Women’s Group Enterprises: A Study Of The Structure Of Opportunity On The Kenya Coast (summary)

GROUPENTERPRISES: LIOMEN'S on the Kenya Coast A Study of the Structure of Opportunity

by Jeanne HcCormack Hartin Ualsh CandaceNeIson June 30, 1986

P r o g r a r na n d R ; ;n; lr-a" n v ^e^st o" tu- ri nc ie"Dt ni v" ti si oi onna l o f t h e B t t r e a u f o r A r e p o r t t o t h e -H- u on research D e v e l o p m e n t ' potlcy coordinaii;;; "onautt"a under Contract-OTR-OO-78-c-00-2313-00'

l J o r l d E d u c a ti o n ' I n c ' 210 Lincoln Street B o s t o n , l { a s s a c h u s e t t s0 2 1 1 1 U .S . A .

TABLEOF CONTENTS Table of Contents Llst of Tables ts Acknovledgemen Chapter 1: Introduction A.0rigins of the studY B . P u r P o s eo f t h e s t u d Y C . F o c u so f t h e s t u d y Chapter 2: Reviev of the Llterature A . U o m e n ,p r o d u c t i o n , a n d r e p r o d u c t l o n ln Kenya B . V o m e n ' sg r o u P s a s a d e v e l b p m e n ts t r a t e g y v o m e n C . R e p r o d u c t l o na n d r u r a l K e n y a n Chapter 3: HethodologY A . R e s e a r c hd e s i g n B. Hethods 1 . S a m P I es u r v e y 2 . C a s es t u d i e s 3 . P r o j e c t i n c o m ed a t a 4 , S u P P I e m e n t a rdYa t a C . H e t h o d o l o g i c a lP r o b l e m s D . C o n c e P t u a li s s u e s Context ChaPter 4: The llolen's Groups and Their A. The Coast B . T h e v o m e n ' sg r o u P m o v e m e n t C . T o t o t o H o m eI n d u s t r i e s Non-ueobers, arrd ProJect Chapter 5: The golen,s Groups: }|enbers, Plnances A. B. C. D. E.

G r o u Pm e m b e r s G r o u b m e m b e r sa n d n o n - m e m b e r s G r o u Pn e m b e r s h i P Leaders Project financlng

Chapter 6: Pour Case Studles ---*. Introduction u o m e n ' sG r o u p B. L"uoiring- a"uit assoclatlon: l,l:vamambl 1. The role of the state project z. ioiolo-ttor" Industries and the L,ater 3. Constraints of the peasant economy a. C"nO"t, differentlaiion' and group leadershlp 5 . S u r n m a rdYi s c u s s l o n Group T h e corporale entrePreneur: Hldodonl llomen's C. 1. The l{ldodonl ProJect 2 . i " i t t t y i n g t h e s i a t e ' m a n i p u l a t i n gN G O ' s 3. iou"ef,lfai, gender, and dlfferentiation 4 . S u m m a rdYi s c u s s i o n U o m e n ' sG r o u p D. The fong "tio of tradition: Bogoa 1. Foundations 2 . S u c c u m b i n tgo t r a d i t i o n 3 . V o m e na n d t h e i s l a n d e c o n o m y 4 . S u m m a rdYi s c u s s i o n GrouP E . A b a k e r Y ' s d e c l i n e : M a P i m oU o m e n ' s 1 . F o r m a t i v eY e a r s 2. Conditions and accldents of enterPrlse 3. The Peasant economy 4 . S u m m a r Yd i s c u s s i o n

Chapter7: PertilitY A. B. C. D.

K n o v l e d g ea n d p r a c t i c e o f f a m i l y p l a n n i n g H a j e n g o l l o m e n ' sG r o u P Children and the peasant economy Groups, chlldren and reproduction

Chapter 8: Concluslons A. B. C. D.

Hov to generate income E c o n o m i ie f f e c t s o f i n c o m eg e n e r a t i o n I n c o m eg e n e r a t i o n a n d g e n d e r I n c o m el e n e r a t i o n a n d f a m i l y p l a n n i n g

Chapter 9: PoIlcY Recolrendations GlossarY of Abbrevlatlons gords Glossary of Svatrlll and Vernacular References

develoPnent

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

Background of the study This report describes the findings of a three-year study of the effects of vomen's participation in incomegeneration projects on household research vas to The major objectlve of this income and fertility. planning vi th vhether such projects, or vi thout family deterrnine incomeand their receptivity to and components, increase participants' Research questions included the folloving: acceptance of family planning. --

Do income generation projects

increase real income?

