similar to modern communities such as the S26 Phragmites australis‐Urtica dioica tall‐herb fen (Rodwell, 1995). Previous plant macrofossil analyses by Lyons (2006) also recovered taxa indicative of tall herb fen such as Wahlenbergia hederaceae (ivy campanula). Such communities remain as field layer vegetation to present day carr‐woodland (Rodwell, 1991). There are also indicators of a stream nearby, which are likely to reflect the early River Suir, which as Carter (2007) has observed would have been smaller in nature than the modern channel seen today. Such indicators include Schoenoplectus lacustris and Carex aquatilis nutlets, which grow at the margins of rivers and streams, respectively (Clapham et al, 1962). Pooling of water on the peat surface is also indicated by species such as Apium inundatum (lesser marshwort), Potomegeton (pond weed) and Typha latifolia (bulrush) together with Type 72 (zoological remains of Alona rustica) (Clapham et al, 1962; van Geel, 1986). At around 4500 BP (c.3240‐3100 Cal BC) Alnus glutinosa can be seen to spread across the wetland, leading to the formation of Alnus carr‐woodland (see Zones NWB1b‐c and NWB2b‐ c). This rise can be viewed in Alnus pollen values and the increased representation of this species in the plant macrofossil assemblages with numbers of seeds, buds and wood fragments all increasing. The succession to Alnus carr‐woodland across wetland areas from initial tall‐herb fen communities is a common transition and has been observed in the palaeoenvironmental records of a number of wetland sites (e.g. Walker, 1970; Smith and
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Morgan, 1989). Other arboreal taxa are also present within this woodland with the pollen and plant macrofossil assemblages showing the continued presence of Betula, Salix and Crataegus monogyna, while other trees such as Viburnum opulus (guilder rose) and Fraxinus excelsior, which will also grow in wet woodlands (Clapham et al, 1962; Rodwell, 1991) may have been part of this community. The plant macrofossil diagram indicates that Quercus and Corylus avellana were both present locally from the occurrence of buds, wood fragments and even an acorn. Rodwell (1991) notes that both of these species may grow within wet woodland; their presence within Neolithic carr‐woodlands has been evidenced in places such as the Severn Estuary (Timpany, 2005). There is evidence also of the field layer component of the vegetation, which is likely to have remained as a tall‐herb fen community through species such as Lychnis flos‐cuculi, Urtica dioica (common nettle), Veronica sp (speedwell), Cicuta virosa‐ type, Valeriana dioica‐type (marsh valerian) and Ribes‐type (black current). These species together with NPPs (Non‐Pollen Palynomorphs) such as Types 8 and 61 (Zygnamataceae cf. gracillima) show that the ground within this woodland was boggy and wet with pooling of water occurring on the pea surface (van Geel, 1986). While the high number of Rubus futicosus fruits in the macrofossil assemblage indicate its local abundance, sprawling across the mire surface. It is suggested that this Alnus dominated carr‐woodland would have been somewhat similar to today’s W5 Alnus glutinosa‐Carex paniculata community, with many of the taxa present within the palaeovegetational assemblages occurring in these woodlands still today. This woodland type is known to succeed fen vegetation and develop across areas of tall‐herb fen (Rodwell, 1991). This period of Alnus carr‐woodland domination of the wetland is seen to last some 400 years until declining at approximately 4150±35 BP (SUERC ‐10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC). This phase of Alnus carr‐woodland is also seen at Woodstown, where Farrell and Coxon (2004) record a similar period of such wet woodland, which is seen to decline at 4300±35 BP (Beta‐19584; 3100‐2880 cal BC). During this period (Zones NWB1b‐c and NWB2b‐c) the dryland woodland remains dominated by Quercus and Corylus avellana and is seen to change little in composition from that described above, although additional species are more represented such as Sorbus‐type (whitebeam), Ilex aquifolium (holly) and Carpinus betulus (hornbeam). The local presence of hornbeam during this period shown by the presence not only in the pollen record but also in the plant macrofossil record with the finding of seeds and buds of this taxon is of particular interest. Carpinus has been thought of as not migrating into Ireland during the early Holocene (Huntley and Birks, 1983). Its representation in palaeoecological records from across Ireland is so low that it is not even mentioned in recent studies of tree migration and expansion (e.g. Mitchell, 2006). However, pollen grains of Carpinus have been recorded in studies from the early Holocene in the south of Ireland (Timpany, 2001) and in the Waterford area (Branch and Batchelor, 2007), suggesting it was present in southern Ireland. The Carpinus seeds in the plant macrofossil assemblage of Monolith 1 clearly vindicate the pollen evidence that it was growing in southern Ireland during the Neolithic. Rackham (2003) has noted that Carpinus is likely to have been present in the British Isles during the Neolithic, from its presence in pollen diagrams at sites such as Hockham in Norfolk (Godwin, 1975), expanding in distribution during this period, becoming widespread but not abundant. In terms of ecology it is likely that Carpinus would have been growing in pure stands within the dryland woodland (Rackham, 2003). Rodwell (1991) observes that Carpinus occurs in modern Quercus woodland communities, such as the W10 Quercus robur‐Pteridium aquilinium‐Rubus fruticosus woodland. This woodland is common in the lowlands of England and Wales and may be the closest present day comparative to the prehistoric Quercus woodlands (Timpany, 2005). Openings in the canopy can be seen to have taken place, particularly in Zone NWB2b indicating some disturbance to the woodland (see below), with fluctuations in the pollen of
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Quercus, Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana and small peaks in the pollen of Ilex aquilinium and Ulmus. It is also during this period where cereal pollen appears in the pollen record. This disturbance event seen in the pollen records takes place at levels in the sediment column where a layer of silt can be seen to have been deposited in the Monolith 2 sequence. This deposit has been interpreted as representing deposition of estuarine sediments during an event of marine transgression such as a storm surge (see stratigraphic discussion above). Foraminifera, although absent in the samples sent for specialist analysis have been observed on pollen slides from the Monolith 2 sequence (see Figure 3), indicating some maritime element to the deposit. Radiocarbon dates from plant macrofossils within the peat stratified above and below the silt deposit show deposition took place between 4540±40 BP (SUERC‐14690; 3370‐3090 cal BC) and 4580±40 BP (SUERC‐14691; 3380‐3260 cal BC). While LOI data indicates initial inwash of minerogenic silt took place at the earliest date of the two (see above). The absence of pollen on the slide from Monolith 1 from around 4500 BP also point to high minerogenic content of sediments during this period. There is also NPP evidence for minerogenic sediment deposition, in particular Type 707 (Culcitalna achraspora) has been linked to mudflat and saltmarsh environs, with en Bakker and van Sneerdyke (1981) noting its presence on dead wood fragments found in such locations. It is interesting to note that the curve for Type 707 closely follows that for Foraminifera seen in Monolith 2 and may further indicate re‐ deposition of sediments from this environment onto the wetland. A rise in Type 207 (Glomus cf. fasciculatum), is also seen, which has been linked to show increases in inwashed minerogenic sediments in lake deposits (van Geel et al, 1989). Here it is suggested that it further represents minerogenic sediments being deposited on to the wetland. It is following this initial deposition of silts in Monolith 2 that cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group begins to appear at 198cm (Zone NWB2b). The appearance of cereal pollen in Monolith 2 at this level follows a sharp decline in Quercus pollen at 200cm when silts begin to be deposited. It is noticeable that cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐Triticum‐group appears consistently during the phase of silt deposition but disappear as [wood] peat again begins to accumulate. It is suggested that this period of agricultural activity and marine transgression are linked. The transgression appears to have made an impact on both the wetland and dryland woodlands, which can be seen in the fluctuating values of Alnus, Quercus and Corylus pollen. Dips in the pollen of dryland arboreal taxa (e.g. Quercus) are accompanied by peaks in lesser represented species, such as Ulmus and Ilex aquilinium signalling an increase in trunk space allowing for a rise in the representation of species further from the sampling location. Declines in the pollen of Alnus, Salix and Betula during this phase signal the loss of trees within the wetland woodland. These falls in tree pollen of the wetland are accompanied by peaks in herbaceous taxa such as Filipendula and Cicuta virosa‐type, indicating an increase in openness within the woodland and a decrease in shade. It is suggested this transgression phase represents a period of increased storminess, which caused the potential storm surge that deposited the silts and would have been accompanied by high winds leading to tree fall. The role of storms in palaeoenvironmental records is often underplayed but as Allen (1996, 1998) observes high winds can have a significant impact on woodlands causing the felling of trees, which can often have a domino‐effect; the felling of one tree causing the felling of those around it (Blackburn et al, 1988; Denslow et al, 1998). It is such events, which are believed to be being witnessed in this initial period of declines in arboreal taxa. The opening of the woodland particularly on the dryland is soon taken advantage of by Neolithic people as space for agricultural activity to commence. This is seen in the pollen
