Informal Sector Apprenticeship In Mombasa And Dar Es Salaam

rNFOB}IAL SECTOE APPBEHTICESHTP IN AI{I} IIAB ES SiAr-AAI'{

ltoltBASA

( draft

a study

by

Labour

International Skitl

)

Development

for

SeIf

the Organisation Reliance

Project

Nairobi October

1991

ILO/SDSR Project PO BOX 60598 Nai rob i KENYA

Executive

rnforrnal-

sector

Summary

Apprenticeship in Mombasa and Dar a study by the ILOISDSR Project Nairobi, October 1991

es

salaam

This report presents the principal findings of a study by the ILOr/SDSR Project of inforrnal sector apprenticeship in l'lombasa (Kenya) and Dar es Salaam (Tanzanial. The study is based prirnarily upon the results of two parallel surveys conducted in early 1991, supplemented by informal interviews and information derived from the available literature. Eight enterprise activities were chosen for study in each Iocation, seven of them shared by both surveys. The survey results indicated considerable variati-on between these different activities, suggesting programmes of assistance that should be similarly sensitive and begin with a subsectoral approach. one major axis of variation was in woments participation as both entrepreneLlrs and apprentices. In some of the surveyed activities, especially in production and manufacturing, woments participation was negligible or even non-existent. I V o m e ni n t h e u r b a n i n f o r m a l sector typically concentrate in casual employment and/or trade and service activities with lower skill requi-rements. As a result they are underrepresented in existing apprenticeship systems and need to be specifically targeted in assistance programmes. Over and above the variation between different enterprise activities and women's participation in these, the surveys revealed pattern of sirnilarities a significant and contrasts between Mombasa and Dar es Salaam. The similarities stem from the fact that they are both major ports, separated by a relatively short stretch of coastline, and as a result sharing a number of basic social- and economic features in common. The contrasts derive from the policies pursued by the governments of Kenya and Tanzania different since the late 1960s, when Tanzania adopted state socialism as its politicar and economic philosophy. The growth of legitimate private enterpri-se and the productive informal sector in Dar es Sal-aam were stunted by government repressive policies, the imposition of a harsh regulatory environment and their corollary, deep economic recess j-on. Many strbsectors in Dar es SaIaam have only begun to recover and grow in recent years, folrowing the process of economic liberalisation initiated in the mid 1980s. Bfr contrast' the inforrnal sector in Mombasa has enjoyed a much more gradual and unbroken pattern of growth over the years. As a result it is possible to plot Mombasa and Dar es Salaam aL different points on a hypothetical line of development whereby the Iatter is moving in the direction of the former. pattern This of sinilaritj-es and contrasts is evident throughout the survey results and has shaped the basic features of apprenticeship in both Iocations. As elservhere in East Africa, apprenticeship is not tire well-defi-ned institution that we know, for exampre, from west Africa. rts boundaries are vague, and it blends imperceptibly-into on-the-job training of unpaid or low-paid workers. At the same time, it is not difficult to recognise apprentieeship in a number of forms ranging from the embryonic to the more fully developed, according to location and particular enterprise activity

is that recruitment to employment The reason for this situation remains and skiII acquisition in the informal sector in East Africa social and dependent upon traditionalvery much embedded in Many apprentices share close social- ties networks and obligations. as relatives, and/or members of with their entrepreneurs friends group. This is more so in Dar es Salaam than the same ethnic ( often those activities Mombasa, and more so in some enterprise Entrepreneurs in with lower technical reqtiirements ) than others. to free themselves and more opportunity Mombasa have had longer though the recruitment of informal obligations, from traditional very far from being determined primarily is still sector trainees sector training is only Informal in East Africa by market forces. with the features which are associated to develop beginning institutior-r. Apprenticeship as a f ully-f ledged apprenticeship paid in either for examplel 8.r€ rarely Mombasa or Dar es fees, written Likewise contracts coverinE the terms of SaIaam. are rarely drawn up and signed: and in many cases apprenticeship social even verbal agreements are not made. In sucir cases existing and their trainees are considered ties between the entrepreneurs to cover their mutua] obligations and risks. sufficient Apprenticeship of this kind is b,v no means a marginal activity, role in the informal sector as well as but plays a very important the unemployed, and in the wider economy (by absorbing and training them for employment in the formal in some cases even preparing The incidence of apprenticeship varj-es considerably sector). enterprise activities: overall, however, its between different not in doubt. sampled significance is Anong the numerical was highest in motor vehicle repair: apprentice it activities workforce in Mombasa mechanics comprised 43% and 45% of the total The surve-v results also il-lustrate and Dar es SaIaam respectively. forms of of apprenticeship relative to other the irnportance vocational the courses of and technical training, including offered by different formal institutions. As might be training m o r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e i n M o m basa than in t h e l a t t e r a r e expected, p l a c e s b o t h a p p r e n t i c e s h i p a n d f o r m a l training e s S a l a a m . I n Dar ( as c a r e e r s o f i n d i v i d u a l e n t r e p r e neurs o f t e n c o m b i n e d i n t h e are r e l a t i v e a c t u a l a nd t h e i r a p p r e n t i c e s ) . T h e i r i m p o r t a n c e , well as perceived, varies considerably between enterprise activities. Most perh&ps r the is fact that inforrnal sector significant, own against forrnal training, and in can hold its apprenticeship (as it is, for example, is described as more useful many instances in Dar es Salaam). by car mechanics in Mombasa and metalworkers sector results also suggest that informal The survey could be even more important, both quantitatively apprenticeship is at present. First, consider the than it and qualitatively, as a form of training. Judging by the efficiency of apprenticeship their which it takes entrepreneurs to train of tirne length (for is much more efficient the system of training apprentices, The is in Dar es Salaam. most activities ) in l'lombasa than it of contrasts already reason for this is Iinked to the broad pattern es Salaam it is more Iikely that above. In Dar outlined on for reasons, and have been taken both social apprentices prinarily and which do relate to the needs not economic, of the enterprise itself. It is also clear that the requirements apprentices have had less time to means and methods of training develop in Dar es Salaam than they have in Mombasa. As a result

given to apprentices the training in Dar es Salaam is much less systematicr and more Iikely to be structured around everyday business (for example the prevailing pattern of customers' orders) than around the need to train the apprentice to carry out specific tasks until he/she can undertake them without supervision. In Dar es Salaam many more trainees than in Mombasa are destined to remain as wage workers in the enterprise in which they are being traj-ned. some entrepreneurs ( in report having been apprentices other enterprises) for ten years or more, and in such cases it is difficult to draw a dividing line between apprenticeship and cheap Iabour. It might be added here that apprentices in Dar es Salaam report much longer hours of work and a higher incidence of accidents at work. In Mombasa entrepreneurs are generally Iess constrained by traditional obligations and have achieved a correspondingly higher degree of efficiency in training their apprentices. So much so that there is an evident underutilisation of training capacity in some of the activities in Mombasa. One indication of this is a noticeable shortfall in the number of enterpreneurs with current apprentices as compared to those who have trained apprentices in the past. when asked why this was, a significant proportion of them reported that the-v now had dif f iculty in f inding apprentices. This problem could hardly arise in a context where apprentices were drawn from an entrepreneur's circle of relatit'es and friends without reference to other selection criteria. In fact many of the entrepreneLtrs in Mombasa stated that they val-ued candidates' aptitude over and above ties of kinship and other factors. Br contrast' more of their counterparts i-n Dar es Salaam placed a premium on the candidates' trustworthiness: a criterion most readily satisfied by persons related to or otherwise known to the entrepreneltr. pattern A comparable of underutilised training capacity does not occur in Dar es Salaam, not least because of the relative inefficiency of the prevailing system. These findings indicate some of the general directions which development interventions might take. They suggest that there is considerable scope for the development of the existing apprenticeship systems' providing that the approach is sensitive to local and subsectoral differences and the pattern of constraints outlined above. It is arguable that the general objective of these interventions should be to increase the efficiency of training and to increase the utilisation of spare training capacity so that the quality of training is improved and larger numbers of the proportion unemployedr including a larger of unernployed women, are absorbed into productive employment. Ultinately these objectives require that informal sector apprenticeship be fr-rrther separated from the web of traditional relations and developed into an institution which is increasingly responsive to market forces and national training needs.

