The Potential For Community Management Of Wildlife Resources In The Lunda-mkwambi Game Controlled Area Bordering Ruaha National Park, Southern Tanzania

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THE POTENTIAL FOR COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT OF' WTLDLIFE RESOURCBSIN THE LUNDA.MKWAMBI GAME CONTROL ARBA BORDERING RUAHA NATIONAL PARK, SOUTHERN TANZANIA

Social Anthropologist's Report on the Village Development Componentof the Ruaha E cosyst em Wi IdI ife Man agemen t P r oj ect (REWM?)

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Martin Walsh

NaturalResources Institute,Chatham,UK & ZaruibarCashCropsFarmingSystemsProject, Zarzibar,Taruania

reportto ODA Dar esSalaam,November1995

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Summary The conclusionofthis reportis, in brie{ t}ratcommunity management of wildlife is viable within the currentLunda-MlcvambiGameControlled Area adjacentto RuahaNational Park. Given the progressmadeby the current RuahaEcosystem wildlife ManagementProject @EWMP), the n.Ld to continue facilitating the developmentof an institutionalframework for communitywildlife management, and the potentialfor learningimportantlessonswhich wiil assist the Department of Wildlife in implementing its new Policy wildtife Conservation and for Utilisation elsewherein Tanzania,it is recomm.na"othat oDA should continue to provide appropriate technicaland material support to REwMp.

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Introduction l' Thisreportis oneoftwo whichpresentsthe findingsandrecommendations of a consultancy to assess thepotentialfor communitymanagement ofwildlife resourcesin the Lunda-Mkwambi Game Control Area (LM GCA) which lies adjacentto the south-eastern and north-eastern boundaries of RuahaNational Park(RM) in southemTanzania.Theconsultancy wasundertaken in thesecondhalf of october1995by a tgamcomprisinganecologist,a socialanttrropologist, and a representative of the Departmentof Wildlife (WD) in the tvtinistryof Tourism,Natural ResourcesandEnvironment(MTNRE)..A separatereporthasbeenwritten by the consultant ecologist because of thepracticaldifficultiesinvolvedin Lompilingajoint productin the limited time availableto us. In the field alargemeasure of agreement wasreachedbetweenall three consultants aboutthepotentialfor communitymanagemintof wildlife resources in LM GC,\ and it is hopedthatthe reports provide will complementary perspectives, reflectingat the same !o time the authors'differentareasof concemandexpertise. Institutionsand Capacity 2' T\e VillageDevelopment component of theRuahaEcosystemWildlife Managementproject (REWMP)hasmadesignificantprogressin its communitywork, andhas established a solid foundationfor future development.It has done so by initiating "na .*pioiing a rangeof institutional mechanismsand linkagesat local,district,uni *idrr levils designed to facilitatethe implementation of thewildlife Department's (WD) newpolicyon theconvlrsionof GCAsinto Wildlife Management Areas(WMAs). 3. Thispolicyis well conceived, andis widelyunderstood andsupported by the WD andother government officialsdownto districtlevelwho havebeenfully exposedto it andwho will be amongits keyimplementers.REWMPhasmadean importantaddiiionalcontribution towards developingthis positiveenablingenvironment by collaboratingcloselywith the Community Conservation Service(CCS)of theTanzaniaNational Parksauthority(TANApA),bothat national committeelevelandthroughtheirjoint programme of work in LM GcA. District and RegionalLevels 4- The weakestlinks in the institutionalchainlie at districtandregionallevels, whereGame Officers(GOs)in particularfeelthreatened by a lossof theircontroloverresources underthenew programme.TheWMA conceptanditsarticulationbyREWMPwill, however,provide significant resource benefits,directlyandindirectly;to the district(andthereforether"gion; asa whole. The oppositionof individualstakeholders is neitherintrinsicto nor shouldit bea-lasiingfeatureof the newinstitutionalframeworkwhichREWMPis helpingto create,thoughearlyactionto resolve this problem(through,for example,continuedinteractionanddialogueJ *ouid be desirable. 5. Theformationof a DistrictSteeringCommittee(DSC)to adviseREWMp andhelp coordinate district,WD and1ANAPA effortsto establisha Wtue in LM GCA represents a morepositive development at this level. Althoughstill in its infancy,all thesignsarethatthe DSC will play an anincreasingly importantrole. It is enthusiastically supported byseniordistrictofficials,incluiing its chairma4the District ExecutiveOfficer (DEb), unatnr District NaturalResources Officer (DNRO).

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CommunityLevel 6' At communitylevelREWMPhassucceeded in facilitatingtheformationof a smallnumberof villagewildlife committees (wcs), whichhave*..g.0;.llintotheexisti"; fi-;.work ofvillage government'Thewcs areasrepresentative astheymightbe expectedto be at this earlystageof theirdevelopment in a contextwherevillagesr*pti. *idery scatterea suu-vilagesand are markedlypolyethnicin overall composition.women are represented in small but similar proportions to otherbranches of villagegovemment, asaremembersof livestock-keeping groups who are oftennot represented on thesedecision-making bodies.REWMp,srole hasbeento adviseandfacilitateratherthandictate,andthe wcs alreaiy exhibita sftongsenseof purposeand providea lively forumfor debate.Thereis no doubtthatihey haveboththe wrll andthe basic capacityto managewildlife resources, andshouldcontinueto maturewith appropriatesupport from the projectandotherlocal authorities. 7' REWMPhasalsobegunto examinetheneedfor otherkinds of institutionalarrangement and linkageat local level. the unequal distribution of landandwildlife resources -of Qiv.en betrveen villages,togetherwith existingpatterns openaccessto many of their naturalresources,it has becomeevidentthatthe simplevillagemanagement modelwill haveto be combinedwith other t^ttl3lilts designed to effecttheirclosecollaboration andensurethattheycansharethe benefits ofwildlife utilisationin asfair a wayaspo^s1ible. Thisproblernis highlightrauv h. caseof Lunda North(LN), thenorthemsectionof LM GCA which is cunenttyuiinfused asa touristhunting blockand,in theoryif not in practice,is out of boundsfor humansettlement andotherforms of utilisation' A proportionof therevenues from LN hasbeenallocatedto the villagesin Lunda South(LS),andREWMPauthorised to collectthemon villagers'behalf.It remainsto be decided how this moneycanbestbe distributed,anda relatedproil.rn arises overhow otherformsof utilisationmightbe organised (if at all) whenLN becomespartof the wMA. 8' Thereis no quickandeasysolutionto problemssuchasthese. This hascertainlybeenthe experience of othercommunitywildlife management projectsin Tanzania(in the Selousand Serengeti) aswell aselsewhere in Africa. REWMP'srelativelyyouthful.*p"ri"n.. hasbeenno different' project has evolved a processual approach, andshouldcontinueto work in this -The way' Trial andenor meansjust tha! andREWMPhasundoubtedlymade its fair shareof errors in the process.REWMP hasalsohad its own institutionalprobl"rnr, in termsof a lack of understandingand coordinationbetweenODA staff and, within the Village Development componentitself, a periodicshortfallin the numberof staff with the releiant community d-evelopment experience andskills. Thishasled to theneedfor repeatedinput, fro* BDDEA in Nairobi' and hassometimesproduceda lessthanhappyworkingenvironment, wherewellintentionedadviceandundueexternalpressure havenot-always beeneasyto distinguish. SomeShortcomingsin the Cunent Approach 9'- on9 essential aspectof communitywork which hasbeenneglectedhasbeenenvironmental educationandawareness-raising. Thiscanandshouldbean integralcomponentof participatory and action-oriented research,andnot an activity which is divoicedfrom it. The participatory productionofvillagenatural mapshasbien a stepin therightdirectiorLbut thereremains Jesgurce a lot morework of this.kind whichmightbe undertaken.Insteadtherehassometimes beena tendencyto approach this issuein formal,almostacademic, terms. To cite but oneexample,the time-consuming additionof thesemapsto a GIS database, while of potentialvalue-i;; ffi;;;