-- Does success or failure of groups to increase real ineome affect fertility attitudes, knowledge, or behavior? V h a t p r o g r a m c o m p o n e n t sa r e c r i t i c a l decreasing fertility?

in

increasing

income and

Vhat external events or conditions are necessary for Iead to failure?

success or

questions concerned vith differentiation, class social Other formation, gender relations, group function and structure, and household income and expenditure vere also addressed. T h e s t u d y f o c u s e d o n t h e p r o g r a m o f T o t o t o H o m eI n d u s t r i e s , a l o c a l voluntary organization located in Kenya's Coast Province, and on a sample The research vas of the 45 vomen's groups vith vhich it has worked. carried out by Vorld Education, vith assistance from Tototo, and vas funded the Agency for Program and Pol-icy Coordination of by the Bureau for International Development. M u l t i p u r p o s e w o m e n ' s g r o u p s a r e c o m m o n p l a c ei n K e n y a a n d a r e c u r r e n t l y estimated to number 15,000. Formed in part as a response to the Kenya government's self-help, or harambee, policy and partly in response to the government's Vomen's Group Programne, these groups normally undertake a Group projects include building range of community development activities. credit nursery schools, organizing day care programs, forming revolving associations, securing safe vater supplies, and developing small businesses vomen's groups WhiIe Tototo has assisted rural on a cooperative basis. i t i s t h e d e v e l o p ment of group range of activities, vith the entire g e n erally have 25 h e r e . G r o u p s h a s o u r a t t e n t i o n t h a t o c c u p i e d enterprises poultry members and embark on such businesses as bakeries, to 30 production, farming, and retail sales. g r o u p s' vomen's of analysis: The study employed three uni ts m e m b e r so f v o m e n ' s g r o u p s , a n d t h e h o u s e h o l d s o f g r o u p m e m b e r s . individual 406 vomen from 13 A baseline sample survey vas conducted in 1983 of locations a n d i n c l u d e d n o n - r n e m b e r sa s v e l l a s m e m b e r s . T h i s v a s f o l l o v e d of field research vhich yielded four case studies by anthropological

1t

Group income data groups and their small enterprises. specif ic Jgm€n's g r o u p s ; supplementary data k e p t b y t h e vere gathered from the cashbooks relating to projects and groups vere collected by Tototo staff. The data T h e s u r v e y d a t a p r o d u c e d a p r o f i l e o f g r o u p m e m b e r ss i m i l a r t o r e s u l t s recent survey research carried out on women's groups in Kenya. of other Income generation groups include vonen of all ages, most of whom are stable and They are residentially married and have five or six children. age as farmers. Members'meanage is 37 years, and their vork primarily shovs a preponderance of vomenover 40. Nine percent are distribution Twenty-nine percent are members vidowed and nearly seven percent divorced. Christians make up 452 of the mernbership ald of polygynous households. practice. The Muslims about 412. The remaining vomen follov traditional m ale l a n d t h r o u g h v i t h t o a c c e s s farmers vomen studied are largely h o u s e h o lds t o t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e T h e e c o n o m i c p r i m a r i l y h u s b a n d s . relatives, r e s o u r c e s a nd t h e o n l o c a l e a n d o n t h e d e p e n d s c u l t i v a t i o n of their opportunities available to the vomenvhere they live. M e m b e r s o f v o m e n ' s g r o u p s d i f f e r f r o m n o n - m e m b e r so n l y i n a g € r f o r n o n - m e m b e r st e n d t o b e y o u n g e r t h a n m e m b e r s . A l t h o u g h n o n - m e m b e r sa r e a l s o and ovn land than are members, the apparent to cultivate less likely economic disadvantage of the former can be explained by their younger age in the lifetime process of accumulation of and corresponding position v e a l t h . a n d assets The case studies, vhich form the core of this research, describe four have undertaken very different v o m e n ,s g r o u p s v h i c h very different The key to understanding the operation of women's groups and enterprises. in the of their income-generatingProjects lies the success or failure e c o n o mic t h e e x t e r n a l a n d f o r m a t i o n s s o c i a l i n d i g e n o u s betveen relation forces that are vorking to transform them. This transformation is far from modified comple.te, and vhile indigenous formations have been considerably to them' resistant remain strongly forces of change, they by ihe enterprises particularly along the Kenya coast. Vomen's groups and their juncture of the forces of both capitalist and peasant at a critical itand economies and may be severely constrained by one or the other. i o m e n ' sG r o u p , p r o v i d e s a n e x a m p l e T h e f i r s t g r o u p d e s c r i b e d , M v a m a m bW Because the menbers' d e v elopment. o f g r o u p s t a g e e a r l y i n a n a of to support group ability financial households have a very Iirnited and therefore to capitalize any business, the group remains activities associatlon. mired in repeated failure to maintain a revolving credit firnly a unable to establish they are capital, Vithout sufficient r o o f i n g s a l e o f a n d m a n u f a c t u r e t h e business-potentially lucrative Midodoni Vomen's Group presents another example, this time a rnaterials. Vith significant investment by an outside successful one. relatively h as been able to earry out several innovative M i d o d o n i a g e n c y , development households a n d w h i l e m e m b e r sa n d t h e i r eommunity dev-lopment activities, t h e v o m e nh a v e y e t t o r e c e i v e i n c o m e have benefitted from these activities, The third case' that of Bogoa from the vell-established group enterprise. faced by vomenvho try to enter a the difficulty W o m e n , sG r o u p , i l l u s t r a t e s

