Lecture #3- Drugs and Development Drugs
What is a drug? Exogenous (foreign to body) substance that alters brain function Repeated Administration Addiction Tolerance Sensitization How do drugs operate? Interact with endogenous NT systems within the brain Most psychoactive drugs act on receptors that are there for some other reason Drugs differ from NTs in many ways: Access to synaptic membrane Composition How bound to receptors Drug Mechanisms Agonist- Facilitate or mimic NT
Antagonist- Prevents NT action Drug Effects
1. Synthesis 2. Storage 3. Release (May Block Action Potentials) 4. Receptor Interaction 5. Inactivation 6. Re-uptake 7. Degradation Sites of Drug Action Many potential modes of action Act on presynaptic sites
Act on postsynaptic sites
Neurotransmitter Systems Acetylcholine Cholinergic system in brain
Drug effects at neuromuscular junction Black widow venom Botulin toxin Nicotine
Curare Physostigmine Serotonin Serotonergic system
Dopamine Dopaminergic system Nigrostriatal pathways Substantia Nigra to Basal Ganglia
Mesolimbic pathways- The Reward Pathway Ventral Tegmental Area to Nucleus Accumbens
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Increase in DA and drugs of addiction Drugs of Abuse Mouse Party Cocaine & Amphetamine Route of Administration Behavioral effects Changes in Brain Function
Drug Effects At Synapse: Blocks dopamine re-uptake transporter Self Administration and Dopamine Release in NA of rats Marijuana (THC) 60 Cannabinoids THC psychoactive agent Behavioral effects Low dose
Moderate to High dose
Receptor Location Anandamide Effects on the Brain Drug Effects At Synapse: Blocks inhibition of dopamine release Self Administration and Dopamine Release in NA of rats Balance of excitation and inhibition
Study Questions
Brain Development Embryonic Development Fertilization of the egg singlecelled zygote (Day 0) Zygote divides, rapidly increasing number of cells (Day 1) Ball of cell invaginates to form three layers (Day 7) Three cell layers emerge: Endoderm > internal organs, gut lining Mesoderm > muscle, circulatory system, bones Ectoderm > epidermis, nervous system Neurulation (Day 18) Ectoderm induced to become neural tube by underlying notochord Brain Development (Days 2224) Neural tube differentiates (i.e., cells begin to take on unique forms) Anterior tube develops brain plate Develops divisions Posterior tube develops into spinal cord Tube cavity develops into ventricles and central canal Brain size increases massively prenatally (8th week, head half size of embryo) Rapid proliferation of cells
Brain size also increases massively postnatally (from 350 g to 1000 g in one year) Not due to large increase in number of neurons Cells get larger Glial cells proliferate Rapid increase first 5 years Peak b/w 18 & 30
Gradual decline thereafter Six Processes in Neural Development 1. Mitosis/Neurogenesis Mitotic division of nonneuronal cells to produce neurons (occurs in neural tube) 2. Migration Movement of cells to establish distinct populations 3. Differentiation and maturation Transformation of neuron into distinct types 4. Synaptogenesis Establishment of synaptic connections as axons and dendrites grow 5. Apoptosis (programmed cell death) 6. Synaptic remodeling Loss/growth of synapses to refine connectivity 1. Neurogenesis Starts with closure of neural tube Birthdating Neurons All neurons & glia are derived from ventricular mitosis “Born” in ventricular layer Stem Cell: Memory for Division (~10,000 daughter cells) Some neurons are born in adulthood Olfactory receptor neurons Hippocampus
Newborn cells can integrate functionally into adults and restore function Therapeutic applications 2. Migration Cells migrate from ventricular zone to their final destination Guided by glia or other neurons (Radial Glia = Guide Wires) Neurons can also migrate along the surfaces of other neurons (e.g., axons) For both: Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) mediate migration CAMs make cells stick to one another Tangential migration (interneurons) Abberant Migration Dyslexia 3. Differentiation Migrating cells immature, not differentiated (no neuronal phenotype) Structurally Functionally When cells reach destination genes that make neuronal proteins are turned on Cells differentiate into those appropriate for brain region Determined by: Genetic Blueprint Cell will differentiate if taken out and raised in dish Genes already been selected to be turned on Environmental Signals Induction by neighbors Neighbors direct differentiation
Induction Experiment Motor neurons develop in ventral horn of spinal cord How do they know to become motor neurons? Transplant piece of notochord (n) to dorsal side (n') Motor neurons develop on both sides
4. Synaptogenesis Dendrites and axons grow out to make synaptic connections Both possess growth cones, specialized structures that seek out target Occurs throughout life of organism (plasticity, injury) Particularly in terms of dendrites How do they know which path to take? CHEMOTROPIC GUIDANCE Cells are finding the right concentration of a chemical One set of studies examines regeneration of axons in frogs/newts/fish Retina innervates the optic tectum (SC) There is an orderly arrangement of the retina projections (flip flop) Dorsal retina to ventral tectum; Ventral retina to dorsal tectum If cut, regenerates within a few months Cut and rotate eye 180° Connections were the same, but animal can't see correctly Myelin Begins before birth in M1 and S1 Continues into adolescence (frontal lobes) Dendrites
Usually begins after migration Begins prenatally, but continues postnatally 5. Apoptosis (programmed cell death) Up to 50% neurons born in 1st 7 months die e.g., human spinal motor neurons 170,000 at 10 weeks gestation; 115,000 at 30 weeks gestation Neurotrophic Growth Factors required for survival Brain structure as much about sculpting as growth What regulates cell death? Size of target regulates neuron number Level of neurotrophic factors (e.g., NGF) 6. Synaptic Remodeling Max # of Synapses at between 1 and 5 yrs of age Surviving cells adjust synaptic connections throughout life of organism Learning, growth, injury Synaptic connectivity regulated by neuronal activity (use it or lose it) Development Done? By 56 years of age, 95% of structural development complete The Aging Brain The Teenage Brain The Aged Brain What matters in development—Nature versus Nurture?
Intrinsic factors: Originating within organism (i.e., genes) Mutations result in abnormalities Extrinsic factors: Those provided by environment Genetically identical organisms are not physically identical Nervous systems, connectivity, size of neural structures, etc PKU
Study Questions