CONTENTS

Executive

Summary

Content s List

of

Study

Personnel

Acknowl edgement s Acronyms

and Abbreviations

1.

INTRODUCTION

2,

METHODOLOGY

3.

INTERPRETATION

4,

3.1

Subsectoral

3,2

Gender Anal_vsis

3.3

comparison

between Mombasa and Dar es Salaam

3.4

The Nature

of

Apprenticeship

3.5

The rncidence

and Efficiency

Analysis

CONCLUSIONS

Appendix

A:

THE SURVEYRESULTS List

of

Tables

fables Notes

Appendix

B:

Bibl iography

on the

Tables

THE SURVEY eUESTIONNAIRE

of

Apprenticeship

LIST

OF STUDY PERSONNEL

Training Senior Economist, Vocational Branch, ILO, Fred Fluitman, SUp€r\rision of data processing Geneva (survey design and planningl and advice on analysis ) Secretary, ILO Ski11 Development Githinji, Bernadette (typing Nairobi of final report) Reli-ance Project, Kevin Kane, Chief Technical Nairobi Project, Reliance support ) adninistrative

for

Advisor, ILO SkilI Development for (original direction conception,

SeIf

Self and

Assistant of Kapichi, Lecturer, Department PoIiticaI Pantalee Adrninistration, University of Dar es SaIaam Science and PubIic (assistant and enumerator in Dar es SaIaam and analysis supervisor of the sllr\rey results) John Karanja, University of

Data Analyst, Institute (data processing) Nairobi

of

Development

Studies,

of Political Science, Dar es Salaarn)

Kiaga, undergraduate, Department Francis of Dar es Salaam (enumerator in Urriversity

Lwoga, Community Development and Training Specialist, Christopher and Employrnent Projecl, Youth Training Dar es SaIaam ILO Rural (initial planning and advice in Dar es Salaam) Bridgette University

Makudiu, of Nairobi

undergraduate, (enumerator in

Department Mombasa)

of

Government,

Department of PoIitical Science, M o h a m m e dM b i n d a , u n d e r g r a d u a t e , University of Dar es Salaam (enumerator in Dar es Salaam) Mdimu, A.A. University of

undergraduate, Department of Political Science, Dar es Salaam (enumerator in Dar es Salaam)

Johnson Mudanya, student,

Nairobi

Lecturer, Abu Mvungi, Assistant ( o r g a n isation of Dar es Salaam of the es Salaam and analysis Shabani Mvungi, Dar es Salaam )

Technician,

(data

cleaning)

Department of Sociology, University and supervision of the survey in Dar results)

TANESCO, Dar

es Salaam

(enumerator

Wisdom Mwamburi, undergraduate, Department of Sociology, ( enumerator i n l ' l o m b a s a) of Nairobi Jacqueline University

of

Edna Nyika, University of

undergraduate, Mwema, (enumerator in Nairobi

Department Mornbasa)

of

in

University

Sociology,

Science, undergraduate, Department of Potitical Dar es Salaam (enumerator in Dar es Salaarn)

Samuel Ochieng, trndergraduate, Department ( e n u m e r a t o r i n l ' { o m b a s a) of Nairobi

of

Sociology,

University

Evan Oino,

student,

Nairobi

( data

cleaning

)

ILO SkiII and Research Analyst, Specialist Credit David Ongtolo, (initial planning' Nairobi Development for SeIf Reliance Project, in Mombasa and interviews follow-up and back-up, administration of the survet- results) analysis Computer Consultant, Maurice Otieno, ( data processing ) S. Semela, Economist, SaIaam )

Romanus Consultants,

T A N E S C O ,D a r e s S a l a a m ( e n u m e r a t o r

Nairobi

in Dar es

planning, f ollow-up Mombasa ( i-nitial consultant, Walsh, llartin of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s S a l a a m , e s in Dar interviews r e p o r t ) o f f i n a l e d i t i n g a n d w r i t i n g r e s u l t s , survey overall Department of Sociologyt Mauri Yambo, Chairman and Senior Lecturer, and ( i n i t i a l p l a n n i n g ' organj-sation Nairobi of University and r e s t r l t s , o f t h e a n a l l ' s i s of the survey in Mombasa, supervision for Mombasa) report writj"ng draft

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS and members of the study team would tike The ILOISDSR Project for of Kenya, Republic of the President, the Office to thank grateful to conduct research in !'lombasa. We are equally clearance of Labour and Youth Employment, the United Republic to the Ministry Special research in Dar es Salaam. of Tanzania, for facilitating of officers of the Department following thanks are dtie to the Mr J.K. Luliindo' help to Dr Walsh: Labour in Tanzania for their Labour Assistant Dandi , Mr D. S. Cornrnissioner; Labour Acting Principal Makobwe-Mponguliana, KeIlen Mrs and Conmissioner; in Dar I{e are also grateful to the ILO offices Officer. Projects Youth t h e R u r a f R . G . o f t o D r M o n j i e s p e c i a l l y a n d S a I a a m , es Last, a s s i s t a n c e . a n d P r o j e c t , f o r a d v i c e a n d E m p l o y m e n t Training the thank all would to w€ Iike least r no means but by t l s i-n w h o a s s i s t e d a n d o t h e r e m p l o y e e s a p p r e n t i c e s entrepreneurs, t h e y e s S a l a a m . T h o u g h a n d D a r i n l ' l o m b a s a s u r v e y s t . h e conducting p l a c e w i t h o u t t a k e n c o u l d n o t h a v e s t u d y t h i s must remain nameless, co-operation. full and selfless their

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVTATIONS

EIU IDA IDS ILO JASPA Kshs. NGO SDSR SPSS Tshs.

in

the

Mech Meta Carp Carv Tail Hair Food EIec BIoc

The Economist Intelligence Unit International Development Association Institute for Development Studies fnternational Labour Organisation Jobs and Skills Programme for Africa Kenya shillings Non-government Organisation Skill Development for SeIf Reliance Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Tanzarrla shillings

tables

(see section

2,

table

II):

Motor vehicle repair, car mechanics Metalworking, tinsmithing h;ooden f urniture naking, carpentrlWood carving for the tourist market l l t o m e n 's d r e s s m a k i n g , t a i l o r i n g Women's hairdressing Food preparation and selling Electrical repair Cement block making

cLlrrency conversion

rates

(December 1990 -

1 US $ = 28,5 Kshs. = 205.8 Tshs.

January

1991):

1.

This of

by the

sector

ILO Skill

based

in

collect

basic

1ittle

i990

of

Mombasa, in activities

centres

study

is

avallability survel,s

1991 in

( and

so

of

the

report

describes surveys.

start

the

regj-on,

is

results.

in

organised

as

of

and

with

gender

general analysis

of

the surveys

before

a pilot to

the

work rvith in

its

2

below

component

overview

of

observations and

the

the

about

comparison

presenting

on the nature,

the

Uganda.