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diagram of Monolith 2, with the presence of cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐ Triticum‐group, together with a rise in Plantago lanceolata pollen, which is often linked with arable activity in the pollen record (e.g. Mighall et al, 2007). Following the decline in arboreal pollen and the appearance of cereal pollen, a peak can be seen in the micro‐charcoal curve, some of which had enough surviving structure to be identified as wood micro‐charcoal (shown in the pollen diagram). The increase in micro‐charcoal following the dip in arboreal pollen is suggested to represent the burning of deadwood on the ground and dead standing trees damaged by the storm by people in order to maintain the clearing, which was being used for arable land. The burning of deadwood is indicated by the NPP assemblage, which shows declines in fungal spores associated with decaying wood at this level, such as Types 55 A/B (Sordaria spp.), and 359d (Bactrodesmium betullicola), together with Bactrodesmium obovatum and Bactrodesmium abruptum (van Geel, 1978; van Geel et al, 1981 Ellis and Ellis, 1997). Similar trends in dips in tree pollen followed by increase in burning (micro‐charcoal) in prehistoric contexts have been noted elsewhere (e.g. Brown, 1997b). Such activities are often more strongly linked to Mesolithic clearance episodes (e.g. Simmons and Innes, 1996) where opportunistic openings in the tree canopy enabled people to maintain the space through burning to promote open areas for the grazing and hunting of wild animals (Simmons, 1996). The evidence at Newrath suggests that such opportunism was also seized upon in the Neolithic. However, it is debatable as to whether this should be looked upon as simple opportunism or as people using their knowledge of the environment and the area to capitalise on natural clearings. The effort needed to use and maintain such clearings being less than that to create the clearing in the first place, especially given the absence of metallic tools during this period (Brown, 1997b). With the initiation of wood peat once more at the site, this phase of agricultural activity is seen to end. The steady increase in arboreal pollen also seen is likely to indicate the regeneration of woodland and abandonment of this part of the Newrath area for arable use. This phase of use and abandonment is similar to that seen during the Neolithic in other parts of Ireland (O’Connell and Molloy, 2001) and also draws comparisons with the traditional “landnam” clearance models. Other periods of possible agricultural activity may be seen earlier and later in the pollen records from Newrath. Hordeum‐group pollen can be seen to occur in Monolith 1 at approximately 4700 BP (c.3440‐3370 Cal BC) within pollen Zone NWB1a, again during a period where Quercus, Corylus avellana and Alnus glutinosa pollen is seen to decline. This dip in arboreal pollen is also preceded by a peak in Foraminifera seen on the pollen slides, which again could indicate a period of storminess, leading to openings used for agriculture. There is also a further appearance of Avena‐Triticum‐group pollen in Monolith 2 at around 4400 BP (c.3696‐3523 cal BC). However, at this level arboreal pollen is rising and this together with the absence of increases in pollen types indicative of arable activity, suggests this pollen may represent the remnants of previous agricultural crops still growing around the site. The presence of cereal‐type pollen is frequently challenged as to whether on its own it should be representative of agricultural activity taking place (e.g. O’Connell, 1987; Behre, 2007; Brown, 2007). This is largely based around the difficulty of separating wild grass pollen from cereal pollen (Edwards et al, 2005; Tweddle et al, 2005) and to the poor distribution of cereal pollen; it’s large size being non‐conducive to travelling large distances (Hall et al, 1993). However, the separation of cereal from wild grass pollen is possible through careful measurement of the grain and its annulus (Faegri et al, 1989) allowing the ability to distinguish the two groups and this is shown in the pollen diagrams. Recent work has also questioned the long held paradigm of short distance of cereal pollen, suggesting it may travel
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further than was previously thought (e.g. Behre, 2007). Thus the cereal pollen signal present here could come from the dryland. Perhaps the best and more readily accepted evidence of agriculture around Newrath during the Neolithic is the presence of charred cereal grain dating to this period found at Newrath (Site 35) and Granny (Site27). The presence of both cereal pollen and charred grain therefore provides definitive evidence for agricultural activity at Newrath during the Neolithic. The dates and species of the pollen and cereal grains are shown in Table 3. Table 3 – Evidence for Neolithic Agriculture in the Waterford Area Site Name Evidence Date BP Date Cal BC Site 27 Charred grain of Triticum dicoccum, 5054±38 (UB‐6315) 3977‐3728 to Granny Hordeum vulgare var nudum and cf. to 4776±39 (UB‐ 3645‐3383 Avena sp 6634) Site 35 Charred grain of Triticum dicoccum 4827±39 (UB‐6639) 3695‐3523 Newrath Site 34 Pollen grain of Hordeum‐group in c.4700 c.3440‐3370 Newrath Monolith 1 Site 34 Pollen grain of Hordeum‐group and 4580±40 (SUERC‐ 3380‐3260 to Newrath Avena‐Triticum‐group in Monolith 2 14691) to 4540±40 3370‐3090 (SUERC‐14690) Site 34 Pollen grain of Avena‐Triticum‐group in c.4400 c.3696‐3523 Newrath Monolith 2 The earliest evidence of agriculture can be seen to come from Granny (Site 27), where charred grain of Triticum dicoccum (emmer wheat), Hordeum vulgare var nudum (naked barley) and cf. Avena sp (possible oat) have been identified from samples taken within two buildings a possible dwelling (Structure 1) and the second (Structure 2), a potential animal shelter (Gleeson, 2006a). Although no radiocarbon dates are available for the grain their association with the buildings, which have been dated from charcoal to between 5054±38 BP (UB‐6315; 3977‐3728 cal BC) and 4776±39 BP (UB‐6634; 3645‐3383 cal BC) indicates an early Neolithic date for the adoption of agriculture. At Newrath (Site 35) charred grains of Triticum dicoccum were recovered from a small sub‐circular pit, which also contained charred Corylus avellana nutshell and charcoal fragments (unidentified) suggesting the pit was used for the disposal of domestic food waste. The charred grain here was radiocarbon dated to 4827±39 BP (UB‐6639; 3695‐3523 cal BC), while the charred nutshell fragments, also from the pit produced a near identical date of 4821±38 BP (UB‐6640; 3694‐3521 cal BC) indicating the contemporaneity of the material (Hughes, 2006a). The finding of charred grain from Neolithic sites at and around Newrath helps to put the cereal pollen grains in context. The identification of the majority of the charred cereal grains as Triticum dicoccum and Hordeum vulgare var nudum suggests it is likely it is these species that are being represented in the pollen record as Avena‐Triticum‐group and Hordeum‐group. The finding of possible Avena sp in the charred grain assemblage at Granny is of interest as oat is more readily associated with a later prehistoric date, although oat from Balbridie in Scotland has been dated to the Neolithic (Fairweather and Ralston, 1989), whereas Hordeum vulgare var nudum and Triticum dicoccum are known from Neolithic assemblages (e.g. Monk, 1985/86). The charred grain together with the pollen evidence indicate agricultural activity took place throughout the Neolithic in this area of southeast Ireland, with pollen evidence indicating the exploitation and maintaining of natural clearings used for agricultural land. The dates of the grain, when placed in comparison with recent surveys for the start of agriculture in the
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Neolithic (e.g. Brown, 2007) shows them to be among the earliest dated sites in Britain and Ireland. Thus adding to the debate of where agriculture actually began in the British Isles and Ireland. The presence of Neolithic people at Site 34 is also evidenced by the presence of the remains of a trackway (Structure 341512), which has been dated to 4068±35 BP (UB‐6909; 2855‐2488 cal BC). Identifications of the wood used to construct the trackway indicate that local wet woodland resources were used, with Alnus glutinosa, Betula, Salix and Fraxinus excelsior among the wood types used in its construction (see Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). The use of a trackway across the wet woodland floor would have enabled easier access to land that would have been wet, boggy and hard to traverse (see above). The presence of fruit bearing plants known to have been growing in this wetland from the pollen and plant macrofossil assemblages such as Rubus fruticosus suggests these access ways into the wetland could have been used for gathering of wild food resources as well as means to cross the wetland. The construction of such trackways was soon to become common place across Newrath.