111

Supported by foreign donors, Bogoa began a ferry male econesfc- domain. t h eir island homeand the mainland, but by adopting b e t v e e n boat operation the only model they know of managing the enterprise, they doomedthemselves T h e l a s t g r o u p d e s c r i b e d , M a p i m o ,e s t a b l i s h e d a v e r y to an early failure. feII into s u c c e s s f u l b a k e r y b u t , b e c a u s eo f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ' d e c l i n e a f t e r s o m ey e a r s . M a p i m o ' se n t e r p r i s e h a s b e e n t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l has had i n p r o d u c i n g i n c o m e f o r i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r sb u t t h i s , i r o n i c a l l y , no effect on gender relations vhich are determined by factors virtually other than those usually posited by vomen-in-developmentadvocates. Hov to Generate Income their success of vomen's groups rests on the extent of The initial a c c e s s t o t h e l a b o r o f m e m b e r sa n d t o t h e c a s h p r o v i d e d b y m e m b e r so r t h e i r The amount of income vhich these households (and vomen as households. h o u s e h o l d m e m b e r s )a r e p r e p a r e d t o i n v e s t i n g r o u p s l s c o n d i t l o n e d b y t h e to meet these demands, and the sum of demands upon them, their ability return they ean expect from this as opposed to other investments. 'in a group typically promises no more than a long-term return' Investment is, that cash to group enterprises accordlngly-and members contribute Labor investments are subject to their cash investments are usually small. s e t o f c o n s t r a i n t s , a s i s t h e t i m e t h a t m e m b e r sa r e p r e p a r e d t o a similar devote to group meetings. Groups do not possess the pover to separate Under these households or enforce participation. members from their g r o u p s v o r k i n g t o e s t a blish viable a l o n e f o r i t i s n o t e a s y circumstances, enterprises. In order to overcome such formidable obstacles' groups need allies' and the najor allies available to them are the government, represented in Kenya by the Department of Social Development, and non-governmental T o t o t o H o m eI n d u s t r i e s a n d V o r l d E d u c a t i o n . organizations (NGO's) tike particularly the s o m e w h a ta m b i g u o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p , a m a d e , a I I i e s o f f e r 6nce The assistance. government, for it can and does exact a price for its demands placed upon groups and their members' households include labor and butr otr the other hand, government representatives cash contributions, a fledgeling grants vhich can help to capitalize provide groups vith NGO's offer capital to groups but also important technical enterprise. assistance in the planning and operation of their enterprises. those vhich are that are nev to a community, particularly Enterprises Such for groups to operate successfully. intensive, are difficult capital lie far outside the experience of groups members, vho thus enterprises require continued inputs of advice from external agencies. This problem is magnified in the case of enterprises employing complex technical processes for groups to maintain or expand or machinery vhich can be difficult injections of capital from the outside. These kinds of vithout further controls, including b o u n d e db y o f f i c i a l enterprises are characteristically p r o d u c t s . W here groups employ p r i c i n g m a t e r i a l s a n d r a v o f state-regulated in f o r t h e m t o c o m p e t ev i t h r i v a l s it may be difficult labor, collective As a result, it is not easy for such businesses to sector. the private Given the various constraints vhich operate remain economically viable. upon collective enterprises, choosing one that requires minimal involvement