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whereprojectresources areabundant, becomes muchharderto justifo asa priority in a situation whereno onehasbeenproperlytrainedto useGIS andtheresults haveno immediaterelevance to thevillagerswho drewthe originalsexceptto confirmwhat theyalreadyknow. Exceptin very generalterms,relativelylittleattempthasbeenmadeto find out andmakeconstructive useofwhat villagersdo know and think aboutthe wildlife around them. The absenceof a creative participatoryapprglchon the projecthasnot undermined the viability of communitywildlife management in LM GCA,but well-designed inputsof this kind could contriuuiesignificantlyto its implementation. 10' Anotherandrelatedshortcoming of thectrrentREWMPapproachis its narrowinstitutional focusin thelocalcommunity.At presentREWMP'sworkstargity wittrformalvillagegovernment instifutionsandthevariouselectedandappointedofficialsworking at divisional,wardandvillage levels' Thiswasevidentduringthe.o*ulian"y in thetypesormeiingr *ni"tt *"re arranged and a reluctance to departfrom formalprocedure andchannils.while it obviouslymustbe a priority foTREWMPto workcloselywithandthroughgovernment institutionsandofficials,thereis clearly scopefor interactingproductivety with otherlocalinstitutions(for examplewomen,sgroups)and with villagersoutsideof the villagecentre. 1l' Thisproblemarisesin partbecause of REWMP'slimitedresources in termsof personnel and the physical distancebetweenproject headquartersin RNp and the LM GCA villages. Communications area particularproblemduringthewet season, andthis is especiallythe casein Pawagadivision'largeareasof whichareclosedto roadtransport duringand immediatelyafter the rains. At presenttheonly projectworkerbasedoutsideof RNp is a VSO attachedto REWMp who lives in Idodi village(in the divisionof the samename). A good casecanbe madefor strengthening REWMP's-community presence andwork by stationingprojectracilitatorsin each divisionandequippingthemwith wo-wheeledtranspoj. 12' Despitethesemisgivings,it shouldbereiterated thatREWMp hasmadesignificantprogress in facilitatingthedevelopment of an institutionalframeworkin whichtheconversion of LM GCA intoa viablewMA cantakeplace. Thereis still, however,a longway go, to in largemeasure because of thecomplexityofthe institutionalissuesinvolvedandtheconsequent needto adopta consciouslyexperimentalapproach. Peopleand Resources Control OverResources 13' what do thevillagersthemselves think?Theprimaryconcernof villagers,andin particular ofthe membersofvillagegovernment, is thedesiri to exercisecontrolovertheirown Iocalnatural resources'The corollaryof this is a desireto excludeor controlaccess by outsidersto scarce resources, especiallyresources like largegamewhicharebeingexploitei lanJ in manycases overexploited) by peoplefrom outsideof the communitywith tiute o, no uppurent benefitto it. Thispointwasemphatically madein all of the meetingsheldduringttreconsuttancy, including meetingswith localofficialsin villageswhichdonothaie wCs and/or arenot amongthesix pilot villageswhich REwMp is currentlyfocusingits attentionsupon. 14' Thisperceptionof resource controlandits potentialbenefitsto thecommunityhasnot arisen asa resultofREWMP'swork,thoughprojectactivitieshavehelpedto shapeso'meelementsof

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it' concernsarevoice{ {9ut a rangeof resourceissuesandconflictswhich REwMp hasnot tackleddirectly,andwhich clearlypredateits recentinterventions.Theseissuesinclude the destruction of localwoodlandsfor fuit by tobacco-gro*., from outside of LM GcA, andtheuse of scarcedry seasonwaterresourcesby the groorlngnurnb", of livestock-keepers in the area. villagerskeeninterestin actingupontheseissueshasiuelled theirready*pLi* of REWMp,s programme,and they are well awareof the linkages -game-focused betweenthem. The new Mapogorovillage wc is in fact called theKamatiya Kuhl{adhi-Mazingira no wronyo*apori, 'committee for theProtectionof theEnvironment andwildlife' by its members, andtheydescribe its primaryresponsibilities asbeingto protectandensurethe sustainable utiiisationof natural resources in the village. lr. t