The Bronze Age period ‐ 2300‐700 cal BC (Pollen Zones: NWB1c‐d, NWB2d) In comparison to the Neolithic period within the sedimentary record when peat developed at a fairly consistent rate, allowing for a substantial period of palaeobotanical material recruitment, the Bronze Age is somewhat under‐represented. Due to the nature of sea‐level rise and sediment accumulation during this period (see above) there is only around 10‐20cm of sediment containing palaeoenvironmental information relating to this period. Despite this, the record shows the start of a significant change occurring in the local wetland environment during the Bronze Age with the decline of Alnus dominated carr‐woodland and its gradual replacement with a reedswamp environment. The decline of the carr‐woodland on the wetland can be seen more clearly in the plant macrofossil assemblage. In Monolith2 (Zone NWB2d) macrofossils from arboreal species can be seen to decline in abundance, particularly Quercus, with declines also seen in the representation of Betula, Alnus, Crataegus and Viburnum. In Monolith 1 (top of Zone NWB1c to NWB1d) a sharp decline can be seen in all arboreal taxa, with only a small number of Betula seeds present in Zone NWB1d. The decline in local woodland is also shown clearly by the gradual decline in wood fragments within the Monolith 1 sequence and to a lesser degree in the Monolith 2 sequence. These declines witnessed in the plant macrofossil assemblage are not as clear in the pollen assemblages, largely due to trees such as Alnus being such large pollen producers (Waller et al, 1999). However, a small dip in Alnus pollen can be seen towards the top of Zone NWB2d at the same point where macrofossils of Alnus are seen to decline in the Monolith 2 macrofossil assemblage, which is likely to signal some local decline of this taxon on the wetland. A similar dip in Alnus pollen is seen in Monolith 1 toward the top of Zone NWB1c and again corresponds with a decline in Alnus in the plant macrofossil assemblage. Small dips can also be seen in the pollen and plant macrofossils of Quercus in both Monolith 1 and 2 (Zones NWB1d and NWB2d). This decline in local wet woodland is also recorded in the NPP assemblage with a decline in spores’ representative of decaying wood, such as Sporoschima mirabile, Bactrodesmium obovatum, Bactrodesmium abruptum and Types 55 A/B (Sordaria sp) (van Geel, 1978; Ellis and Ellis, 1997). However, peaks can be seen in Type 44 (Ussulina deusta), which has been linked to growing on dead stumps and roots of
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deciduous trees (van Geel et al, 1986, 1989). It is suggested here, that Type 44 may represent the presence of dead standing trees on the wetland. These changing conditions on the ground are also shown by the herbaceous taxa in the plant macrofossil assemblages. Large increases can be seen in the number of Rubus sp and Rubus fruticosus fruits, Rodwell (1991) notes that R. fruticosus can become locally abundant within Alnus carr‐woodland, particularly on areas of drier ground. At Newrath this increase may signal the colonisation of Rubus over areas once inhabited by trees such as over the raised sedge tussocks as light and space increase across the wetland following the demise of the trees. A large increase can also be seen in the number of fungal sclerotia during this period further indicating changing local conditions as fungi produce large numbers of sclerotia in order to survive. Fungi produce sclerotia (a hardened mass of mycelium stored with reserve food material), which lay dormant within soil until favourable conditions occur in order for the fungi to grow once more. It is suggested this mass of sclerotia production signals the change from a woodland peat to reedswamp peat and this can be seen when comparing the peaks in sclerotia to the lithology column (see Figures 3 and 4). That the ground became wetter during this period can also be seen through the increased appearance of Carex aquatilis, Carex acuta and Carex rostrata nutlets, signaling increasing water level at the site (Clapham et al, 1962). This is also suggested by an increased representation of Potamogeton (pondweed) and Typha latifolia (bulrush) in Zone NWB2d, with the latter in particular suggestive of reedswamp (Clapham at al, 1962). A steady increase can also be seen in the numbers of monocotyledon fragments through these zones suggesting an increase in the local presence of Phragmites australis (common reed) also on the wetland. A peak in Type 121, which is associated with lake deposits (Pals et al, 1980) further indicates the change to a higher water level. The rising water level at Newrath is evidenced by the sea‐level curve, which can be seen to gradually rise during this period (see Figure 6 and above). Diatom evidence from these levels also shows the area is becoming wetter with the deposition of species such Fragalia construens and Pinnularia microstauron (see Dawson, this report). These species are terrestrial in nature and show that although the area had become wetter it had yet to become fully intertidal. This is also shown by the absence of Foraminifera from these levels. The changes seen in the local environment with the dying back of the Alnus carr‐woodland and the emerging reedswamp environment would have led to the wetland becoming much more of an open space. The exploitation and movement of this newly forming wetland environment by early Bronze Age people is witnessed by the construction of a number of wooden platforms and trackways across the wetland (see Wilkins, this report). Radiocarbon dates from wood within the trackways show they were constructed and used between 3702±34 BP (UB‐6908; 2200‐1980 cal BC) and 3119±32 BP (UB‐6905; 1488‐1309 cal BC). These structures were built on the wetland using local, close‐at‐hand resources, which has been shown by wood identification analyses with Alnus glutinosa dominating the make‐up of the construction materials. Other arboreal taxa shown to have been used in their construction include Betula, Corylus avellana, Salix, Fraxinus excelsior, Quercus and Cornus sanguinea (dogwood), which is absent in the pollen and plant macrofossil assemblages (see Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). Analyses of the wood used in the construction of these trackways has also shown that they were largely built using small roundwoods, the majority of which are aged between 6‐15 years old and largely of alder. These narrow age‐ranges of the timbers are suggestive of woodland management through coppicing. The identification also of coppiced heels within the wood assemblages of these trackways provides more substantive evidence for such activities (see Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). The practice of
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coppicing and exploitation of wet woodland is well known from prehistoric sites across the British Isles and Ireland in trackway construction (e.g. Coles and Coles, 1986; O’Sullivan, 2001) and would have provided people with the raw materials they needed locally rather than tackling the larger trees of the dryland. As Rackham (2003) notes the vast size of these trees would have required considerable effort to fell and cut to size and it may have been the case of using the smallest tree to do the job. This may also explain the low number of Quercus (and Corylus) timbers seen used in trackway construction. The trackways and platforms would have provided access across the wetland, which no doubt would have increased the mobility of people across this wet ground but also gave greater access to the available wetland resources. Fishing and fowling are often referred to in relation to resources offered by wetland sites (e.g. O’Sullivan, 2001; Bell, 2007) and indeed would have been important in terms of getting protein for dietary requirements with fish also a good source of minerals, vitamins A and D, together with essential fatty acids. Often under‐valued though are the rich plant resources these wetlands offer. Phragmites australis for example, can provide both a dietary resource, its rhizomes (below ground root) being edible, and a construction resource for example being used as thatch (Law, 1998). Rodwell (1995) also notes that sedge species such as Cladium mariscus (great fen sedge) may also be used for thatch. Although there is somewhat limited evidence for C. mariscus at Newrath, peaks can be seen in Type 4 (Anthostomella cf. fuegiana) in the NPP assemblage, which grows on this species (van Geel and Aptroot, 2006). Other edible plants present in the palaeobotanical