1V

of group =-{eimbers in its day-to-day running presents a solution to many of The replacement of unpaid collective labor by formal vage thele iroblems. labor ii another meansby vhich greater efficiency might be achieved. The simplest vay to avoid someof these constraints is to choose the right enterprise in the first place. The easiest enterprises for groups to run and maintain are arguably those vhich reproduce existing processes of is accumulation in the local community. As such their viabillty capital t h e y a n d r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , i s r u n t h e m t o n e e d e d prbuen, the knovledge g r o u p t h a t a b l e t o i s A a g e n c i e s . e x t e r n a l f r o m l e s s s u p p o r t require promise as its i s m u c hm o r e l i k e l y t o f u l f i l l such a project select corporate entrePreneur. Economic Effects

of Income Generation

In so far as they are able to escape the constraints of the peasant of e n t e r p r i s e s b e c o m es u b j e c t t o t h e l o g i c economy, groups and their in effect r 3S agents of economic divelopment and act, capi taiistt f r e y d o t h i s i n a n u m b e ro f v a y s . F i r s t ' g r o u p s s h e d o r diiferentiation. that they are exclude vomenvhose domestic circumstances are so difficult c a sh and labor u n a b l e t o s u s t a i n g r o u p s n e m b e r s h i p a n d t h e d e m a n d su p o n f o r t u n a te categories l e a s t t h e v o n e n i n As a result, many that it entails. g r o u p s . remain outside of Second1y, groups vhich are vorking free of the peasant economy tend to of members vhose background and under the control come increasingly domestic circumstances make them better equipped to run their enterprises. development favors vomen vho already occupy a their In other vords, fortunate position in their householdsand/or the community. relatively T h i s d i s c b u " r y t h a t g- pr oa ur tpi ceunl at er lryp r i s e s , i f s u c c e s s f u l , b e c o m ei n s t r u m e n t s o f painful for someinternational NGO's and is differentiatibn i n h e r e n t in the notion of incomegeneration as a c o n t r a d i c t i o n t h e exposes p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m e n ts t r a t e g y . hovever group enterpri.ses inevitably play a part' Vhere successful, g eneral, I n p e a s a n t e c o n o m y . in transforming the structures of the sma}], b y their c o n s t r a i n e d r e m a i n s e v e r e l y though, groups and their enterprises p r o fits' g e n e r a t i n g s u b s t a n t i a l i n p r o j e c t s s u c c e e d economic context. Fev l { h e n they r e g u l a r _ b a s i s . o n a v i t h i n c o m e m e m b e r s p r o v i d e t h e i r and fev a o f f r a c t i o n a o n l y t o c o m p r i s e a s s m a l l s o u s u a l l y a r e i m o u n t s t h e do, grouP that important to understand, hovever' It is wage. living a r e o n l y o n e o f a r a n g e o f m e d i u ma n d l o n g - t e r m i n v e s t m e n t s enterprises that vomen make, and the short-term income supplements often realized from g r o u p e n t e r p r i s e s c a n m a k e a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e t o m e m b e r sa n d t h e i r [ouseholds, ls evidenced by vomen's continued participation in groups. Income Generation and Gender it The state creates vonen's groups through its vomen's group policy; appropriates thern through its registration proceduresl and it certifies t h e m , v h e n i t c a n , t o c a r r y o u t i t s d e v e l o p m e n tv o r k . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s by any means, and groups receive grants from the state for not monolithic, of But it is vomen, not men, vho are the target ovn activities. their