ResidentHunting 15 Manyvillagers:[e veryconcerned the pastandpresentactivitiesof residenthunters, lbout in particularthosethey identift, rightly_or wrongly,as iembers of the Iringa branchof the HuntingAssociationof Tanzania(HAT) Residenthuntershavehunted gun.,.init " LundaSouth (LS)areasincethecolonialperio4 anduntil recentlywereallocated all of its gamequotathrough licencesissuedby the District and RegionalGameofficers (DGo and RGo). Most of the residenthuntersare-comparatively wealthycitizenswholive elsewhere in the district. A few are residentin LS itsel{,but themajorityof vi-llagers areunableto aflordhunters,Iicensesanddo not possess the appropriateweaponsfor legalhunting. l6' This long-standing stateof affairswaschangedin the 1995huntingseason(which runs throughthesecondhalf of the year)whenthe WD-directedthat a portion"of the gamequotabe tansferredto REWMP'ssix pilol villages.Residenthuntershave beenbanned,at leastfor the time being, from huntingin this area,the idea beingthat in future, oncethe wC, u." up and running,thehunterswill haveto negotiatedirectlywitf, villagesprepared to sell thempart or all of theirquotja.Initially a completemoratoriumon residenthuntingin LS wascontemplated.In a spiritof compromise, however,residenthuntershavebeenallowedto continuehuntingin other areasin tlte south-west andnorth-east ofLS wheretherearealsosignificantconcentrations of game'Nonetheless theyhavetemporarilylostlegalaccess to the".niul rruntingareawhich they favourmostbecauseof its easyaccessiuitityby-roadandopenterrain. 17'-Not surprisingly, thismajorshift in resource accessin favourof the LS villageshasnot been welcomedbyFIAI'members.At thetimeof the consultancy residenthunterswlerestill hunting in the closedarea,the RGo and DGo havingsanctioneithem to do so. The conflict and confi'rsion whichhasarisenhasbeenfurtherstokedup by reportsandallegations of continuing malpractice by residenthunters.Villagers,togetherwith ; varietyof otherJbr"*.rr, allegethat nmongothermisdeeds manyhuntersshootanimalsandnumbeisof animalswhichthey do not havelicensesfor,thattheyfrequentlybrellhytingregulationsby shooting fromvehicles,andthat someof themalsocrossoverintoLN andRNPto-takiadvantaglof the ich pickingswhich can behadalongtheGreatRuahaRiver. Thegeneralfeelingis thatiesidenthunters areoverexploiting thegameresources ofLM GCA andhavedoneso for ro-" y"urr, with "---- ---'-little "rrapparentbenefitto thevillageswhichtheypassthroughon theway. 18' F{AT officials stateclearlythat they would neversanction suchpracticesamongtheir membership, anddenythattheyhaveeverbeenpartof anyoverexploitationwhichhas takenplace. Iruteadthey pointto the fact that theyhaveprbvidedmuch-needed financialandothersupport

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to theWD at districtlevel,andhavecontributedin variouswaysto the developmentof someof thevillagesin LS. Needless to sayvillagerswho arecriticalorirnr respondto inrsby sayingthat thecostto themin termsof overhunting andextracted valuehasfar outweighed thebenefitswhich theyhavereceivedor beenpromised.cynics accuseFIAT of acting ouiof ulteriormotivesin providingassistance to localvillagesandindividualoffrcialsatdifferentlevels.Whatever substance theremaybeto thesedifferentclaimsandallegations, theresulthasbeenan unhealthyafinosphere of verbalconflict' Thishasbeena difficult situationforREWMp to deal with, andin attempting to do so it hasquitenaturallytakenthe sideof thevillagers. 19' Mattersreacheda headjust beforethe startof the consultancy,when the chairmanof FLAT Iringa wrotea strongly-worded letterto oDA's VillageDevelopment Adviser(vDA) allegingthat REWMPappeared to be workingagainstFIATandagainstthe interestsof wildlife conservation il GCA' This provided an excellentopportunityfor the consultancy !M teamto .seethingsat their worst', to assess the implicationsof this situationfor the futurebf ,o.rrrunity wildlife management in LM GgA andto explorewaysin whichthecrisismightberesolved.Two fruitful meetingswereheldwith HAT officialsandmembersin attend*.", Jn, at districtlevelchairedby theDNRo' theotherwith MalinzangavillagewC. TheRGo andthe DGo werealsopresentin the first meeting'aswasthe DGo in the second,togetherwith a rangeof other .key players,. Bothofthesemeetingssawsomelively andat timeshiateddebate,andioth endedon a positive note. 20' Various misunderstandings were clearedup aboutthe institutionalnatureand role of REWMP,andaboutthe presentstatusandfutureirop. for residenthuntingin LM GCA in the light of thewD's wMA policy. FIATandthe Gos exilainedtheir different-concerns, andways in whichthesecouldbeaddressed andtheir fuller pariicipationin the planningprocessenswed werediscussed andprovisionallyagreed,aswasa moreiransparentmechanismby which F1AT couldcontinueto supportWD work andvillagedevelopment. The Malinzangameeting included a longdebateabouttherole andresourcing of theviliagegamescouts,undth. HAT chairman pledgedvariousforms-ofmaterial supportwhich*.r" gt .tJd by enthusiastic clappingandcheers from the largeassemblyof peoplepresent. 21. Whilethiswasonly a smallbeginning,andthe roadaheadwill probablybe as roughas it is smooth,thereis anevidentneedto continueinteractions ofthis kind andkeepthe momentumof constructive discussion going. Resident !ryling doesnot posean intrinsicthreatto the viability ofcommunitywildlifemanagement, butchallenges projectimplementers to devisemeansby which suchmajorresource conflictscanbesettled.Theseionflictscannotalwaysbesolvedat locallevel, andthisunderlines theneedto facilitatethedevelopment of institutionaicapacity outsideaswell aswithin thecommunities in a WMA CommercialPoaching 22' Allegations of overhunting arenot only levelledat residenthuntersandthemembersof HAT. Somevillagesalsocomplairydthata largegangof poachers,numberingasmany as 50-60men, periodicallycamefrom outsideof LM GCA to raid itr gu*. ,erourc.s. The provenance of this gangis saidto bethevi.llage of Kipelaandthereabouts on the roadto Iringa. Villagerssaythat theyhavebeenrelativelypowerless to actagainstthesepoachers,who travelon foot andoff the mainroads.However,theynotedthatthegang(or gangs)havebeenmuchless activeoverthe pastyear,attributingthis factto theimpactsof REWMP'Swork. Although villagegamescouts