Section

study

trorts:

centres

possible,

It

begins

with

Subject

urban

in

Programme

up this

an interpretative

analysis,

findings

follow

3 provides

between Mombasa and Dar es Salaam, princi-pal

trvo main

follows.

the

This

conducted

as a resr.rlt,

if

date,

Nairobi.

l'lombasa.

including,

for Very

to

Tanzania.

to

urban

guidelines

than

in

other

the

subject

Africa's

hoped to )

methodology

Section

subsectoral

is

activities

in

Lrpon surveys

been planned in

studrr is

interventions.

other

East

shortly

undertaken

the

on this

and Dar es Salaam,

of fr-rnds, it

countries

The

to

aim of

acquisition

based

a study

(SDSR) Project

Reliance

development

of

Africa,

and to establish

urban

early

Kenya,

due

skil1

region

have already

pro j ect

survey

in the

and

Self

has been undertaken

none

phase

first

the

appr:opriate

research

and almost

late

in

on

f indings

East

The primary

Kenya.

information

of

in

Development for

sector

design

preli-rninary

the

apprenticeship

Nairobi,

informal the

presents

report

informal

IT{TBODUCTION

the

incidence

and

efficiency

of

concludes

the

informal main

text

practicar

impfications

assistance

to

the

the

surveys

or

listed

rt

tabulated

is

reproduced

the

the

all

of

upon a

description

This

quality in

informal

includes

informal of

of interest in

Appendix

findings

for

programmes

the

of

the

the

main of

produced

mentioned

4 the of

results

and

the

of

survey

works ci_ted in

course

of

the

these

outset

stud1,3.g

this

report

explain

arl

the

relevant

and

lacl< of

the

appendices.

that or

sur\ielrs

skill

the

B.

raised

the general

sector

A,

folrows

issues

from

more detail not

in

information

of

on the

acquisition,

it

features

apprenticeship.

the

apprenticeship

trainees of

reviewing

The statistical-

which

the

discussion

sector

search

of

rn view of

subject

by

in Appendix to

section

report

Appendix

emphasised at

emerging

literature.

in

referred

be

exhaust

resrtlts

the

these

bibliography

should

does not

of

apprenticeship.

informal- sector.

otherwise in

of

are

questionnaire text

sector

in

of

comparative terms

of

the

concentrates

efficiency

of

quantity

and

in different

subsectors.

Readers

or

information

on partictrlar

points

in

the text

A as an independent

10

should

sollrce

of

peruse data.

the

tables

2, HETHODOLOGY

Primary

data

Mombasa

and

gathered

through

of

the

Dar

of

number of

the

some attention

East

ntrmber of

in

contrasts

Dar

I{enya

in

on

the

information both

difficurt

hand,

on the

to

representative.

is

devoted

for

stud1,

to

a

for

a

is,

es salaam

are

share over

a

and

pattern

a

poritical

point

l_argest They

common.

course,

since

of

two

Tanzania.

in

or

different

study

the

receir.ed

of

and. economic

independence

of

vierv,

form

an

tire

ideal

( see

informar starting

apprenticeship

and

ski_11

East Africa.

other

placesr

and a reading

and as such

features

From this Dar

are

ports,

Tanzania

comparative in

they

sea

the

chosen

l(enya and

there

and

\lombasa and

acquisition

in

info rmat ion

rvhich has already

researchers,

from

sectors

a

by

section

were

Nairobi,

socio-economic

3 ' 3 bef ow ) .

for

salaam

principar

section

point

es

sini-larities

of

conducted

interviews

This

neighbotrring

stemming

histories

surveys

supplemented

follow-up

Af ter

Africats

above these

by

srlrvey methodology.

from

basic

SaIaam,

literature.

reasons.

centres

provided

inforrnal

Mombasa and

also

es

available

description

urban

were

the

universe

&S welr design

as

of

of

which

of t 1

comprehensive

informal

ersewhere

surveys

Because

rack

this

in

sector the

factr

activities

region,

can claim and

to

baserine

maiies it

be trury the

in

relatively

meagre

resources

available

surveys were necessariry size

was

preset

each urban (idealry

centre, 37-38 in

activities activity

at

in

around these

in

300

to

be

each case)

Mombasa and

the

lirnited

each prace.

in

to

scope.

the

The overall

sample

entrepreneurs,/enterprises drawn in

roughry

frorn eight

es

equal

different

The actual- number of Dar

project,

rLo/sDSR

salaam

is

in

numbers

enterprise

respondents

shown in

by

Table

r

below.

Table

I:

SAMPLE STZE BY PLACE AND ACTIVITY

VOMBASA ENTREPRENUERS APPRENTICES

IIech

38

Meta

39

Carp

36

Carv

38

DAR ES SALAAM E N T R E P R E N E U R SA P P R E N T I C E S

,.t

32

n

1

3B

23

AX.

27

39

Tai I

34

Hai r

37

Food

ao

o

Jt)

Elec

1n

o

0

Bl oc

0

0

Jb

301

Total-

The according being

L V

to

relatively

activities also made to

activities

criteria:

they

c o m m o np r o d u c t i v e

i-n the include

informal

16

298

enterprise

rigorous

9

J J

b6

different

I O

t2

were

were merely

(manufacturing)

sector.

activities

158

which

A conscious involved

not

chosen

selected

as

and service effort

was

women and women

( for

apprentices 3,2), in

The different

Table

Table

1.

II

comment on gender

further

activities

issues

see section

chosen are described

in

brief

below.

SAMPLED ENTERPRISE ACTTVTTIES

fI:

Motor vehicle

repair,

car nechanics,

covered a lvide range of

specific

repair.

This

from paner beating,

activities

through engine and other mechanical repairs, task, electrical

garages (Itech).

snall

to the most speciarised

In Dar es salaam the manufacture of brake

pads and bushes also appeared as a specialised

activity

under this

category.

(Meta).

Metalworking, tinsnithing

Activities

heading are the production of domestic utensils stoves, pots and pansr ladles used in construction furniture). activities

4,

and hardware (metar

and knives etc. ) and heavier (metal grills,

and furnishing

Detailed

included under this

items

door frames and

background informat,ion on some of

these

as they were in Nairobi can be found in King (ig7?).

wooden furniture

naking, carpentry

manufacture of

wooden, not

(carp). ' ttre focus here was the

metal,

furniture.

In

sone cases

furni.ture was also reoaired.

Wood carving selected

out

activities. highly

for of

the a

tourist range

of

(Carv).

possible

Wood carving

activity

cooperatives and restricted In }lombasaalmost all

primarily

organised

was

production

handicraft

I n b o t h M o m b a s aa n d D a r e s s a l a a m t h i s

localised

Handicraft

narket

proved to be a by

producer

to a single ethnic group in each place.

of the respondents were membersof the Akarnba

Cooperative Society based at lilagongo market.

In Dar es

s a l a a m t h e r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e ) l a k o n d ec a r v e r s , m o s t o f t h e m m e m b e r so f cooperatives

and man-vconcentrated in the Kinondoni area.

B a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n o n K a m b aw o o d - c a r v i n g i n K e n y a i s a v a i l a b l e in Troughear (1987)

6.

Wonen'sdressnaking, general tailoring the surveys focused upon tailors repair

woments garments.

of

subset of all

tailors

(fait).

specialising Given that

As far as possible, procluction and

in the

these are only

a smalr

it was not possible to exclude general tailors

ent i reIy.

I{onen's hairdressing

(Hair).

women's hairdressing,

undertaken in

temporary kiosks or more permanent salons, was one of the simprest activities to define and identify.

B.

Food

production

and

restaurants

(Food).

activities

fron

restaurants

or

selring,

food

and

drinks

kiosks,

snall

This category was intended to cover a range of simple roadside vending to more permanent

kiosks.