poli.cy: vith respect to social velfare and vho are organized into state groups for the purpose of carrying out this work. Insofar as they comply' they reproduce and reinforce existing gender relations from vhich only a very few of their members,by virtue of personal circumstancesr escape. l.lho controls the products of vomen's labor and therefore the income v o m e n ' s group enterprises depends on the local economy vhich earned from usually greatly from community to community. Vomen's income is varies by as income for the household, vhether or not it is appropriated treated the household head or r,rhether, indeed, the voman heads her own household. income forms an important supplement to other sources of As such it to vomen and their households. Vhen income is handed over or available othervise finds its vay back to husbands, there is no determining hov it is The invested or vhether it vill be invested in the household at aII. basis for the naive of this study indieate that there is Iittle findings assumption that income generation for vomenvill enhance their independence improve Vomen's possession of income does not automatically and status. their bargaining pover vithin the household. This is more likely to occur' to if at all, vhere overall household income is already high and sufficient f o u r c a s es g r e a t i n t h e variability doeumented The cover basic needs. i n t e r n a l t h e t h a t a f f e c t f a c t o r s p o i n t s s e t o f to a complex reported here l i n e a r a b s e n c e o f a t h e u n d e r s c o r e s i n c o m e a n d h o u s e h o l d o f distribution relationship betveen vomen's incomeand vomen's status. Income Generation and FamiIy Planning Just as there is no predictable relationship betveen lncome generation there is none betveen income generation and family and vomen,s status, and planning. a re an inextricable part of economic activity Children production and report, For the vomen described i.n this velfare. reproduction are tvo sides of the samecoin, and in such a context' are treated as an investment. Not only do they provide an children labor resource for the household, but they also hold the promise important vhen providing parents vith cash and social security return, of a future f r o m the l a b o r v i t h d r a v s UhiIe education of children they are older. the a r e ' c h i l d r e n m o r e e d u c a t e d t h e t h a t is still true household, it p r o v i d e g o o d t h e ir a n d e m p l o y m e n t v i l l s e c u r e greater t h e y t h a t the chance parents vith income in the years to come. It is therefore not surprising that family planning programs have not impact in the rural areas studied and among the women's only a limited The more children these g r o u p m e m b e r sb u t t h a t t h e y m e e t w i t h r e s i s t a n c e . supported vomen have, the greater the returns, and this economic logic is t h at such i n d i c a t i o n s a r e A I I and beliefs. by a range of attitudes a major p e a s a n t u n d e r g o e s e c o n o m y p e r s i s t t h e u n t i l v i l l resistance In theory, vomen's groups are in a position to contribute transformation. in practice, hovever, the majority of members to such a transfornation; r e m a i n d e e p l y e n m e s h e di n t h e r e s i s t a n t s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e i r h o u s e h o l d s . ions Recommendat Recommendations stemming directly include the folloving:

from the research

reported

here

ryQ' \/1

I . - J h e : c o n c e p t o f r r v o m e n ' si n c o r n eg e n e r a t i o n " s h o u l d b e r e p l a c e d one of 'fsmall-scale or micro-enterprise developmenttr.

by

2. Vomen's group enterprises should be funded and supported, since if be current s u p p o r t i s v i t h d r a v n , r u r a l r r o m e na n d t h e i r h o u s e h o l d s w i l l financed development the mercy of large-scale, externally completely at vhich generally affects vomenmore severely than men. Vomen's group enterprises should be vieved 3. realistically vithin the context of Iocal opportunities. 4. Intensive field research should be given priority p r oject feasibility studies and progran evaluation. of 5 . C o m m u n i t yd e v e l o p m e n t o r v e l f a r e economicenterprise projects.

projects

and

evaluated

over other forms

should be separated from

V o m e n ' sg r o u p s e n t e r p r i s e s s h o u l d b e c h o s e n v i t h r e s p e c t t o l o c a l 6. economic conditions and be based on the indentification of local processes of indigenous capital accumulation. 7. The organization and operation of groups enterprises should be to experimentation and explore various methodsof capitalization subject and management. Indigenous NGO's operating locally should be supported as the most 8. effective agents to foster vomen's small enterprise development. 9. skilIs.

NGO field

staff

should be trained in a range of

entrepreneurial

1 0 . E f f o r t s t o p r o m o t e f a m i l y p l a n n i n g a m o n gv o m e n ' s g r o u p s s h o u l d b e planned vith the recognition that different conditions prevail in different be places and that the return from an investment in farnily planning vill lov in some areas. 11. SmaII cost-benefit studies should be conducted on community-based systems to determine vhether enough vomen would distribution contraception try contraceptives to varrant the cost of these systems. t2. Hen as veII as vomenshould be educational programs about family planning. likely

the

target

of

small-group

vomen, vho 13. The needs of the poorest and most vulnerable to be excluded from vomen's groups' must be addressed.

14. Assistance to individual priori ty.

are

vomen farmers through groups should be a

and 15. Conmunication,discussion, and dialogue should be initiated s u p p o r t e d b e t v e e n d e v e l o p m e n tv o r k e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e a t t h e g r a s s r o o t s Ievel, and academics and other researchers.

. * { a +

WcrlC ECucoticn Inc, World Educatlon

announces the publlcation

of

I S GROI'P ENTERPRISES WOMEN : A Study of the on the Kenya Coast

An anthropological study of a womenrs lncome generat,lon project in Kenya whlch examines carefully and ext,ernal reasons the internal behind the successes and fallures of womenrs cooperative incomeearning projects.

Avail-able Ln bound edltion

at cost for

For a copy, send check or money order

$20.00 (U.S.) to:

Candace Nelson Jeanne McCormack VJorld Educatlon, Inc. 210 Llncoln Street Boston, Mass. 021-38 U .S . A .

2lC LrncolnStreet. Bosfon, Mossochusells C2l ll USA . (617)482-9485. ielex2OOl78JSIUR