record likely to have been growing in the wetland during this period include Menyanthes trifoliata (bog bean), Typha latifolia both of whose rhizomes are also edible, together with Vicia‐ type (vetches) whose seeds are edible, Urtica dioica whose leaves are edible and the fruits of Rubus fruticosus (Price, 1989). Together with the wild plant, fish and bird food resources there is also some suggestion that large grazing animals were present. Fungal spores linked to animal dung such as Types 16, 112 (Cercophera sp) and 170 (Rivularia sp) can all be seen to occur during this period (van Geel, 1978; van Geel and Aptroot, 2006). Although it cannot be stated for certain as to whether the presence of these spores represents wild or domesticated animals. Another indicator of dung of particular interest is the appearance of Trichuris‐type (whipworm) eggs in Zone NWB2d during this period. Trichuris‐type is one of the commonest human intestinal parasites that inhabit the large intestine, the eggs of which are passed into the faeces of the host (Dark, 2004). As well as humans Trichuris sp infect a variety of other mammals including cattle, sheep, pigs and dogs. It is possible to differentiate the species of Trichuris from careful measurement of the eggs; however, there is some overlap between the eggs of Trichuris trichiura the species which infects humans and Trichuris suis, which infects pigs (Beer, 1976). Measurement of the eggs from Newrath, indicate they closely resemble those of T. trichiura, being smaller in size than those of T. suis. However, with the problem of the size overlap it may not be possible to completely rule out the possibility of the eggs representing T. suis. Nevertheless, this is the first known recording of Trichuris‐type eggs from archaeological sediments in Ireland. The possibility of the eggs representing human faeces also has social implications. Dark (2004) has suggested the finding of Trichuris‐type eggs from prehistoric wetlands may represent the contamination of food or water from areas where people and animals congregated; indicating the shared nature of resources in such places. Thus this finding serves as a reminder that although abundant in resources wetlands were also complicated landscapes to exploit and hardships endured. The finding of Trichuris eggs at the Mesolithic camp of Goldcliff East was believed to represent a peripheral area of the site used for defecation (Bell, 2007). Within Monolith2 Trichuris‐type can be seen to occur at approximately 3935±35 BP (SUERC‐14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC), indicating its deposition prior to
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the phase of trackway construction at the site and therefore at a time when this area of Newrath may indeed have been peripheral to other activities. Despite the wetland being perhaps the main focus of activities during the Bronze Age at Newrath, activities were also taking place on the dryland. The pollen assemblage indicates that the dryland is still largely wooded during this period, with Quercus‐Corylus woodland still dominant around Newrath and across the area; evidenced at Woodstown (Farrell and Coxon, 2004) and Ballynamona (Branch and Batchelor, 2007). Other arboreal species seen to form lesser constituents of this woodland include Pinus, Ulmus, Ilex aquifolium, Malus sylvestris (crab apple) and Prunus padus. There is some slight evidence of woodland disturbance at around 154cm in Monolith 2 where dips can be seen in the pollen of Ulmus, Pinus and Ilex. At this level there is also an appearance of cereal pollen with grains of Avena‐ Triticum‐group and Secale cereale‐group (rye) present, suggesting some perhaps small‐scale agriculture taking place. At Woodstown, there is more definitive evidence of woodland disturbance with larger‐scale clearance of trees taking place indicated by declines in the pollen of both Quercus and Corylus with Quercus in particular becoming virtually absent in the pollen record. This removal of woodland has been to 3440±40 BP (Beta‐195833; 1890‐1680 cal BC). LOI data shows an increase in minerogenic sediments deposited on the sites during this phase, indicating an increase in the volume of colluvium (hillwash) entering the valley basin due to the removal of trees on the valley slopes. Prior to this woodland clearance cereal pollen types begin to appear in the pollen record together with an increased representation of herbaceous taxa associated with arable activity, such as Poaceae sp, Plantago sp and Ranunculaceae sp. Therefore, the assemblage indicates woodland clearance was taking place to obtain land for the cultivation of cereals (Farrell and Coxon, 2004). Evidence for agriculture across the Waterford area during the Bronze Age has been recorded from a number of sites where charred grain, including Triticum dicoccum and Hordeum vulgare var nudum. Such sites include Adamstown (Site 3), Granny (sites 1, 21 and 22) together with Newrath (Site 37) itself (Gleeson, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c; Hughes 2006b; Russell and Ginn, 2007). This increase in the level of agriculture and woodland clearance across the Newrath/Waterford area during the Bronze Age is suggestive of increased population size leading to an increased demand for resources, which saw both the wetland and dryland areas exploited.
The Iron Age period (700 cal BC to cal AD 43) (Pollen Zones: NWB1d‐f, NWB2e‐f) It is during this period that dynamic changes are seen in the vegetation records for Site 34 and are seen to be largely driven by sea‐level change. The sea‐level curve for the area, shows that during this period a rapid rise in sea‐level took place, submerging the site, which is likely to have began in the late Bronze Age from the decline in archaeological features dated to this period (see below). The foraminifera and diatom evidence show that the site became intertidal during this time (see above) and by sometime in the following period was a true estuarine saltmarsh environment. The pollen and plant macrofossil assemblage show this change in sea‐level had a huge impact on the vegetation. On the wetland these local changes can be seen by an increase in the representation of aquatic and submerged vegetation, particularly Ranunculus sceleratus with Ranunculus aquatilis (common water crowfoot), Carex aquatilis, Lycopus europeaus (gypsywort) and Schoenoplectus lacustris also represented (Clapham et al, 1962). This increase in aquatic
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species is also shown in the pollen assemblages where an increased representation in aquatic (and floating) taxa can be observed, particularly for Potamogeton, while other species including Myriophyllum alterniflorum (alternate water‐milfoil), Nymphaeae alba (white water lily), Callitriche‐type (water starworts) and Hydrocotyle vulagaris (marsh pennywort) also appear. These species are indicative of lake and riverine locations (Clapham et al, 1962; Stace, 1997) and together with the plant macrofossil assemblage show how the site had now become submerged from the enlargement of the River Suir during this period as it became more tidally (marine) influenced. The large increase in Poaceae pollen seen during this period show the domination of reedswamp communities across the wetland, accompanied by declines in arboreal species particularly Alnus glutinosa. Increases can also be seen in the values of Pteridium (bracken) and Pteropsida (ferns), which are again suggestive of more open conditions. This development of reedswamp communities is mirrored in the pollen records from Woodstown (Farrell and Coxon, 2004). Towards the end of the zone developing saltmarsh communities can be seen with the increased representation of species such as Aster‐ type, Plantago maritima (sea plantain), Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia‐type (mugworts) (Clapham et al, 1962; Rodwell, 2000). There is sporadic evidence for trees still being present on the wetland with occasional plant macrofossils of Alnus glutinosa, Salix sp and Betula sp present. It is likely these plant remains represent some trees still growing on the wetland edge fringing the reedswamp and from within the reedswamp itself. Rodwell (1995) notes that saplings of Alnus glutinosa and Salix cinerea (grey willow) can occur within Phragmites fen communities, which is probably what is being shown in the macrofossil assemblage. This continued representation of trees in and around the wetland is also noted in the pollen records where although declining, pollen of Alnus glutinosa is still present and again indicates