In

Dar es salaam, however, it was not p o s s i b l e t o i n c l u d e s i m p l e r o a d s i d e s e l L e r s ( t h e " M a r n aN t i l i e s " ) in the survey as many of Lhem hacl stopped business in the wake of a chorera

outbreak

operation.

Electrical

1gg0 and an kiosks

official

ban on

and restaurants

their

were therefore

in the Dar sample.

repair,

repair

appliances (Blec). only

late

Larger scale

overrepresented

8a,

in

of

radios,

TVs

and

other

For reasons described below, this

sarnpled in llombasa, where i t

was generally

household

activity

was

much less common

than the other activities.

8b.

Cement block-making repair

(Bloc).

in Dar es salaam.

This

Itlombasa it

is

replaced electrical

In the pre-survey observations

noted as an important informal boom in construction

activity

sector activity

a n d t h e c l e m a n df o r

an activity

it

was

associated with

housing in the city.

more typically

undertaken

by

a (In

larger

firms).

As noted, surveys. different.

The

seven of eighth

where.

the

these activity

activities in

each

Mombasa survey

I A

were

shared

case

waS1

included

by both however,

erectrical

among the

repair

by cement block

substituted this

substitution

the

repair

less

of

have been

to

in

better

sector

slrrveys.

be a poor choice,

restricted

In

any

re sul- L s a r e whole

event, truly

enterprise

point

which

is

same

time

it

unambiguously more general

is

level

sector

agreed

definition,

the type of this

in

on

the

of

In

it

is

might

shared

by

proved

took

the

and

sector

each

in

3.1

place

(a

At

the

arise

as of

a

premisesr

account

?nd its

that

at

this

to

ad

hoc

of

an

its

size,

apparent

Though some readers

a

generally

essentially

into

at

opposed

characteristics

taking

the

activities

problems

absence

as a

to

below).

these

an

survey

soIeIy

informal

the

arguable

15

a

the

nature

informal

define

visible

its

be

that

refer

Simil-ar

and management.

unsatisfactory,

the

section

to

particular

it

closed

its

claimed

distinguishi-ng

(and location)

organisation

in

study

to

is

to

wood carving

that

surveyed

II ) .

this

and in

activity

results

enterprises.

based

enterprise,

Table

linked

retrospect

In

of

the

up again

( assumed to

was

there,

be

difficult

( see

formal

approach

cannot

activities

taken

television

places.

both

speaking

-

no

whereas block-making

be said

representative

Strictly

parti-cular

it

being

because of

in

reason

- and especially

""p.ir

Tanzania)

another

largely

distribution

for

years.

recent

rnight also

It

The imnediate

activity

choose

to

was

( there

sets

Dar es Salaam,

boom of

in Dar es Salaam this

electrical

on mainland

informal

construction

making.

television

evident

thriving

both

was that

broadcasting

station be)

sampled activities,

mode

may find

stage

in

our

understanding with

such

the

fttzzy

definitions but

of

informal demarcation

be a prerequisite

not

Research

teams from

es Salaam were employed Mombasa and

Dar

overview

identify

of specific

themselves

substitution

survel-

of

Salaam) in

students.

The survey

December

interviewers

1990

by activity

for

then

4 the

each street

was

facilitate

methodology The

( for

by cement

surveys

had

been

block

the

maliing

trained.

in The

28 December 1990 and

all

1991

and

example

had been

to

activities

to

surveyed.

made

these

of

them university

using

between

seven

trained

team leader.

differed sector

surveyed

of enterprise aL

sector

order

between

January

procedure

selected

Ieaders,

Dar es Salaam was conducted

I n N l o m b a s ai - n f o r n a l

the known areas was

and

of

in

pre-

to

purpose

and

interviewers,

in

surveys

observations

interviewers

four

excluding

The sampling l-ocations.

repair

Mombasa was condtrcted 1991 by

23

these

decisions

the

2 February

be

the

and Dar

devoted

team

in

research,

Nairobi

was

informal

centre

to

after

electrical and

two

precise

and other

of

work

to

llore

The

objectives

areas

appropriate

necessary

and conduct

range of

survey

place

it.

the

each

urban

took

reviewed,

es

the

for

case.

by

in

this

A week

each

the

apprentices

of

organise

undertaken

refinement

Dar

in

and ascertain

involving

to

is

Universities

respectively.

observations

observations,

the

it

criteria.-

may emerge as a result

should

survey

sector

somewhat between

16

from

trvo

enterprises

were 1i-sted

( and picked

from

concentration).

random

the

each

within

One enterprise relevant

list

for

inclus ion covered

in and

another

slrrvey .

the the

target

was

No

completed.

representing

activities.

fn

and worked

to

duplication.

In

Dar

visited

(Kinondoni,

SaIaam

Ilala

two

the of

aIl

to

the

order

enterprises,

(except

banned food

sel-Iers)

administration

of

the

for Apart

the

for

formal

were

enterprises/activities districts.

Interviewers

enterprises

whose

questioned, if

and covered

act ivities

.

The survey Swahili

version

them or

the

was also

sel-ecting

is

prepared

t7

informal pre-surve.v

be

to

of

equal

and

revisited

of

numbers the

shortlisted

willing

to

from the

worked

in

targeted

assist

in

of

three

others

of

350

questionnaire.

those

reproduced to

districts

rvhose owners

of

each

present

town

assistant

the

survey

from

single

the

a shortlist

agreed

whol-e range

questionnaire

of

his

of

of

interviewers

the

a

identify

worl<ed with

were

Individual

distri-cts

and

najority

chosen

then

owners

revisiting

necessary.

halves

( see above ) roughly

wood carving

from

shared

to

same

enterprise

adninistrative

randomly-chosen

the

enterprises

different

compilation the

until

chosen from the

leader

three

been

reached,

turn

three

was done as part

This

and led

in

(notional)

team

had

been

interviewers

and Temehe) in

enterprises.

observations

yet

than

assigned

in different

urban wards

the

sector

es

streets

not

were ever

were

some cases

activity avoid

had

more

activity

a single

Interviewers

street.

sample

the

was chosen from each list

enterpri'se

quota

When all

alI

list three

enterprise

Appendix

1 n the

be

work

2. in

A Dar

the

es Salaam, where

EngI ish

upon

based

in

terminol-ogy

Niarney,

conditions

and

purposes

the

to

size

of

sample

is

A)

should

be

African

ILO

the

stlrvey.

in

cities

East

African It

is A

is

of

of

for

to

interview.

in

apprenticeship (above).

I

or reliabLe given

with

the

in

The

makes

activitj-es

figures

whose

first

the

Table

some

read

addressed

assuming apprentices

a subset

valid

always

I{est

be available

in

the

by

present

shown in

and

responses,

their

used

to

incidence

apprentices

is

owners or entrepreneurs.

them to

also

qttestionnaire

adapted

apprentices:

the

the

questionnaire

the

to draw statistically

impossible

(Appendix

of

the

respondents,

activities,

different

from

of

reflects

largely

smalI

part

and one of

second set

of

enterprise

the entrepreneurts

be present

This

to

subsidiary,

(one of)

different

and Lome),

Ibadan

addressed primarily second,

in

apprenticeship

(including

and

with

familiar

Th;

Kenya.

in

developed

ones

earlier

of

surveys

use

less

and be

language

this

use

to

liheIy

were more

and interviewees

interr.iewers

it

conclusions the

tables size

in

could

be

sample

rnind.

will

It

The

as a whole. data,

which

frequency activity. addressed

was

same can done

for

as to

SPSS software

it

when designing

to

say

that

to

these

and implementing

surveys.