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havesofar onlybeendeployedin Malinzanga, it seemsthattheirpresenceandknowledgeof the increasing concemandvigilanceofvillage authoritieshavealready begunto deterpoachers.A numberof wc membersandothers*o.king with themfreely admitto havingpoachedin thepast themselves' andtherearesignsthattheug.oto strateryoftuming poachers into gamekeepers will work aswell within the local ro**unities as it t uilrcrr"r,.r". 23' rn thedecadeor sobeforethenationwideoperation uhai in l9g9 andthe internationalban on ivory and rhino horn trade,elephant-and ririno poaching were rife wiirrin and alongthe boundaries of RNP' Thereareno thinot left in RNP no*, but the elephant populationappears to be recoveringwell. Recently,however,therehasbeen a noticeable,Lrurg"nr" in ivory poaching,albeititat amuchlower level thanin the past, various sourcesallegethat powerful business interestsin Iringaareimplicatedin this. o*ring *ith this situationis ltearly thejob of theanti-poactrins unjljn RNPandlring4 andnot of REivMp, thougha well functioning wMA maymakeit more.difficultfor suchpoachers to operatein thisparticulararea. Giventhatthe greatest concentratio,n of elephantsis andalwayswill be in RNp'andthe adjoining GRs,where ivory poacherspreferto infiltrate duringthe wet ,.uron, there is no ,"urin why LM GCA,s viability asa wMA shouldbe affected,&"n if ivory pourhing continues. Pastoral Resources 24'-Anotherkeyissuein the contol of nahral resources revolvesaroundthe questionof access to theseby livestock-keepers. Thevastmajorityofvillagersin LS aremixed farmerswho derive mostof theirlivelihoodfrom the cultivationofiubsisterie andcash crops,the mostimportantof thesebeingirrigated.rice.lndeedthepotentialfor irigated agricultur.^uiong the GreatRuaha,s tributaries, andthehignfertility of newlyclearlyland,f,aveatkactedmanyfarmers from thesouth to settlein thisarea.As a resultof thisthe economyandsocialcomposiiion oirs arenow very differentfrom what they were in the earlycolonialperiod. Livestock-k".pingis much less importantforthe indigenous Heheandcoso-t1ran it formerlywas,andthey havebeenjoined by manyBena,Kingaandotherimmigrantcultivators.The iivelihood of the Kosisamba, former residents of RNPwhooncereliedmoreheavilyonhuntingandfishing,has alsoshifledin thesame direction'Ironicallyricewasfirst introducedandthis pricess setin rnotionby a small groupof professionalelephanthunters,Makuafrom southernTanzania. 25' while the indigenousethnicgroupsof LS havefewer livestock than in the past,other immigrantgroupshavecomeinto thJ areawith substantial livestockholdings. The first of these weremembersof the-Il-Parakuyu (Baraguyu)sectionof the Maasai,*t o u'"g* to settlein this areain the early 1950s.Many of themsubsequently took up cultivationaswell as livestockkeeping,as manyothergroupsof ll-Parakuyul,ihoti". in close contactwith mixedfarmershave done' Overthe pastdecadeor so otheragropastoralist groupshavealsomovedinto LM GCA with largeherdsof cattle. TheseincludenumbersofBaraiaigand sukuma,who havemovedup from theUsanguPlainsto the southof RNP. Thedry season'water resourcesof the Mtera Dam, on theboundarybetweenLS andLN, form a particuiarattaction to thesecattleherders,as do the cropresidueson irrigatedfarmsin LS. Estimatesofthe number of cattlenow to be found in LM GCA varybetween40,000and60,000accordingto season.At present this doesnot seemto be a seriousproblem.The maindangerlies in co=ntinued spilloverfrom usangu,wheregrowing populationpressure y9 th! imminentgazettement of the UsanguGR may well promptan even largerinflux of cattleherdersinto LMGCA.

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26' while localconflictsdo occuroveraccessto resources betweencultivatorsandlivestockkeepersandbetween.different groupsof livestock-keepers, theseareu.*lly;;olved within the village'Immigrantlivestock-keepers, however,form a smallandoftenn.,ouit.minorityof the population'andthis is reflectedin their low degreeof representation in villagegovernment, includingthenewlyformedwCs. Giventhefearolcontinuedencroachment by livestock-keepers, somevillagersseethe wCs asameansby whichtheycancontrolthis andrt"r *y futuretide of immigration' The livestock-keepers themselves lften feel that their interestsare not well represented andthat they arethe victims of ethnicstereotyping. 27' Recenteventsin Mlowa ward,whichincludesMalinzangavillage, illustratethis. Earlier in 1995 the Maasai living in this area were approachedby HIMWA (Huduma ya Injiri na Maendeleo ya Wafugail,'GospelServiceandPastoralist Development'), aMaasai-focused NGo basedin Iringawhichwantedto includethemin its programme.The Maasai complainedabout theirtreatrnent by othervillagersandexpressed particiar concernabouttheir exclusionfrom a localareawhichthey-had previouslybeenableio gr*and watertheiranimalsin quitefreely. Thisbanhadbeeneffectedthreeyearsearlierat theinstigationof theDGO, andwassubsequently backedby the local village authorities.The reasongiv-enfor the banwasthat their herdswere competingwith gamefor the sameresources, andtheiewasa dangerthat diseases would spread from the livestockto wild herds. 28' with HIMWA's encouragement theMaasaiformeda committeeto pressfor a reversalof this banandallocationof a definedareaof landfor their exclusiveuse. Theyhavenot donethis yet andfi'fther actionappearsto be awaitingHIMWA's assistance.It is proposedthat their chairman shouldfirst meetwith thechairmanofMalinzangaWC to discussthe issue.ThenHIMryA will approach REWMPto dotheszrme.Thereafterit is hopedthata meetingof thevillagegovernment will becalledto reacha final decision.If this failsio producethe dJsiredresultthen theywill pursuethe matterthroughhighergovemmentchanneli. 29' Whatevertheoutcomemaybe, this case pointsto the kinds of negotiation which are beginningto take placeand which will probably become increasingly f.""qu"nt -formation as the wMA develops.Theperceivedrole of the WC, andthe of a .o.iritt.", with NGO help,to representthe interestsof this particulargroupof livestock-keepers, can be seenas a positive development.The WCs on their own, with or without REWMi's help,cannot hopeto tackle every resourceissueand representevery sectionof interestsin the community Lffectively. Women'sinterests,.for example,might be betterservedby encouraging the participationof women'sgroupsin similarways. Otherorganisations like fniraWe with'sp-ecial concernswhich fall outsideof REWMP'simmediatebrief canalsoplay an importantrole in this process,and shouldbeencouraged to do so. To citeanother.*urpl., tlrereis obviousscopefor collaboration with the DANIDA HIMA (Hifadhi Mazingira,'Protectthe Environment')project in Iringa to explorewaysin whichvillagers'concemoverthedestuctionof their woodlands canbe tackled. Thisprojecthasbeenimplemented throughregionalanddistrictadministrativechannels,and its experiencein this regardcouldalsoform an importantassetto REWMp. Crop Raiding 3-0'In additionto expressing a desireto exercisecontol overtheirownnaturalresources, villagers also complainaboutcropraidingby wild animals.Whereasin theorytheycan call uponWD officersto assistthem,this oftenprovesimpractical,andvillagersarefrustratedby their inability