continued carr‐woodland fringing the developing reedswamp. Pollen of Salix, Betula and Fraxinus excelsior also suggest these taxa were growing within this diminishing carr‐woodland environment. The local presence of these species is also shown by their identification within wood identification assemblages from two trackway/platforms, which date to this period. These wooden structures date to between 2116±32 BP (UB‐6901; 210‐40 cal BC) and 2029±33 BP (UB‐6463; 158‐54 cal BC) and include timbers from other species, such as Corylus, Pomoidiaceae, Sambucus and Quercus (see Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). The limited number of wooden structures dating to this period and indeed the absence of structures dating to the late Bronze Age highlights the impact rising sea‐level had on the wetland, causing the abandonment of the site as rising waters submerged the area. This landscape change was not just confined to the wetland during this period. Pollen evidence shows also a decline in the pollen of Quercus throughout this period suggesting changes occurring in the dryland woodland. There is little doubt that some of the losses in Quercus trees shown in the pollen record would have been due to loss of habitat as the River Suir flooded the area, effectively drowning trees on and near to the wetland. However, this decline coupled with the rise in Corylus avellana pollen suggests that some small‐scale clearances on the dryland were occurring. The rise also seen in the pollen of ruderals such as Plantago lanceolata, Lactuca sativa‐type (lettuces), Taraxacum‐type (dandelions) and Anthriscus‐ type (chervils) is also indicative of arable activity (Clapham et al, 1962; Stace, 1997). The presence of Hordeum‐group pollen in Zones NWB1e‐f and NWB2e‐f suggests that such arable activity is the cultivation of Hordeum. Further evidence for agriculture, as in previous periods, comes from the recovery of charred cereal grains from excavated sites; although not as abundant as seen in the previous period. The charred grain assemblage at Mullinabro (Site 4) consists largely of Avena sp (Wren 2006), which differs to the pollen evidence from Newrath. The grains from Mullinabro (Site 4) have been dated from charcoal fragments in
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the same context to between 2017±36 BP (UB‐6493; 153 cal BC‐cal AD 67) and 1992±35 BP (UB‐ 6492; 89 cal BC‐cal AD 81). Together with the evidence for arable activity at Site 34, there is again some evidence for grazing within the NPP assemblages. Increases in Types 16 and 170 and the presence of Trichuris‐type during this period indicate dung at the site (van Geel et al, 1983, 1989; Dark, 2004). It is possible much of this represents animals grazing on the reedswamp of the wetland or within the reedswamp/saltmarsh area. The presence again of Trichuris‐type may represent human faeces (see above), but further measurement of these eggs is needed to discriminate against animal faeces. The possibility of using the reedswamp area for grazing during this period is suggested not only by the trackways built across the wetland (see above) allowing access to this area but also from the microscopic charcoal record. Large increases in the amount of micro‐charcoal can be seen occurring in this period indicating local burning taking place (Clark and Hussey, 1996; Clark et al, 1998). The presence on the pollen slides of microscopic charcoal fragments still retaining enough structure to identify them as either deriving from the burning of wood or grasses from these levels adds to the fire information. The diagrams show initial increase in burning was a mixture of wood and grasses being burnt, which then switches to the burning of grasses. This pattern of burning suggests it relates to the burning of the reedswamp environment, which initially would have contained dead and decaying trees, killed by the flooding of the site by the expansion of the River Suir. As the river waters became higher and the site began to change to saltmarsh it would have been largely reeds (grasses) that were being burnt. The management of a reedswamp by people through burning has been evidenced throughout prehistory (e.g. Bell et al, 2002) and can be used to control the height and the density of reed growth, together with limiting the expansion of woody species into the reedswamp (Law, 1998).
Conclusion The palaeoenvironmental analyses from the Monolith sediments have provided evidence of a dynamic environment, which has seen changing patterns of vegetational communities throughout prehistory. This study has provided the backdrop of environmental change which was witnessed by the people who lived and utilised these environments in the past. The archaeological evidence from wooden structures within the wetland have shown people knew how to exploit and traverse these areas, but the environmental evidence has been able to provide some information on the resources they were exploiting. This study has also produced some firsts in the finding of seeds of Carpinus betulus a tree not necessarily thought of a native to Ireland and in the discovery of Trichuris‐type eggs, which are not known to have been discovered in other archaeological sediments in Ireland, although this may be from a lack of not recognising them in pollen studies. The application of non‐pollen palynomorph assessment has been useful in providing data on local environmental conditions together with the possibilities of animals being brought to the site. The use of a multi‐proxy approach has reconstructed a palimpsest of environmental change at Newrath and this together with other studies has shown the importance of this site in relation to changing hypotheses and shifting paradigms on life and settlement within prehistoric Ireland.
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Farrell and Coxon (2004) N25 Waterford Bypass: Sedimentological and Palaeoenvironmental Investigation of Wetland Area adjacent to Woodstown. Unpublished assessment report, Trinity College Dublin. Gleeson C. (2006a) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 21, in the townland of Granny, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report. Gleeson C. (2006b) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 22, in the townland of Granny, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report. Gleeson C. (2006c) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 1, in the townland of Granny, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report. Godwin H. (1975) History of the British Flora (2nd Edition) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Grimm, E. C. (2004): TGView Version 2.0.2, Illinois State Museum, Springfield, IL. Hall V.A., Pilcher J.R. and Bowler M. (1993) Pre‐elm decline cereal‐size pollen: evaluating its recruitment to fossil deposits using modern pollen rain studies. Bioilogy and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 93B 1 1‐4. Haslett S.K., Strawbridge F., Martin N.A. and Davies C.F.C (2001) Vertical saltmarsh accretion and its relationship to sea‐level in the Severn Estuary, UK: an investigation using foraminifera as tidal indicators. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 52 143‐153. Hughes J. (2006a) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 35, in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report. Hughes J. (2006b) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Sites 36‐37, in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report. Huntley, B. and Birks, H. J. B. (1983) An Atlas of Past and Present Pollen Maps for Europe, 0– 13,000 years ago (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). IAWA Committee, EA Wheeler, P Bass and PE Gasson (eds.) 1989, IAWA List of Microscopic Features for Hardwood Identification, Published for the International Association of Wood Anatomists. Law C. (1998) The uses and fire‐ecology of reedswamp vegetation, in Mellars P. and Dark P. (eds.) Star Carr in context: new archaeological and palaeoecological investigations at the early Mesolithic site of Star Carr, North Yorkshire McDonald Institute Monographs (Oxbow Books, Oxford) 197‐206. Mighall T.M., Timpany S., Blackford J.J., Innes J.B., O’Brien C.E., O’Brien W.B. and Harrison S.E. (2007) Vegetation change during the Mesolithic and Neolithic on the Mizen Peninsula, Co. Cork, south‐west Ireland. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany published first online. Mitchell F.J.G. (1988) The vegetational history of the Killarney oak‐woods, SW Ireland: evidence from fine spatial resolution pollen analysis. Journal of Ecology 76 416‐436.