18

the

methodology

processing

the

and cross-tabulations

distributions Suffice

as weII

be said

using

refinements

a number of

questionnaire

survey

the

made to

that

be evident

produce by

of

the

simple

enterprise

issues

(projected)

will

be

future

3.

The statistical in

tables

particular,

overview all

for

which they

a

suggest

3. 1

to

explain

in

the

the

so

this

section

through

number

of

of

should

further

to

of

these

every

in

which

view

rvith

readers a

simple

been Iacking the

different

as hypotheses As

policy

implications

carv

apprenticeship

be treated

for

of

details,

research.

directions

analysis

provides

it

analysis

point

this

the

overview

interest

because

in

tables

more specific

be of

and

and where appropriate

design,

devoted

a framework rvhich has hitherto

testing

require

presented

are

interpretative

also

more

From

made in

observations

to a

description

literature.

the

is

interested should

systems in East Africa, in

two surveys

section

offer

the

the

the

intended

to

those

interests,

framework

not

rather

This

of

This

is

including

to.

wider

A.

It

but

readers, refer

results

Appendix

results.

these

INTEBPEETATION

they

programme

and are

stand,

drawn out.

SUBSECTORAL ANALYSIS

in

The surveys subsectors location, might

be

different

or of

enterprise which

expected,

activities:

seven were there

is

acquisition

as well

as of

( see the

a

shared

is

in

19

upon

of

Tab1e

eight II

variation

true

variables

Tables

total

( see

considerable This

activities.

characteristics skil1

l"{ombasa and Dar es Salaam focused

of

relating

Appendix

A).

each

in

above ) . between

basic to

selected

As these

enterprise

employment It

and

has -already

been noted study

apply

taken

as

sector

that, to

as

in

individual of

(see

whole

a

be

similarly

approach.

At

the

trends,

same time, these

The

activities

implies

are

it

be

sometimes

considerable

of

assistance

a

subsectoral

possible

of

informal

be simpll'glossed

with

is

subject

not

the

begin

however,

the

including

programmes

and

of

and should

cannot

that

the

results

alone

eIse,

2\,

sensitive,

and

statistical

activities

section

Thj-s

the

anything

between different

anal,ysis.

should

broad

these

speaking,

representative

differences over

strictly

the

to

identify

sections

which

foIlow.

3,2

GENDER ANALYSTS

Reference effort

was

has already made

entrepreneurs most of

the

to

surveyed in

inclr-rded f or

informal trade

this

very

rate

sector and

reguirements.

fact which

was extremely It

a deliberate

invol-r.ed

reason ) , (see

of

TabIe

was

is

concentrate activities

Given that

a

i0).

participation

typically

service

and to

low, only

that

in

and thus

20

]esser

significant

extent

in

for

the

urban and/or

lorn'

apprenticeship

f ood

woments

employment

relatively

in

which were

women in

castral

in

and virtually

The reason

with

training

women

women's participation

Even sor

rnaking.

that

and woments dressrnaking (act ivities

and selling low

the

activities

activities

furniture

women's hairdressing

generally

include

and apprentices.

non-existent

preparation

been made to

is

skilt most

in production,

necessary

that

a

are

they ( see

whole

I{hile

stereotypes.

occupational

is

than

this,

this

aL the

very

Ieast

by targeting

programmes (compare Goodale

of

While women's rates employment vary also

Mombasa ( see Tables although

Nairobi,

development

outlined

3.3

of

terms

in

has to

and

is

much

addressed, assistance

It

the

the

Salaam.

OveraIIt higher

is

be even higher

to

most productive

and

in in

informal are

differences

These

1989) .

pattern

they

activities'

surveyed

reported

is

dominate

the

es

of

categories

in different

activities

the

(Chepliong'a

in

which

Mombasa and Dar

men sti-I1

explicable

problern

the

betrveen different

9 and 10 ) .

activities

sector

gender

apprenticeship

participation

in

sector

19Bg) .

between

partici-pation

women's

women in

most noticeably

var-v slightly

an issue

clearly

deeper

of

as

sector

informal

prevailing

source

the

find

systems

informal

respect

reproduces

and

reinforces

training

urban

this

In

1991b).

to

surprising

apprenticeship

i-n the

overrepresented

Walsh

not

is

existing

in

r ^ r o m e na r e u n d e r i e p r e s e n t e d

althotrgh

it

requirements,

skiII

high

relatj.vely

with

activities

and service

manufacturing

Iine

hypothetical

of

section.

next

COMPARISON BETWEEN MOMBASAAND DAR ES SALAAM

There between Salaam.

is

the

a

pattern

consistent

survey

from

restrlts

The sinilarities

of

Mombasa and

stem from

21

the

and

sirnilarities

fact

those

that

contrasts

from

Dar

es

Mombasa and Dar

are both

ports,

major

and with

coastline

rule.

colonial

example,

that

identical

in

73% in

As a result

Salaam

the

little

to

for

political

thel'

remain than

cities.

since

a severe

dealt as

other

urban

enterprise trading

the

on

would

late

up to

activities

be

if

of

British

social

and

accident,

for

was virtually l'lombasa and

in

available

and immediately

lien.v*aand Tanzania in

many respects:

and

was

there

both

places.

much more similar,

compared with

blow to

the

centres

black

economic

underlying

in Tanzania

were strongly the

no

respondents

l{est

histories

1960s have., however,

of these

socialism

of state

sector

they

basic

entrepreneurs

running

informalin

under

More significantll',

of

simil'ar

probably

all

period

political

on top

contrasts

is

15).

the

development

stretch

African

or

Kenya

and

i

The different Tanzania

It

independence

distinguish

example,

Indian

in

short

share a number of

72% of

ITabIe

that

of

of migrant

surveys:

evj-dence suggests after

they

.common.

in

both

by a +elatively

histories

the proportion

es

Dar

Indeed,

paral-1el

features

economic

separated

informal-

in

the

in

the

imposed

sirnilarities.

a pattern

sector

of

The development

the Arusha Decfaration

of

l-967

in Dar es Salaam as weII

country.

discouraged

market

economy (see Maliyamkono

after

of

I'{ost

f orms

of

and many entrepreneurs so-called

and Bagachwa 1990).

parallel

or

The informal

private took

to

second sector

1

'

background description For a recent of Mombasa and its sector see Sebstad and WaIsh ( 1991 ) . informal For a fuller of Dar es Salaam, focusing Llpon employment issues, description see fshumi (1984).

22

extreme

case

the

of

detrimental

imported

and materials.

supplies

hair-care

new sewing machines through

meet

to

machines

( tourist

banned

of

the

the

negative urban

or

is

impact

less

the

in

es Salaam it

that

of

they

productive

were

and

official

most

if

they

private

to were shop

harassment, visible.

In

one way

affected

they

harassment

have had nothing socialist

informal over

a virtual

sector the

last

halt.

23

in

are

also

( see Sebstad and WaIsh like

policies

Dar es Salaam and other

growth to

official

sell

to

recover

to

many

were

1989).

Tanzania's in

yet

surveyed were adversely al.

insufficient

few tourists

( like

Kenya, Mombasa included

sector

ground

cooperatives

]iinds

where

controls

which

continuous

their

have

get

only

were

and

altogether

obtain

there

had very

1 , g 74

could

Other entrepreneurs,

areas

acti-vities

apparent

informal

a resul-t

urban

regulatory

deemed excessive

in

to

Companies (RTCs),

Trading

and

different

(see Sabai et

another

While

to

subject

in

all

pealied

operating

from

especially

1991 ) , it

an

unfavourable

unable

Tailors

Although

same levels).

the

were

owners),

agents,

demand.

arrivals

like

Regional

l*lakonde wood carvers

the

encouraged,

anything

the

distribution

state-owned

or

provides

an

generally

exampl-e, were

for

Hairdressers,

fact

of

effects

and their

environment .

regulatory

not

policies

Dar es Salaam thus

deep economic recession.

corollaryl

to

government

of repressive

as a result

was stunted

urban

the

force

had

upon

centres.