to huntverminbecause of therestrictions placeduponthemby theanti-poaching unitswhichwork outside of RNP boundaries. This affects tn.n unJ *omen farmersthroughoutLS, and is especiallyworryingto thosein poorerhouseholds whohavefew artemative sourcesof subsistence and income' Villagers do not always distinguish u"t*""n the different park and wildlife and this problem fostersa negativeimage which might ,"uouna upon project ilj::,TJt"J' 3l' Thereis obviouslya-needin this casefor more carefulcoordination betweenthe different authorities concernedandsomepotentialfor creating;;;;" positive view of theiractivities.one wayto do thiswouldbeto allow villagersto huntreignised verminrp".i.r r""r, aswild pigs. In somevillagescommunalhuntingof verminusedto u. ina"rtur.enbeforeplanting,but thispractice hasbeeneffectivelyforbiddenoverthe pasttwo decades. The reinstitutionof suchhuntscould form an additionalincentiveto.wc formation,especially in vilrages*ni"r, ur. predominantly agriculturalandhavelimitedaccess to largegamespecies within tn"L uo*au.i"r. Action against verminwouldalsoprovidea moreimmediatebenentto a largerandwider cross-section of the populationthantheprovisionof gamemeatdoes. VillageDevelopment 32' In the meetingsheld with villagersduringthe consultancy, the development of village infrastructuredid not loom aslargein the ageidaasthe issueof resourcecontrolandall that stemsfrom this' This wasin part a function-ofthe nature of the meetingsthemselves.It also reflectedthe factthatrevenues from wildlife utilisationin LM GCA haveonlybegunto enterone wc account'anda moreimmediateconcernwashow it might fund embryonicwc activities, especiallythe employmentof villagegamescouts.However, villagersareclearlyawarethat communitywildlife management andthe fundsderivingfrom it canandshouldin future be channelledin this direction,and as revenuesincrease it i, tit.ty that this will becomean increasingly importantincentiveto themfromtouristhunting ]he- ilnending transferof revenues LN to villages in LS means that this shourd ttupp"niinirty,oon. in 33' A numberofvillagesin LS havealreadybenefitted substantially from fundsprovidedthrough TANAPA's scIP (supportfor community lnitiutJ tt"*,rl programme.Thesefundshave beenusedto improvelocalschoolsanddispensarier, undiluu. hada noticeablypositiveimpact uponperceptions of RE\MVIPandits work,not to mentionthebenefitsprovideito usersof these facilities' Thecurrent-annual budgetof scP for assistin!rlrn**itles aroundRNp is Tshs 16 million,whichexceeds the annualdevelopmerturJg.lF"i the wholeof the district (c.Tshs l2 million)' scIP fundsare,however,alsointended6, ur. in villagesnearthe parkwhich are outsideof LM GCA andlie in otherdisbicts.It is also noicertainwhethertheallocationto RNp will bemaintained,glventhatit makesa lossandthat tt .r. i, somepressure for moresclp funds to be directedto the northernparkswhich generatethem. 34' while it is not at presentclearexactlyhowmuchrevenue LN will generate for villagesin LS, on somepredictions thesesumsmaywell matchor evensurpass thoseprovidedthroughsclp. whatevertheprecisefi-q:res,theviliageswhichbenefit from thisrevenuewill presumablyfeel a greatersense of ownershipandwill befreeto allocatethefundsasthey wish,whichis not thecase at presentwith scP funds. This will be evenmore true of funds*irirr, uirtug; generatefrom theirown utilisationactivities.

35' At thesametime thereis somedangerthatthesevillagesfundswill themselves becomethe subjectof conflictovertheir controlanddisbursement, Jspeciallyif theyr*.."d othervillage revenues'The mostobviouspatternof economicdiffereniiationin the iS villagesis linked to ethnic origin and associated modeof livelihood,while a loosestratumof relativelywealthy individuals'includingsalariedofficials,traders,andmenwho have allegedlymadetheir money from commercialpoachingcanbefoundin thevillagecenhes.It would beunfortunate if wildlife utilisationfosteredthe.furtherdevelopmentof economicdifferentiation in either of these directions,aswell aswideningthegendergapin accessto resources, thoughthis may happenin someinstances.Forthisreasonit is all themoreimportantto ensurethatthe interests of different sectionsof the communityareas fully represente-d in wildlife management andutilisationas possible,whetherthisbe on theWC or via otherlocalinstifutionsandmechanisms. Measuresto enstuemaximumtansparency andaccountability in thehandlingof fundsderivedfrom utilisation shouldalsobe workedout in conjunctionwith thevillagers.

Wildlife and Utilisation 36' Is there or will there be enoughgame in LM GCA to sustaincommunity wildlife management? As thisquestionwill beteatedmorethoroughlyin the accompanying consultant ecologist'sreport,I will confinemyselfhereto a numberof generalobservations. Theseall lead to the conclusionthat thereis and will alwaysbe sufficientgamein the areafor utilisation, that the pattern of institutional development and institritional linkagesbeingfosteredby 1t:gilg REWMPwill continueto evolvein thedirectionswhichthis reportsuggests they Should.At the sametime the casecanbe madethat effectivecommunitywildlife lt'"n"g.-"nt neednot and shouldnotrevolvearoundtheutilisationofgamealone:.u.n ifth"r. *.r" nJl*g" animals in LM GCA themanagement andutilisationof otherformsof wildlife andnaturalres6urcewould still be viable. This broaderperspective is at the heartof the WD's new policy,and it would be inadvisable to taketoo narrowa view of whatcommunitywildlife *unug.*.nt means. VillageHunting 37' ThecurrentstrateryofREWMP in its six pilot villagesreliesheavilyuponthe allocationof a quotaofgameanimalsto villageWCswhichtheymay,infuhue,useoidiipose of asthey wish for the benefitof the villageand its inhabitants.fnis is a novelinterventionin the hunting economyofLM GCA. In theorylocalresidents havein thepastbeenableto huntpermittedgami speciesin LS, providingthat theypossess the appropriateiicense,the appropriaieweapon,and abideby WD regulations abouthow, what,when-andwherethey hunt. in practiceonly a small minorityof villagerspossess thefinancialmeans(andin somecasesthe inclination)to huntunder theseconditions, andthevastmajorityofresidenthuntersoperatinglegallyin LS haveinsteadbeen relativelywealthypeoplefrom Iringatown andelsewheiein the,.gion 38' Thetransferof the gamequotafrom wealthyresidenthuntersto thevillage WC therefore enables (or will enable)morevillagersto huntlegallyand/orbenefitfromtheproJeeds of legalised huntingthanhashithertobeenthecase.It alsoslrvis to givethe WC a kick-start. The financial proceeds froma huntcanbeusedto fi,rndotherWC activiiies,includingtheemployment of village gamescouts,while the veryact of huntingandsellingpreviously'iorbidden'meatprovideJa