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Mitchell F.J.G. (2005) How open were European primeval forests? Hypothesis testing using palaeoecological data. Journal of Ecology 93 168‐177. Mitchell F.J.G. (2006) Where did Ireland’s trees come from? Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 106B 3 251‐259. Monk, M.A (1985/86). Evidence from macroscopic plant remains for crop husbandry in prehistoric and early historic Ireland: A review. Journal of Irish Archaeology III, 31‐36. Moore P.D., Webb J.A. and Collinson M.E. (1991) Pollen Analysis (2nd Edition) (Blackwell Science, Oxford). O’Connell M. (1987) Early cereal‐type pollen records from Connemara, western Ireland and their possible significance. .Pollen et Spores 19 207‐224. O’Connell M. and Molloy K. (2001) Farming and woodland dynamics in Ireland during the Neolithic. Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 101 1‐2 99‐128. Odgaard B.V. (1999) Fossil pollen as a record of past biodiversity. Journal of Biogeography 26 1, 7‐17. Pals J.P., van Geel B. and Delfos A. (1980) Palaeoecological studies in Klokkeweel bog near Hoogkarspel (Noord Holland). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 30 371‐418. Peterken G.F. (1996) Natural woodland ecology and conservation in Northern Temperate regions (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Price T.D. (1989) The reconstruction of Mesolithic diets, in Bonsall C. (ed.) The Mesolithic in Europe (john MacDonald, Edinburgh) 48‐59. Rackham O. (2003) Ancient woodland its history, vegetation and uses in England (Arnold, London). Rodwell J.S. (ed.) (1991) British Plant Communities Volume 1: Woods and scrub (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Rodwell J.S. (ed.) (1995) British Plant Communities Volume 4: Aquatic communities, swamps and tall‐herb fens (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Rodwell J.S. (ed.) (2000) British Plant Communities Volume 5: Maritime communitie and vegetation of open habitats (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Rowell, DL (1994) Soil Science: Methods and Applications (Longman, London). Russell I. and Ginn V. (2007) Preliminary Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 3, in the townland of Adamstown, Co. Waterford Archaeological Consultancy Services Limited Unpublished Client Report. Schweingruber F. H. (1978) Microscopic Wood Anatomy: Structural Variability of Stems and Twigs in Recent and Subfossil Woods from Central Europe. Kommissionsverlag Zücher AG, Zug
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Schweingruber F.H. (1990) Microscopic wood anatomy (3rd edition) Birmensdorf. Simmons I.G. (1996) The environmental impact of Later Mesolithic cultures: the creation of moorland landscape in England and Wales (Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh). Simmons I.G. and Innes J.B. (1996) Disturbances in the Mid‐Holocene vegetation at North Gill, North York Moors: Form and Process. Journal of Archaeological Science 23 183‐191. Smith A.G. and Morgan L.A. (1989) A succession to ombrotrophic bog in the Gwent Levels, and it’s demise: a Welsh parallel to the Somerset Levels. New Phytologist 112 145‐167. Stace C. (1997) New flora of the British Isles (2nd Edition) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Tauber H. (1965) Differential pollen dispersal and the interpretation of pollen diagrams. Danmarks Geologiske. Undersølgelse 89 1‐69. Timpany S. (2001) Palaeoecological changes during the Holocene on the Mizen Peninsula, southwest Ireland. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Coventry University. Timpany S. (2005) A multi‐proxy palaeoecological investigation of submerged forests and intertidal peats, Severn Estuary, UK. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Reading. Tweddle J.C., Edwards K.J. and Fieller N.R.J. (2005) Multivariate statistical and other approaches for the separation of cereal from wild Poaceae pollen using a Holocene dataset. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 14 15‐30. van Geel B. (1978) A palynological study of Holocene peat bog section in Germany and the Netherlands. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 25 1‐120. van Geel B. (1986) A palaeoecological study of Holocene peat bog sections based on the analysis of pollen, spores and macro‐ and microscopic remains of fungi, algae, cormophytes and animals (Gebroen le Amsterdam, Amsterdam). Van Geel, B. and Aptroot A. (2006) Fossil ascomycetes in Quaternary deposits. Nova Hedwigia 82 13‐329. van Geel B., Bohnke S.J.P. and Dee H. (1981) A palaeoecological study of an upper Late Glacial and Holocene sequence from “De Borchet”, the Netherlands. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 31 367‐448. van Geel B., Hallewas D.P. and Pals J.P. (1983) A late Holocene deposit under the Westfriese Zeedijk, near Enkhuizen (Prov. of N‐Holland, The Netherlands): palaeoecological and archaeological aspects. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 38 269‐335. van Geel B., Coope G.R. and van der Hammen T. (1989) Palaeoecology and stratigraphy of the Late‐glacial type section at Usselo (the Netherlands). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 60 25‐129. van Geel B., Klink A.G., Pals J.P. and Wiegers J. (1986) An Upper Eemian lake deposit from Twente, eastern Netherlands. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 47 31‐61.
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van Geel B., Buurman, J. Brinkkemper, O., Schelvis, J., Aptroot, A., van Reenen, G. and Hakbijl, T., (2003) Environmental reconstruction of a Roman Period settlement site in Uitgeest (The Netherlands), with special reference to coprophilous fungi. Journal of Archaeological Science 30 873‐883. Vera F.W.M. (2000) Grazing ecology and forest history (CABI Publishing, Oxon). Walker D. (1970) Direction and rate in some British post‐glacial hydroseres, in Walker D. and West R.G. (eds.) Studies in the vegetation history of the British Isles (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Waller M.P., Long A.J., Long D. and Innes J.B. (1999) Patterns and processes in the development of coastal mire vegetation: multi‐site investigations from Walland Marsh, south‐ east England. Quaternary Science Reviews 18 1419‐1444. Woodman P., Anderson E. and N. Finlay (1999) Excavations at Ferriter’s Cove 1983‐1995: last foragers, first farmers in the Dingle Peninsula (Wordwell Ltd, Bray). Wren J. (2006) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 4, in the townland of Mullinabro, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report.
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX I (Foraminifera Report)
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FORAMINIFERAL ANALYSIS OF SAMPLES SUPPLIED BY HEADLAND ARCHAEOLOGY Professor Simon K. Haslett, Quaternary Research Centre, Dept. of Geography, School of Science and the Environment, Bath Spa University College, Newton Park, Bath, BA2 9BN, UK. August 2007 Introduction An additional 12 samples were supplied by Headland Archaeology in addition to samples supplied by the University of Reading to the author in 2006 for analysis of their foraminifera content, with a view to establish their abundance, preservation and usefulness as marine palaeoenvironmental indicators in these Holocene sediments. This report describes the method employed to separate foraminifera from the sediment samples, presents the integrated results obtained, and suggests an interpretation of the results. Foraminiferal analysis is now a well-established technique for assigning tidal level and depositional environment information to Holocene sediments (see Allen and Haslett, 2002, for a review). Haslett et al. (1997) provide distributional data for foraminifera living on the modern salt marshes of the Severn Estuary, and it is this dataset, with updates (Haslett, 2000; Haslett et al., 2001; Allen and Haslett, 2002), that enables the calibration of fossil data.
Method Bulk samples for foraminiferal analysis were initially weighed wet and then air-dried and then weighed (dry bulk weight, g). Samples were then soaked in distilled water for 24 hours, then wet-sieved at 63µm, with the >63µm fraction being retained and weighed (g) after drying. Aliquots of the 125-500µm fraction of each sample were dry sieved and examined using reflected light microscopy for foraminifera (Knudsen and Austin, 1996; Bell et al., 2002). Foraminifera specimens were counted and identified from known aliquots of a sample, from which an estimate of the number of test per sample could be made if the aliquot examined was less than the entire sample. In addition, other
-1-
components of the samples were also noted and include coleoptera, ostracods, plant remains (including seeds), iron pyrite crystals, and siliceous sponge spicules.