Mombasa has enjoyed

two decades,

while

in

or the As

more Dar

The informal grow

and

I iberal the

sector

recent

isation

which

1980s.

Dar es Sa1aam has only

years,

i-n

mid

in

following

was j-nitiated

Ttre inf ormal

and

seen a more gradual

and ttnbroken

and

developed

are

much

Salaam.

This

incl-uding survey

more also

development

in

Mombasa) and

which

and both in

Ilhat

It

development

is

evidence

recent

3.4

of

allows

is

(as

might

carried

be

an

practice

means in

research

in

current

further

in

of

situation of

the

the

at

the

future in same

sections

hypothetical

Nairobi,

es

systems,

course

extension

this

Dar

throughout

can be seen in

added that

a stage

the

years,

the

training

the

i-n

!,fombasa have

over

apparent

plot

Lls to

Mombasa itself

line

least

of

on the

(see Cheplcong,a lgBg).

there

THE NATURE OF APPRENTICESHTP

Apprenticeship instituti-on Fluitman

that and

boundaries training this

it

contrast

Dar es Salaam ( towards

this

follow.

This

economic

counterparts

and informal

recover

government

in

growth

of

their

to formal

apprenticeship.

results,

trends ) .

applies

sectors

pattern

of

TanLanian

formal

than

process

the

by the

begun to

is

are of the

'apprentice'

in we

sangare vague,

unpaid

or

absence

East know,

Africa for

1989, and it

of

a

examplel Birks

blends

low-paid

is

and

Srvahili

24

the

rvell-defined

from

west

Africa

sincrair

imperceptibly

workers.

; - t so p p o s e d t o a ' l e a r n e r '

not

one

word /

of

1gg1) . into the

specifically

'student'

(see rts

on-the-job symptoms of meaning

(mwanafunzi_) or

'assistant

an

however, number

it of

t

'helper'

/

is

n.ot dif f icurt

forms

developed,

(msaidizi

ranging

according

to

to

from

This

embryonic

location

being

the

case,

- apprenticeship

recognise

the

survey

).

to

the

in

more

and particular

a

fulIy

enterprise

activity.

The reason for and skilI very

this

acquisition

much

networks

for

lower

related

to

I7% of

the

with

higher,

in

and

equivalent

then

trainers

is

their

set

of

in

east

traditional trainees

by market

still

very

though far

forces.

25

ties

would survey

fact

the

be

informal between

to

much

sector Dar

es

entrepreneurs

free

recrllitment

being

same ethnic

probably

that

social

widened to

the

of

are

I'lombasa only

are

difference the

from

in

repair

have such a close these

those

Dar es Salaam,

whereas

and more opportunity

obligations, is

to

social

(often

vehicle

members of

The

remains

es Sa1aam than

motor

percentages

Nairobi.

Dar

In

If

and/or

in

others.

in

36).

corresponding

l'lombasa have had longer

sector

than

employment

traditional

activities

apprentices

Salaam and Mombasa can be attributed

from

more so

enterprises,

(Table

to

in East Africa

upon

as Chepkong'a (1989) found in his

apprenticeship

in

sector

apprentices

acquaintances

the

recruitment

dependent

This

the

owners of

their

that

informal

requirements)

55% of

the

is

j-n some enterprise

so

technical

incl-ude existing group,

the

and obligations.

example,

tie

in

ernbedded

Mombasa, and more with

situation

themselves of

determined

informal primarily

As a

result

beginning

to

informal develop

apprenticeship example, few

covered

mechanics,

in by

without existing are

fees

none

in

Salaam

and

contract,

special

considered

trainers.

at

beLween the

sufficient

to

cover

their

B%

B% (presumably

the

apprentices

on

3g).

their

mechanics

in

apprentices

rn

such

and their

mutual

were

and/or

56% of

entrepreneurs

and only

Dar

take

(Table

Very

in

themselves

Even so,

all

for

apprentices:

mechanics

more

Mombasa normally

agreement

ties

the

while

between

with

and contracts. their

of

only

consider,

training

none

is

associated

?""

fees

considerably

33% in

Africa

Dar es Salaam sample

Likewise,

and their

social

for

agreements

East

institution.

the

a written

in

which

apprenti.ceship

40).

verbal

any

features

Mombasa did.

parents/gttardians es

of

apprentices

8%)

training

fulIy-fledged

charge

I'{ombasa (TabIe

same

Dar

a

entrepreneurs

offered

the

question

the

among ear in

as

sector

cases

trai-nees

obligations

and

ri sks .

3.5

THE INCIDENCE AND EFFICIENCY OF APPRENTICESHIP

Apprenticeship activity.

on the

of

the

contrary,

informal

sector

training

the unemployed,

emplo-vment in r.aries

as well

the

considerably

kind

formal

as

described plays

it in

the

and in

is

a very

wider

by no means a marginal important

role

economy ( by absorbing

some cases even preparing

sector).

The incidence

between different

26

in

enterprise

of

the and

them for

apprenticeship

activities:

overall

horvever,

,

Among the

its

mechanics

(Table

and 97% respectively

person

that

with

harassment

readi-Iy

vocational

of

( Tables

the

45% of

and

also

illustrate

other

forms

formal

be

varies

apprenticeship

can

many instances

is

mechanics

training

Their

considerably

perh&pS r hold

j-s its

described

vehicle the

(Table

aL

total

9).

one

proportions

63%

more start-up

or

were

86%

to

growth

of

the

two

and one-

opportunity

rate

had

time

between

take

on

and less

enterprises

of

the

the

in

importance

of

including

the

training,

training

offered

expected,

the

are

often

as well

relative

as

by different

latter

in Dar es Salaam.

entrepreneurs

59 ) .

dotrbt.

in Mombasacurrently

need or higher

in

above ) .

As rnight

and

significant,

included

and technical

individual

23

perceived,

4g% and

One difference

in Mombasa than

available

apprenticeship careers

motor

and unestablished

3.3

to

institutions.

formal

Table

small

relative

apprenticeship

by car

of

of

results

survey

of

in

apprentices

no inmediate

( see section

Kenyan port

courses

29),

an indication

apprentices:

The

highest

corresponding

Mombasa sample

the

enterprises

official-

trained

Dar es Salaam the

in

is

not

interviewed

76% had

while

apprentices,

cases

is

comprised

of the entrepreneurs/mechanics

another:

was

icance

l ' l o m b a s a a n d D a r e s S a . l - a a mr e s p e c t i v e l y

in

workforce

signif

it

activities

sampled apprentice

repair:

numerical

are

In both

combined their

importance,

more

places in

the

apprentices actual

and

between enterprise

activities.

the

informal

sector

training,

and

fact

own against

that formal

as more useful

in Mombasa and metalworkers

24\.