t

I

potentsymbolof villagers'legitimaterepossession of their own resources. 39' To dateonly oneof thesix pilot villagps,Malirzanga, hasbegunto tastethe benefitsof this transferof resources,lhough plansarerndenay to orglnisehunisin the other villagesin Idodi divisionwhichhaveformeowcs. Malinzangawc rtu"t, *itrt REWMp,s urrir,un"", conducted two huntssofar in the 1995season.Thefirst-tlurttoonptace in May unauiotur of rshs 77,g00 wasraisedfromthesaleofmeatfrom onebuffaloandsix impala. ihe secondhunt,in August, baggedthreebuffalo,threeimpalaand one-eluno, it. proceedsof which amountedto Tshs 194,000'Afterpalngvariousexpenses, includingth,"ostJor-aintaining lo uiirug"gamescouts, thewc currentlyhasTshs174,000in ils bankaciountand hasmadea reasonable startwhichwc membersareclearlyquiteproudof. Theothervillagesin trt" pilot haveevidentlytakennotice,and areeagerto follow suitassoonaspossible. GamePopulations 40' Malinzanga, it shouldbe noted,liesin themiddleofthe centralhunting areain LS, and most of thisareafalls within theboundaries of thevillage. rhe questionthereforeariseswhetherthere is sufticientgameavailablein thisareato satisfytheaspiiations of all of the pilot villagesand whetherits exploitationin this waycanbesustained in fuiure. unfortunatelythire areno reliable dataon gameanimalpopulations, eitherin LS asa wholeor in thecentralp6tti"r of it. Available estimates differ widelyandthekindsof datacollectionwhich would be neededto resolvethese diffe.rencesand providea moreaccuratepicture- animalcounts on the groundand/orcareful monitoringof offiake andtrophysizeandquality- havenever beenatteripted. 41' The questionof gamepopulation:"nq their adequacyfor sustainable exploitationcan, however,be answeredby taking a wider view. Informants generally are agreed that game populations in the centralportionof LS havedeclinednoticeabtyier tne pai tenyearsor so. Theyascribethisdeclinetoov_erhunting (in otherwordspoaching)by viltagersandby resident huntersfrom outsideof LM GCA. There-isconsequently u.*"J'*ntrast i; ;;*" densitieson oppositesidesof theRNP boundary,with high concenirations within theparf andmuchlower onesoutsideof it. 42' when overhunting occurs,thegameresourcesof LS aredepletedin two ways: directly, by thekilling of animals;andindirectly,by themovement ofdisturbedanimalsacrosstheGreatRuaha Riverto thesafetyof thepark It is importantto realisethat the game populationsof LS, indeed the wholeof LM GcA, do not comp.isean isolatedandfinitJrerour"". Rathertheyexistas components of thewiderecosystem whighfocusesuponRNP. when overexploitedor disturbed by otherformsof naturalresource utilisationoutsideortn. fark boundaries, thJywill retreatwithin thepark' Whenutilisationis carefullymanaged, theywill crossbackinto the LM GCA. This is preciselywhathashappened in thecaseof el-ephants, whiJ havebecomea seasonalmenaceto cropsin LS (astheywerebeforethe 'ivory crlsis')sincethe - crackdownon ivory ' poachingand tradefrom 1989onwards. 43' As long asthe gameanimalsin RNP andadjoininggame reserves (GRs)enjoyadequate protection'thecommongamespeciesin the "rotyJt"rnoniiin"u". bethreatenedby utilisationon its borders.Thekeyto sustainable utilisation(sustainabre {bt th;;o;;itiol" #l liesin caretul managingandmonitoringof theoffiakeandothernafuralresources which gameanimalsusein LS' TheexistingGCA systemof management hasclearlythiledandis incapableof providing

sustainable benefitsto thepeopleliving in LS. ThewMA approach beingpioneered by REWMp offers much betterchancesof su"ceis. As we haveseen, lrillug"r, trrr"ougrrout LS are clearly unhappyabouttheoverexploitation of localgnmeresources by poachers andhuntersfrom outside of theircommuniti?l Ey:n in villageslike itununau,*rti"rris ou*ide oiirr" piro, anddoesnot haveextensiveland(andthereforepotentialgame),.ro*", of its own,stepshavebeentakento monitor the activitiesof hunterspassingtrtrougrrto hunt elsewhere.As a resultpoachingby outsidersis widely reportedto hauediminished-over the pastyear. 44' Thereis everyindicationthattheconversion of LM GCA into a wMA andthe development of communify-based management systems will afforda betterlevelof protectionto RNp andthe gamearoundits easternbordersthanhaspreviouslybeen attainable.The onifuiuul. alternative wouldbe a completemoratoriumon huntingandrestriction of otherforms of humanresource utilisationwhichareincompatible with thep.ir.n"" org*n., combinedwith effectivepolicing of thesemeasuresby RNP and otherauthorities.Howeler, it i, i, un option *rrich would both consume the Iimitedfinancialresources of theseauthorities andoffer tittie in the way of benetits andincentivesto the local population.This is precisely*t y tlr. WD hasformulatedits wMA ' J policy. 45' Returningto the questionof gamepopulationsand human impactsuponthem,the most appropriate strategywouldbe to encoutps"tt" development of monitorlngu"tiuitiesat village level' simplerecordsof huntingexpeditions, theirsuccesVfailure andkophy quality canbe kept by wcs andcollatedand_analysed by wD officersasa working substitu; ior.*p"nrive animal censuses'Informationof thiskind canbeusedto helpsetgamequotas: at presenttheseseemto be basedon no morethaninformedguesswork. Uilisation Optiow 46' rthasalreadybeennotedthatvillagen' primaryconcernis to establishcontrolover accessto nafuralresources, includinggameanimatsanaotherformsof wildlife, sothat tt "y "un enjoythe benefitswhichmayderivefrom theirufilisation.In thecaseof game, theircurrentconceptionof differentpossiblefonnsof utilisationis largelyshapedby their fast experi"n"" unothe activities whichREWMPhassponsored to date,focusingupondiiectconsumption.Thefactthatrelatively little consideration is givento indirectro*urpion andnon+onsumptiveuse game of resources at thisstagedoesnot entailthattheylackfeasiLilitynor thattheywilf remain low prioritiesin the future' lndeed,andasREWMPhasrecognised, onl of its own futureroleswill beio helpvillagers explorethediflerentoptionswhichareavailable.Forthetime being REwMp has,quitesensibly, givenhigherpriorityto theestablishment of theWCs,andnotwishedto rushvillagersinto making decisionsaboutdifferentutilisationoptionswhenit is clearlytoo earlyro,.tnefi to do so. 47' Theongoingprogramme of villagegamehuntingexercisesis thereforebestconceivedas a meansto anendratherthanasanendin itself It is necessary to saythisbecauseof the tendency of someobservers to judge the projectprematurelyon the basisof this activityalone. The provisionofgamemeat,for example,shouldnot beihought of asmajorfactorin assessing the viabilityof directconsumption.The fact that presentunifirtur" huntingquotasareunlikely to havea significantimpact fPon thesupplyof meatin LS is relatively*i.frrt^igiu.n thecurrent role of animalmeatin villagers'dietj. Villagersreportthattheygenerallyeatmeatno morethan oncea weekor so. Whenaskedthereasons for this,theypoinito its relativelyhigh costandthe factthatit is generallyin shortsupply:cattleandsmallstockarenot slaughterecl on a daily basis