Results and Discussion Results are shown in Tables 1 and 2 for samples from monoliths 1 and 2 respectively. Only 7 of the integrated samples yielded foraminifera, with variable but generally low abundance ranging from 1 to 18 specimens per gram. Preservation of foraminifera tests is generally good with little indication of post-mortem alteration. All foraminifera species recovered are agglutinating and typical of high intertidal estuarine environments (salt marshes) where they live in situ. No calcareous foraminifera species, that occupy lower intertidal surfaces, were found. Monolith 1 samples 70, 82, 110 and 142cm yield only Jadammina macrescens which represents the monospecific assemblage of Haslett et al. (2001) that inhabits the lower part of the zone between Mean High Water Spring Tides (MHWST) and Highest Astronomical Tides (HAT). Monolith 1 samples 18, 34 and 102cm although lack foraminifera do contain marine sponge spicules and, therefore, may represent deposition high in the zone between MHWST-HAT equating with the ‘barren zone’ of Haslett et al’s (1997, 2001) salt marsh foraminifera zonation. Monolith 1 samples 50, 118, 134, 147, 158, 209 and 230cm lack both foraminifera and sponge spicules and, therefore, may represent a non-marine depositional environment. This is particularly true of samples 158, 209 and 230cm which appear to contain freshwater/terrestrial beetles (coleopteran). Samples 50, 118, 134 and 147cm however, lack any additional determinant so may represent freshwater/terrestrial deposition or deposition high in the zone between MHWST-HAT. Monolith 1 samples 98, 122, and 190cm yield the most diverse of the foraminifera assemblages containing Trochammina inflata, Miliammina fusca as well as Jadammina macrescens. This assemblage is typical of deposition around MHWST. In monolith 1, the variation in abundance in the number of tests per gram from 1 to 18 was considered in the previous report, which suggested that low test abundance is perhaps linked to high sedimentation rates of other material (peat, silt, etc), effectively diluting the contribution made by the foraminiferal standing crop to the sediment analysed, as in a salt -2-
marsh setting abundance variation is much more likely to be this factor rather than test dissolution or sorting. All samples from monolith 2 were found to be organic-rich and barren of foraminifera, and other determinants, except for plant fragments. This may represent freshwater/terrestrial deposition or deposition high in the zone between MHWST-HAT. Quartz grains are also common, but tend to be angular in nature rather than rounded, so may indicate a terrestrial, rather than marine, source.
Concluding Remark The foraminifera recovered are generally well-preserved and diagnostic of particular high intertidal palaeoenvironments above MHWST. Samples that lack foraminifera may have been deposited either close to HAT or in a freshwater/terrestrial setting. The variable abundance observed may be due to a sediment dilution effect, rather than test dissolution, and/or sediment sorting.
References Allen, J. R. L., 2001. Late Quaternary stratigraphy in the Gwent Levels (southeast Wales): the subsurface evidence. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 112, 289-315. Allen, J. R. L. and Haslett, S. K., 2002. Buried salt-marsh edges and tide-level cycles in the mid-Holocene of the Caldicot Level (Gwent), South Wales, UK. The Holocene, 12, 303-324. Bell, M., Allen, J. R. L., Buckley, S., Dark, P. and Haslett, S. K., 2002. Mesolithic to Neolithic coastal environmental change: excavations at Goldcliff East, 2002. Archaeology in the Severn Estuary, 13, 1-29. Haslett, S. K., 1997. An Ipswichian foraminiferal assemblage from the Gwent Levels (Severn Estuary, UK). Journal of Micropalaeontology, 16, 136. Haslett, S.K., 2000. Coastal Systems. Routledge, London, 240pp. Haslett, S. K., Davies, P. and Strawbridge, F., 1997. Reconstructing Holocene sea-level change in the Severn Estuary and Somerset Levels: the foraminifera connection. Archaeology in the Severn Estuary, 8, 29-40. Haslett, S.K., Strawbridge, F., Martin, N. A. and Davies, C. F. C., 2001. Vertical saltmarsh accretion and its relationship to sea-level in the Severn Estuary, UK: an investigation using foraminifera as tidal indicators. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 52, 143153. Knudsen, K. L. and Austin, W. E. N., 1996. Late Glacial foraminifera. In Andrews, J. T., Austin, W. E. N., Bergsten, H. and Jennings, A. E. (eds) Late Quaternary Palaeoceanography of the North Atlantic Margins. Geological Society Special Publication No. 111, pp. 7-10. -3-
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Headland Archaeology: NWB03, Site 34 Palaeoenvironmental Analyses APPENDIX II (Diatom Reports)
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Newrath – Diatom Report Prepared by Dr. Jason Jordan
Page 1. Introduction
1
2. Methodology and Techniques
1
3. Results
2
4. Interpretation
3
5. References
3
1. Introduction A total of 12 sediment samples from the Newrath site were prepared and assessed for diatom analysis. The aim of the analysis was to determine the provenance of the depositional environments. The expected outcome was that the samples would show that the site had initially been inundated by the sea, with marine and brackish water environments dominating the sedimentary basin. Depending on preservation and occurrence, diatom analysis of the samples would show any changes to the salinity of the depositional environment quite clearly.
2. Methodology and Techniques The sediment samples were prepared according to standard laboratory techniques (Barber and Haworth, 1981) involving distillation on a hotplate with Hydrogen peroxide to remove any organic matter and then a series of washes with distilled water to concentrate the diatoms and reduce the amount of clay and silt particulate matter. A pipette of the suspension was then placed onto a glass cover-slip and mounted onto microscope slides with Naphrax, a high refractive index, to illustrate the possible species preserved.
Diatom species identification is carried out with reference to Hartley et al. (1996), Hendey (1964) and Van der Werf and Huls (1957-74). Diatom nomenclature follows Hartley (1996) and salinity and lifeform classification is based upon Van Dam et al. (1994), Vos and de Wolf (1993) and Denys (1991/2).
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3. Results Samples were examined for their diatom preservation potential and the major species contained within each sample. This would give a broad indication of the depositional environment in conjunction with other microfossil analyses and any other lithostratigraphy/sedimentary analysis that has been carried out.
Of the twelve samples prepared, only two had any diatoms preserved in them at all, and these were far too sparse in terms of their concentration to allow full counts to be conducted. Diatom taphonomy is quite well understood and in marsh environments it is likely that either extreme acidity or extreme alkalinity are usually to blame for the loss of biogenic silica from the deposited sediment. Diatoms can survive in fairly harsh conditions but the mobility of biogenic silica controls their fossilisation. It would appear that the Newrath site has a poor preservation potential for diatom silica, something which is not unusual for a marsh/fen location. The changes in pH associated with vegetation growth and decay in this type of environment mean that diatom preservation is dependent on very localised conditions, pre and post deposition. Where diatoms were present, the preservation was extremely poor but the species encountered are given below.
Newrath Diatom Samples
Sample Monolith 1 210cm 1 – no species present. 147cm 2 – no species present. 134cm 3 – no species present. 110cm 4 – only two individual species were encountered, both of which were Paralia sulcata, a marine diatom indicative of storm deposits. 102cm 5 – no species present.
Monolith 2 198cm 6 – no species present. 196cm 7 – no species present. 193cm 8 – no species present. 49
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190cm 9 – no species present. 160cm 10 – no species present. 137cm 11 – no species present. 128cm 12 – only one single specimen was identified, Gramatophora serpentine, a marine diatom indicative of marine water and coastal depsoits.
4. Interpretation The underlying brief for this analysis was not realised from the samples provided. There is no clear indication of the depositional environments as the samples do not contain any diatoms, however, the two samples that had the few diatom furstules present are indeed marine species. This is not enough to allow a reconstruction to take place but the indication is that the two identified samples have indeed been depositied in and around a former shoreline.
5. References Barber, H. and Haworth, E.Y. 1981. A guide to the morphology of the diatom frustule, with a key to the British Freshwater Genera, Ambleside. Freshwater Biological Association, 109pp.
Denys, L. 1991/2.A check-list of the diatoms in the Holocene coastal deposits of the western Belgian Coastal Plain with a survey of their apparent ecological requirements 1. Professional Paper No. 246.Geological Survey of Belgium, 41pp.
Hartley, B., Barber, H. G., Carter, J. R. and Sims, P. A. 1996. An Atlas of British Diatoms. Biopress, Bristol, 601pp.
Hendey, N.I. 1964. An introductory account of the smaller algae of the British Coastal Waters, Part V: Bacillariophyceae (diatoms). London, HMSO, 317pp.