27

(as it

is,

for

Ilost

in

example,

in Dar es Salaam:

see

At

the

sector

same time,

apprenticeship

quantitatively consider

length

their

apprentices,

(for

most activities) 2I

pattern

and

of

the

time. to result

in The

and

less

develop

of

Dar

(for

than

around

the

tasks

until

he/she

of

to

(TabIe 47). other

difficult Iabour

to (Table

of

accidents

not

train

the

the

than

drarv a dividing

line

2l),

It

rnight

is

linked In

( Table

efficient

the

f or

It

is

apprentices have

have

in

around

carry

are

z8

Tn Dar to

remain trained (in

been apprentices

and in

be added here that

68 ) .

much

specific

being

such cases

between apprenticeship

work

As a

orders)

supervision.

they

having

more,

less

everyday

out

in Mombasa are destined

or

had

Dar es Salaam is

to

the

clear

l'lombasa.

apprentice

report

to

also

customerst

which

broad

reasons,

prirnarily

of

in

train

Dar es Salaam it

itself.

in

to

to

tal<en on

be structured

much l-onger hotrrs of work

training.

pattern

enterprise

years

) for

of

Dar es Salaam (see

in

they

both First,

much more

relate

apprentices

ten

at

do

to

is

been

training

Some entrepreneurs

es Salaam report

a form

can undertai<e them without

in

enterprises

as

above.

prevailing

es Sal-aammany more trainees as wage workers

present.

is

enterprise

and more likeIy

need to

at

entrepreneurs

this

have

which

given

is

training

outlined

informal

im1>ortant,

it

it

that

more

takes

es Salaam than

example the the

it

for

apprentices

training

systemati-c,

business

reason

economic,

in

than

which

already

that

suggest

even

I ' l o m b a s at h a n

means and methods

the

be

system of

needs and reqttirements that

results

apprenticeship

time

the

contrasts

socia]

of

of

54 ) .

more likeJ-y

both

cor-rl-d

efficiency

by the

Tables

survey

and Qualitatively,

the

Judging

is

the

is

and cheap

apprentices

and a hi{her

it

in

Dar

incidence

of

degree

there

that

some of

as

apprentices

of

In

criteria. they valued

This

31 ).

persons

the

Dar

trustworthiness: to

or

because of

capacity the

does

relative

problem

a

in

finding

not

in

over

es

a comparable

inefficiency

29

the

of

the

es

that

more of

pbemium

of

and

kinship

on

the

satisfied

by

entrepreneLrr

pattern

Dar

in

a

most readily

l<nown to

selection

By contrast,

placed

a criterion

occur

of

a

circle

I'lornbasastated

and above ties

Salaam

in

arise

other

to

reference

in icant

signif

hardly

could

apprentices.

otherwise

As rnight be expected,

training

l v a s'

this

current

apprentices

trained

entrepreneurs

when recruiting

related

with

a

is

this

they now had difficulty

without

aptitude

in

of

were drar.rn from an entrepreneur's

friends

candidates'

counterparts

candidates'

that

many of

fact

factors

their

32).

and

relatives

rvho have

those

them reported

where apprentices

context

other

to

in

capacity

enterpreneurs

When asl<ed why

29 ) .

(Table

apprenlices

number of

the

compared

(Table

past

proportion

of

in

shortfall

training

of

One indication

Mombasa.

higher

So much so

apprentices.

their

underutilisation in

activities

the

training

an evident

is

noticeable

the

in

efficiency

by

constrained

l_ess

a correspondingly

and have achieved

obligaLions

traditional

generally

are

Nlombasa entrepreneurs

fn

(TabIe

underutilised

SaIaam'

prevailing

not

least

system.

4. cot{cl,usroNs

The

outlined

findings which

directions

development that

from Mombasa suggest

than

more apprentices evidence

a

from

urban centres of

trained

to

incentives cases

the

entering these

are

informal

groups

manufacturing

are

night

in

the

entrepreneurs

in

the

total

number

doubled

simpl-v

(Yambo1991a).

One

to

the

encourage

by providing

trainees,

or

in

who satisfy

l'lombasa,

f or

in finding

difficulty

be

possible

underrepresented apprenticeship.

women, who

activities

confirms

perhaps

candidates

many

some their

example , suitable

31 ) .

currently sector

be

on more

find

they had considerable

it

that

capacity,

take

( metalworkers

same tine

who

to

The results

can absorb

be more than

therefore

them to

see TabIe

apprentices:

sector

general

the

This

implies

could

training

entreprenerlrs

that

indicated

groups

spare

there

more effectively

would

criteria

recruitment

informal

of

rnight take.

present.

at

of

capacity

by helping

sirnply

At

this

of

trained

a year

in

sone

sector

l(enya, which

intervention

utilisatj-on

informal

1990 survey

eristing

by utilising possible

are

indicate

interventions

the

throughout

apprentices

above

at

are

present

30

marginal

particular

to

target

or

face

barriers

in

The

most

important

of

participants

( see' sect j-on 3,2

in

above ) .

manJ

I{hether

or

designed in

the

not

to

incentives

tackle

other

recruitment

may welI

rn

of

be worth

Dar

es

low

entrepreneurs

might

provide

higher

arl

in

high

to

train

be

bias

though

it

be

the

of

that

they

(Table

this

to

case more

this

is

in

the

45).

let

corroborated

their

by

of the

by apprentices

counterparts

and

enterprise

The appropriateness is

to

formal

or weeliend courses

would be happy to

context

their

do

existing

valtte placed upon formal- training

Dar es Sal-aam as compared with

this

apprentices

through

entrepreneurs

such course in

their

form of evening

to

In

one way

training

indicated

intervention

relatively

the

seems

training.

standards.

majority

attend

problem

of

back-up

surveyed

apprentices

al-so

such as relgional/ethnic

principal-

the

be encouraged

to

The

activities

could

seems more doubtful,

efficiency

perhaps

modules.

such

apprentices,

appropriate

institutions,

interventions

imbalances,

Salaam

and

other

considering.

comparatively

efficiently

or

in

Mombasa (Table

in

63) .

rn also

order

be

skiIIs,

turned of

problems zanzibar. carpenters Ltpon the

to

the is

improve to

upgrading

one

steps

the

entrepreneurs

already

to

quality

the

aspect

improve invofved

being of the

of

training,

skilIs,

including

themselves. tested

this

one the

programme

efficiency

and the

by

time

31

of

attention the

approach

ILO/SDSR has

their

talien to

been

training train

rnight training

to

project

to

these in

encourage by

focusing

apprentices

to

produce particular what

can

be

of

has )

achieved

is one way of

taking

rt

a number of

informal

This

by

production.

everyday skills

itens.

training provides

also

producers

sector

at

artisans

out a

once, to

showing entrepreneurs of

way

using

train

the

context

of

upgrading

(as

the

their

of the

programme

less

skilted

colleagues.

These

different particular

cornbined in design

kinds

needs

intervention

cases.

and intervention

detailed

of

of

The essential

such

assessment

might,

selected

is

the need to proceed on a subsectoral

in

3.1 above) .

To summarise,

then,

considerable

scope

apprenticeship

systemsl

Iocal

and

outlined

interventions to

increase

qual ity

for

subsectoral above.

It

of

require from

that

the

institution national

web

of

which

be to

is

traininE

the approach pattern

and the

that

the

general

increase

the

efficiency

of

spare training

improved

a larger

and

proportion

employment. sector

increasingly

be and

responsive

needs.