in most of the villagesin LS. Gamemeat,poached or otherwjse,is an evenlessfrequent componentof the localdiet. As far ascanbe established the ma;orityoruiirug"r, haveonly occasionallytasted gamemea! if at all..Villagersnafurallyexpressa desire to eatmoremeat,and are enthusiasticaboutthe prospectof havingreadieru"J"r, to gamemeattlrroughthe hunting quota' More thananything.else, though,thii symbolisestheir rlgitimate ;;;,"r" of a resource whichtheycouldonly previouslyaccesiillegiiimatet. 48' FormuchthesamereasorLit is diflicult at presentfor villagersto contemplate sellingon their on theirquotato theresidenthunterswhomttreyreetthemselves to be in conflictwith. And while FIATofficialshavedeclaredtheir willin$esl to p1yhigherfees for gamehcenses, thesumsthey proposefor differenL:p".i"l still represent only afractiJnof thevalui of thern"u,on thecarcase. Thereis thereforestill a widegulf betrveen thelnterests andintentionsof theJo partiesinvolved, andit maybe sometime beforethis gulf canbe bridged,even with REWMp,s adviceandhelp. In theshorttermat leastit is probablethatdirectconiumption will continueto providevillagers with thebestreturnson theirquota,thoughit is impossidr. to predictwhat kinis of negotiation mighttakeplaceandcompromises reachedin the future. 49' While somewC membersarealreadythinkingaboutthepossibility of touristhuntingand/or gameviewing,thereis a generallack of knowledgeabout whatthis would entail. The valueof gametrophies,for example,is notwidelyappreciated. Thisis anotherareain whichREWMp can playanimportantfacilitatory in conjunction *th otherinterested n"1nuis partiesor agencies. Io1., Theprogramme ofvisits to RNPwhichREIVIIP is arrangingforvillager, ,un'b" seenaspart of this process'At presentLS villagersrarelyinteractwittriorirists, and-RNpdoesnot in any case attractlargenumbersof them. 50' It is generallyagreedthatpresentgamedensitiesin LS are insufficient for it to be usedasa touristhuntingbloclqthoughoneillicit quasi-tourist campis rumouredto havebeenoperatedby a residenthunterin the *.:1in recentyears,andsmall-scale legalisedtouristoperations cannotbe ruledout asa futurepossibilityshoddgamenumbersincreaseand viilagersagree.LN, however, is cunentlybeingusedasa touristhuntingblock,andholdsthe greatesipot"itiur for utilisation. As alludedto above,it alsopresents u nrr-b"r ofproblems,andvlll provide* i-po*nt testcase in thetransitionto communitywildlife management. 5l ' TheFrenchcompanywhichusesLN alsohuntsin the Rungwa andKisigo GRsto the west. Theprofessional hunterscomplainthathumandisturbancein_thesouthernpart of LN bordering theGreatRuahaRiverandtheMteraDam made it unprontable to hunt in this particulararea. !ay9 As well as being the site of an unofficial settlement,this area is frequentlyvisited by honey-gatherers aswell aslivestock-keepers andfisherswhoexploitits permanent waterresources andthegoodpastures whichbordertheJe.Thesouthernstretchof LN is arsorefuted to be used by residenthunters.who illegallycrossinto it from LS. Elsewherein LN, the French hunters complainthattheyfind themselves competingwith poachers who comeinto the huntingblock from thevillageof Ilangali. Thisvillageis locatedtoihe north of LN, anda fails within Dodoma region. 52' Despitetheseproblefs,LN clearlygenerates morerevenuethroughtouristhuntingthanis currentlyor everlikely to begenerated throughgameutilisationin LS. Touristspayconsiderably morefor theirtrophiesthanresidenthuntersdo for their licences or the ,unr, uillugerscanraise fromthesalesof gamemeat. For example,whereanordinary buffalo licencecostsTshs6,000 peranimal'andthemeatmight besoldfor someTshs50,000,iouristhunterspayUS$g00for the

firstbuffaloshotandus$ 600persubsequent kill. In 1994thecompanyoperatingin LN declared thattheyhadcollected c.US$11,000in trophyfeesfrom it. Underexistingarrangements all of thisrevenuehasgoneto tlretreasurynaz6"l" ofit suuselulntly claimeoffi" ottrict. Noneof this revenuehasbeenof directbenefitto the viltagers-orlS, a number'ofwhom lived in LN beforeit becamea GCA in 19g5. 53' Therearea numberof optionsfor the futureof LN. one proposalis that it shouldbe taken outof LM GCA andgivenGR status.In this case,however, LS villagerswouldcontinueto be deniedanyrole in its management andthet_ene{1-s accruingfror it. tI is more likely, however, andconsistent with the wD's policy,that LN will bedeveLpedasa wMA in conjunctionwith therestofLM @A. Thi.sontionii supportedby the chief warden of RNP aswell asofficials in thedisfict administation.The qutrfion thenremainsas to which fonns of utilisationin LN would be mostappropriatein future. 54' The simplestsolution,at leastin theshortterm,is to retain LN asa touristhuntingblock. FollowingnewwD a proportionof its 1995revenues will be directedto thevillagesin LS. rylicy' 25o/o of therevenues for thecurrenthuntingseasonwill accrueto local villagers(via REwMp), a further 20Yoto the districtauthorities,and the remaining55yotothe tieasury. when LN achieves full wMA statusthevillagers'sharewill in theoryriseto 75oA,with l5o/oforthedistrict, l0o/ofor the Tanzaniawildlife Protection.Fund (TWPF;,and nothingfor the treasury.The transferof thesefundsto villagesin LS will clearlygrvea considerable boJstto anyincomeswhich theymightderivefrom gameutilisationin LS iheff. 55' How to divideoutthesefunds,or howto manageaccessto LN if villagersarealsopermitted to utilise someof the resources within it, arernJr. aim.ult questions to answer.REWMp's currentunderstanding-is thatthevillagesofPawagadivisionhavehistoricallandrightswithin LN, whileit is suspected, thoughnotyetproverLtlrat villages in Isinrani division (where REWMp lome hasnot worked)mayhavesimilarrights. Sorting out thise rightson a vitiage'uyvillagebasis wouldundoubtedly be a time-consuming andgimcgt taslggiventhehistoricalpatternof village andpopulationmovementsin this areaandthe differenttlnas of claimsuporir.rourcesin LN whichdifferentvillagesandsubvillagescouldmake.Someofthe complexitfus involvedemerged duringtheconsultancy in a discussion of thisissuewith theDNRo *dtn" District Beekeeperin As suggested earlier,the bestapproachto this questionwould seemto be to ld.lgu 'villagisation'of avoid the access to resources wherethisis likely to provecounterproductive, and to divide thebenefitsof utilisationasfairly aspossiblebetrveen viilages. Conclusion 56' communitymanagement of wildlife is viablein LM GCA,andthe processof converting it intoa wMA hasalreadybeensetin motionby the wn unJngwMp. The issuesinvolvedare complex'and balancingthe interestsof a wide anay of stakeholders from communitylevel upwardsdemandsinstitutionalinnovationand"ur.ful facilitation. The VillageDevelopment componentof REWMP has playeda key role in this respect, and has estabtished a good foundationfor futuredevelopmentAt thesametimethereis clearlystill a lot of workto bedone. If ODA supportwerewithdrawnat this stage,it is likely thatthemomentum whichhasdeveloped wouldbe lost,andunlikelythatanotherd_"_l"l9oul9 nit ttregap. If oDA supportis maintained, andcurrentshortcomings addressed, LM wMA will havea iruch greaterchanceof successand the potentialto actasa modelfor thedevelopment of otherwMAs in Tanzania.