Van Dam, H., Mertens, A. and Sinkeldam, J. 1994. A coded checklist and ecological indicator values of freshwater diatoms from the Netherlands. Netherlands Journal of Aquatic Ecology, 28 (1), 117-133.
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Van der Werf, A. and Hils, H. 1957-74. Diatomienflore Van Nederland, 8Parts, Koenigstein. Otto Koeltz Science Publishers.
Vos, P.C. and de Wolf, H. 1993. Diatoms as a tool for reconstructing sedimentary environments in coastal wetlands; methodological aspects. Hydrobiologia, 269/270, 285-296.
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Waterford Monolith 1: Diatom analysis
Report prepared by Dr Sue Dawson
For Headland Archaeology (Scott Timpany)
1.Introduction Twelve silt-clay and peat samples from monolith 1 were sub-sampled and subject to preparation for diatom analysis. The aim of the analysis was to determine the environment of deposition of the silt-clays and peats and whether the sediments retained information relating to the former presence of marine sediments, and thus information regarding the former relative sea level history of the site.
2. Methodology and Techniques The twelve sediment samples were prepared according to standard laboratory techniques (Barber and Haworth, 1981) involving distillation on a hotplate with Hydrogen peroxide to remove any organic matter and then a series of washes with distilled water to concentrate the diatoms and reduce the amount of clay and silt particulate matter. A pipette of the suspension was then placed onto a glass cover‐slip and mounted onto microscope slides with Naphrax, a high refractive index, to illustrate the possible species preserved. Diatom species were identified with reference to Hendey (1964) and Van der Werf and Huls, 1957‐74). Diatom nomenclature follows Hartley (1986) and salinity and lifeform classification is based upon Vos and de Wolf (1993) and Denys (1991/2). In general, Polyhalobous and mesohalobous diatom classes broadly reflect marine and brackish conditions whilst oligohalobous and halophilics classes reflect freshwater and terrestrial environments. Results
Samples were examined for their diatom preservation potential and the major species contained in each sample. This would give a broad indication of the provenance of the sediments in conjunction with other microfossil analyses and the lithostratigraphy.
Of all 12 prepared, 3 samples had sufficient species to undertake a full count to 300 diatom valves; 7 samples were sparse and 1 sample did not contain any diatoms. 52
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Where samples were fossiliferous; diatom preservation was good and an assessment of depositional environment was possible. Where samples were sparse and full counts not able to be undertaken, an overall assessment of the likely mode of deposition was possible in all but one sample.
Sample 1 (cm)
(18cm depth) – green-grey silt The sample of silt is sparse. However, there are sufficient species to determine the sedimentary provenance. Marine species including Paralia sulcata, Podosira stelliger, together with the marine-brackish Cocconeis scutellum indicate deposition within marine waters. The presence of Diploneis interrupta attest to more brackish conditions. The limited number of species suggest deposition within an estuarine environment within the intertidal zone.
Sample 2 (34 cm)- green-grey silt The silt is sparse in microfossils. The main species within the silt is the brackish Diploneis interrupta. Polyhalobous species are represented by Paralia sulcata.. The limited number of species indicate intertidal estuarine conditions.
Sample 3 (50 cm)- green-grey silt The silt has marine species Paralia sulcata, Podosira stelliger, and Rhaphoneis amphiceros (the latter which lives on sand/mud flats. Together with the brackish species Diploneis interrupta, the diatoms infer a mud/sand flat estuarine environent in the intertidal zone.
Sample 4 ( 70 cm)- silt The silt is sparse in diatoms but fragments of Paralia sulcata and sponge spicules attest to the presence of marine waters in the formation of the silt.
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Sample 5 (82 cm)- grey-brown silts with peat The silt with some peats are very sparse in diatoms. However, fragments of Paralia sulcata and Nitzschia punctata (marine‐brackish intertidal mudflats) suggest deposition in an intertidal estuarine environment. Sample 6 (98 cm)‐ dark grey‐brown silty peat
The silty peat has abundant diatoms to allow a full assessment of environment of deposition. The following species together with the presence of Sponge spicules infer deposition within the intertidal zone: Marine species: Paralia sulcata, Podosira stelliger, Rhabdonema arcuatum, Rhabdonema minutum, Rhaphoneis amphiceros, Brackish species:
Nitzschia accuminata, Navicula peregrina,
Diploneis
interrupta,
Nitzschia
navicularis, Nitzschia punctata.
Sample 7 (118 cm)- orange/brown peaty-silt The silty peat has abundant diatoms to allow a full assessment of environment of deposition. The following species infer deposition within the intertidal zone: Marine species:
Paralia sulcata, Cocconeis scutellum, Rhaphoneis amphiceros, Brackish species:
Diploneis didyma, Diploneis interrupta, Navicula digito-radiata, Nitzschia navicularis.
Sample 8 (122 cm)‐ orange/br peaty‐silt
The silty peat has abundant diatoms to allow a full assessment of environment of deposition. The following species together with the presence of Sponge spicules infer deposition within the intertidal zone: Marine indicators: Sponge spicules, Paralia sulcata, Rhaphoneis amphiceros, Brackish indicators:
Nitzschia navicularis, Diploneis interrupta.
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Sample 9 (142 cm)- orange/br silt Phragmites peat transition The silt –peat transition is sparse in diatoms. However, limited numbers of Paralia sulcata, Diploneis didyma, and Diploneis interrupta indicate an upper intertidal estuarine environment.
Sample 10 (158 cm)- br/black Phragmites peat with silt The peats are almost barren of diatoms. However, the following freshwater species are present in limited numbers; Fragilaria construens, Fragilaria construens var venter and Pinnularia microstauron. The lack of brackish and marine species within the peats attest to the lack of marine waters in their formation. Sample 11 (190 cm)‐ brown‐black wood peat The peat is sparse, limited numbers of the freshwater species Eunotia arcus indicate a terrestrial source.
Sample 12 (230 cm)- brown Phragmites peat No diatoms present
4. Interpretation Diatom analyses from Monolith 1, Waterford display a variable preservation of diatom within the sediment sequences analysed. Many of the peat and upper silt samples are sparse. The silty peat samples allow a full assessment of deposition. The lowermost sediments are peats and are poor in diatoms. This may reflect the possible dissolution of any species due to the acidic nature of the sediments. However, the limited numbers of Oligohalobous (fresh) species indcate deposition away from marine influence. Within the peat‐silt transition limited numbers of brackish species may suggest deposition within the upper intertidal zone, although without full counts it is only possible to infer this 55
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interpretation. The silty peat and peaty silts between 82cm and 122cm depth have abundant diatoms species and allow an accurate assessment of the sediment provenence. The sediment sample reflect an intertidal estuarine environment characterised by a brackish influence, with Navicula peregrina, Nitzschia puntata, Nitzschia navicularis and Diploneis interrupta in most abundance. This reflects sedimentation in the upper reaches of the intertidal zone. The upper silts (18cm to 70cm) are sparse, however the brackish‐marine and marine species including Paralia sulcata, Podosira stelliger together with Coscinodiscus are planktonics and infer a more marine environment, although still within an estuarine environment.
5. Summary Diatoms analysed from samples within Monolith 1 indicate deposition within an intertidal estuarine environment. Initially, the assemblages suggest a high intertidal area around MHWST (Mean High Water Spring Tide) and the gradual increase in marine waters. The organic silts are indicative of an intertidal mudflat environment, with many of the brackish-marine species adapted to living on mud and sand flats. The upper silts are more marine and suggest slightly deeper waters, although the assemblages are still evidence of deposition within an intertidal estuarine environment.
The sediments and diatoms suggest an increasing marine influence at the monlith site. This could be further investigated, especially around the freshwater to brackishmarine transition to ascertain the depth at which the freshwater sediements are replaced by brackish sediments and more marine sediments.
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