32

there

the

existing

is

sensitive

of

to

constraints

objective of

is

of

these

training so that

numbers

of

and the the

of unemployed women, are

Ultimately

relations

and more

that

capacity

l-arger

apprenticeship

traditional is

that

the

as discussed

suggest of

to

be

activities

basis,

development

providing

productive informal

findings

differences

traini-ng

into

the

utilisation

unernployed, including absorbed

study

i-s arguable

should the

the

further

enterprise

(recalling section

course,

prerequisite

interventions

of

of

these

objectives

further developed

to

market

separated into

an

forces

and

Finally' here two

it

provisional

are

surveys

in

comparable than

(including a

insight design. be the

into

for to

to

first

extend

testing

a

extent

centres.

the

asking

in

the

appropriate

entrepreneurs

Given

the

Nairobi,

to

other

findings

irnptications 1,

it

as well

is as

interventions

and their

for

are

the

summarised

based upon

al-most total it

in

would in

prelude

lack

East

of

Africa

the process,

policy

only

seem more

and gaining

hopecl that

and

further

and programme this

study

to

developing

and assistance

apprentices.

33

findings

centres

questions

current

section

series,

they

but

study

the

that

additional-

practical

thei.r

in

the

anyrvhere else

As stated

programme of sector

to

Uganda),

view

be emphasised that

two urban

data

desirable

with

should

a

to

rvi]l

informal

BIBLIOGRAPHY Aboagye, A.A. Sector. Addis

1985 Ababa:

An Analvsis of Dar es Salaam's ILO Jobs and Skills Programme for

1986 Informa] Sector Employment in Kenya: Aboagye, A.A. Sector Activities of Informal in Nairobi, Kisumu and Addis Ababa: ILO Jobs and SkiIIs Programme for Africa.

Informal Africa. A Survev Mombasa.

'The Dar es SaIaam Urban Informal 1982 Bagachwa, M.S.D. Sector in Basic Needs in Survey', DanEer: A Basic Needs Oriented for Tanzania. Development Strateqy Addis Ababa: ILO Jobs and Skills Programme for Africa. 341-351. Stace and CI j-ve Sinclair, with Fred Birks, Fluitrnan 1991 for SkiIls and fncome in the Urban Informal Education and Training Sector in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of Ibadan. Niqeria, draft report. Mike 19 8 9 The Inf orrnal Apprent ice Chepkong'a, and SkillA Case Studv Acquisition: of Informal Technical Trainine in Nairobi. Kenya, unpublished M.A. dissertation, University of Nairobi . EIU (The Economist

apunlry_ Eeparl EIU 1990b International.

Intell

i g e n c e U nj - t ) London:

1990a Tanzania. Mozambique: Business International.

(No , 4 1 9 9 0 ) .

Kenya:

EIU 1991 Kenya: Internat ional . Fluitrnan, Fred Sector. Geneva:

Country

Country

Profile

Report

l-990-91.

(No.1

1989 (ed) Training International Labour

1991).

for Work Office

London:

Business

London:

Business

i n

the

Tnformal

Fred and A.. Kader Sangare 1989 'Some Recent Evldence of Fluitman, in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire', in Fred Informal Sector Apprenticeship ( e d ) T r a i n i n q f o r W o r k Fluitman in the Informal Sector. Geneva: Labour Office. 107-115. International Goodale, Sector', Sector.

Gretchen 198g in Fred Fluitman Internat Geneva:

'Training Women in for the ( ed ) Traintng for Work in the ional Labour Office. 47-69.

Informal Informal

1980 Technol-ogical Choice, Emplo:rment Generation, House, W.J. and Consumer Demand: The Case of Furniture fncome Distri-bution Geneva: ILO Making in Kenya (WEP 2-22/1^lP60 ). ILOlJASPA and Skills

l-985 Inf ormal Sector Programme for Africa.

in Af rica.

Addis Ababa:

ILO Jobs

rLo/sDSR

1991

skill

A"ot1=iaio.

Paper, prepared for a joint ILO/SDSR Project, Nairobi.

i.

ILO

th"

trfo"r"f

lOl, mission

/

Ishumi, Abel_ G.M. 1984 T st'dt of tht u!.Tof ot.d Pffi" rith special to _Ree f r"nce Tanz.nla.fnstitute of African Studies. King, Kenneth fnformal Sector

lg77 T i_n Kenya.

fri London:

Abu Gr Survey Report Nairobi. Ng'ethe,

19 9 0 enti ( on Dar

Njuguna

G"orirrq uppsala:

1990

sit

ti

d P

CS

Sal-aam ) ,

to

"."*"a

K"nya

by

the

u"br' c"rrt""=. Scandinavian

rti Heinemann.

M a l i y a m k o n o , T . L . a n d l ' 1 .S . D . B a g a c h w a Tanzania. London: James C u r r e y . Mvungi,

,."ao",

The Second Economv in

1n

t Feasibil report to the

and James wahome, with

Gichiri

or Studv A P I LO,/SDSR P r o j e c t ,

Ndua

lg8g The P r runroa 'll ^ R rT -n ff o^r- -m a l , , so e^ c^ ! t o^ r- - ii n ,Kr e n v a : A studv of l,Iicro-enterl"""i"="==fi Nrr."i . M."r. ur=ir Gi=hr-, rnd slryi-TiJtricts. rDS p Da' Dp e r n o .- 5F44, rnstitute f or Development st,raiE= ,- urrio.""sity of xri"oli . -l

Republic of Kenya 1gB8 Urban Labour Force Survey, 1gg6, Central Bureau of statistics and Long RangJ pf anning unit, I*{inistry of Planning and National Development. Republic of Kenya 1gg1 trateqy the Tra for of Presidential Committee on Employment. Republic of Tanzania lgBB Report ' Dar es Salaam: Bureau of Economic Affairs and planning.

II

report

staiistics,

Inlirristry of

of

the

Finance,

S a b a i , M .T . , L . A . M s a m b i c h a k a , D . S . D a n d i , T . W . M a e m b e , E . . Mkusa and J. M.T. lnlaserele l gBg R of Human c for nd Opportunities, report to Project Secretariat, Redeployment of Human Resources, Ministry of Finance, Economj-c A ffairs and planning, Republic of Tanzanj-a. Sebstad, Jennefer and Martin d i ects in Kenva: Washington DC.

Walsh

1991 ra

'Kamba Troughear, Tony 1987 Carving: Past and Present , 1 9 , 1 5 - 2 5 .

Micro-enterprise ttd-rrr report to

Art

or

Industry?'

Credit USAID,

,

Kenya

Vandemoortele, Jan 1986 Emplolrment Patterns and Prospects in Kenva' paper prepared for the UNDP Fourth Country Programrne 198?1991, ILO/JASPA. Walsh, Martin 1991a Infqrrnal Sector Traininq in Kenya, working paper prepared for a joint ILO / Ministry of Technical Training and Applied Technology mission, Nai robi. i{aIsh, Martin 1991b Education. Training and the Informal Sector in Kenva, paper prepared for a joint rlo / t'tini-stry of rechnical Training and Applied Technology mission, Nai_robi. Williams, Carlton R. 1980 SkiIls Formation in the Kenyan Informal Economv' working paper no.362, Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi. World Bank 1988 Economic Report, Department.

Employment and Growth in Kenva: A World Bank Country Operations Division, Eastern Africa

Yambo, Mauri 1990 Skill TarAet Group Identification Mombasa. Kenva. Pre-Survey Nairobi.

Acquisition in the Informal Sector: and Pro.iect Feasibility Survey in Report, report to the ILO/SDSR project,

Yambo, Mauri 1991a TraininE Needs Assessment of the Kenyan Informal Sector: Prelininary Report, report to Kenya Industrial (Inf ormal Sector Pro ject ) , Kenya Institute Estates of lrlanagement, Kenya Rural Enterprise Programme, and the l'Iinistry of Technical Training and Applied Technology. Yambo, Mauri 1991b SkiIl Aiquisition in the Informal TarAet Group fdentification and Pro.'iect Feasibility Study. Town, Kenya, report to the ILO/SDSR Project, Nairobi.

Sector: Mombasa