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Recommendations 57. oDA supportto the development of LM GCA asa wMA shourdcontinue. 58' Thewiderobjectiveofthis support'should beto assistthe wD in implementingits policyfor wildlife conservationand (rilistation,with specialreference to the conversionof GCAs into WMAs. 59' Thespecificobjectiveshouldbethe^conversion, ideallywithin the lifetime of the project,of LM GCA into a well-functioningWMA 60' Theprojectshouldbe explicittyconcernedwith the whole of LM GCA, includingthe areas in whichREWMPhasneverworked,for exampleIsimani division.This is ;";";ruqy becauseof the interestsof Isimaniin LN aswell asthe Mtera Dam and therzazarrunting ur"u. 61' A phasedexpansion of village-levelfacilitationstartingfrom currentwork in the six pilot villagesshouldbe combinedwith planningandfacilitationfrom the district-leveldownwards, buildingupon currentwork with ihe DSa. The issueol'LN and villale airtriuutionof the revenuesfrom it shouldbe an earlypriority. 62' Closecollaborationwith TANAPA at nationalcommittee level and throughthe SCIp programmeat RNP level shouldcontinue. 63' closerlinks shouldbe established with government deparhnents at bothregionaland district levels'ThisshouldincludemeetingsandcJnsultations u, upprop.iate with ut-ltt . departments concerned with naturalresourceissuesin LM GCA. 64' Particularattentionshouldbepaidto ensuringthemoreeffective participationofthe Gos and otherofficerswhohavehithertobeendistanced frim theproject,partlybecause of theirperception that theyhavenot benefiuedfrom it but lost someof theii authority instead. 65' Particularattentionshouldbe paidto ensuringthe moreeffective participationof resident huntersandespeciallythemembersofHAT FlATispotential to makea'positivecontributionto communitywildlife management shouldbe encouraged, and uppropriut.channelsfor this established. A confrontational approachshouldbe avJided. 66' Closerlinks shouldbe established with otheragencies andNGos whichareworkingin or preparedto work in L-M especially those dealing with naturalresourceissuesand/or -GCA, stakeholder interestswhichcomplement the concerns of-theproject. 67' A specialeffort shouldbe madeto exploreways in which women,sparticipationin communitywildlife management canbeimprovid,whetherdirectly(e.g.through*o*"n,, groups) or throughotherorganisations with a focusupongenderissues. 68' Likewisemoreeffortshouldbemadeto-facilitatethe participation of otherminority groups (e'g' immigrantlivestock-keepers, peopleliving in sub-villages fa, outsideof thevillagecentre). 69' In view of the likely knock-onefrectsof developments in Usangutheseshouldbemonitored, if possiblethroughtheproposedWorldBankprojeciand/orODA,s inputinto it. In theeventthat

thisgetsoffthe groundthepossibilityof closecollaboration on issuesof mutualconcern(e.g.the management of resourceconflicts,the problemof the seasonal drying-upof the GreatRuaha River)shouldbe explored. 70' Abroaderconceptionof wildlife andrelatedresources, consistentwith that espoused by the wD aswell asstakeholders at communitylevel,shouldinro.rn the project. Fishing(the subject of a separate consultancy) andhoney-gathering / ue"t ""fing arethe mostobviousadditional components'Likewisethenee-d for crop protectionand.unug",n.nt of scarcewaterresources shouldbe drawninto the wildlife utilisaiionframework,*rti.rt hastendedin the pastto focus almostexclusivelyon largegameanimals. 71' The projectshouldhavean activeandcreativeawareness-raising component at different levels'Thisshouldinclude'amongotherthings,explanation anddiscussionofwD policyand projectobjectivesat regionalanddistrictlevel,ind pu.ti.ipuiory examination of theprosandcons of differentformsof wildlife utilisationat communityleveland how thesemight be developed. 72' Apptopriate trainingandsupportshouldbe givento wcs to facilitatevarious aspectsof their operation'This shouldincludetrainingofvillagegamescouts(in collaboration with the WD), the development of gamepopulationrnonitoringlrJcedures, udui." on how to operateunfamiliar formsofutilisationandnegotiate with extemalciientsandaiencies,andadviceontt . management of fundsgeneratedby utilisation. 73' Mechanisms for inter-villagewC collaboration andcoordinationshouldbe given particular attention,andtheir developmentfaciIitated. 74' The potentialfor inter-villagesharingof resourceutilisation shouldbe followedup as a priority,includingthe proposalthatvillagessharequotason discretehuntingUtort, within LS. 75' The projectandits staff shouldbe basedwheretheyare mostlikely to impactuponkey institutionsandstakeholders. Seriousconsideration shouldbegivento theproporutthat advisers bestationed in kingatown,with directaccess to regionalanddistrictlevelinstitutionsandagencies andbetteraccessto thenortherndivisionsof LS thanfrom RNp headquartersconsideration shouldalsobegivento thestationingof counteryarts andcommunitycoordinators within LS itselfl, andtheprovisionof two-wheeled transportto them.