Human Resource Teams

1. Introduction The emergence of the team idea could possibly be started from late 1920s and early 1930s with the neo-classic Hawthorne Studies. Various research activities were designed to find out workers’ group behavn ior under various conditions. After much analysis, the researchers agreed that the most significant factor was the building of a sense of group identity, a feeling of social support and cohesion that came with increased worker interaction. Elton Mayo (1933), one of the original researchers, pointed out certain critical conditions which were identified for developing an effective work team: ‘The manager had a personal interest in each person's achievements. He took pride in the record of the group. He helped the group work together to set its own conditions of work. He faithfully posted the feedback on performance. The group took pride in its own achievement and had the satisfaction of outsiders showing interest in what they did. The group did not feel they were being pressured to change. For the purpose of this assignment we take the case studies of Pakistan Software Export Board (PSEB). PSEB is government based organization in Pakistan. It was established in 1995 with overall aim to promote the IT sector of Pakistan to the other part of world. PSEB is flat structured organization with different departments who’s Director and Managers has direct interaction with the other staff members. In each department manager works with the other of the staff members as the part of team. The main problem was in the marketing department where a team was unable to achieve its target within the time limits. The issues which come up as result of the failure are 1). Team members lack the necessary training required to perform the task 2). Team members were less confident to come up with the idea and were bound to abide by the orders of manager 3). There wasn’t good reward given to team member for their work. 4) There was lack of good communication between the team members and leader and question instead of being answered were left upon the member for solution.

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The rest part of assignment will focus on how the weakness of the team could have been removed and what are the requirements, process of developing a good team and how issues within the working team can be approached and resolved. Before going ahead to the details it is necessary to get clarify the concept of team and group. These concept get confused and the result may the deviation from the right answer.

2. What is Team? A team is a group of people who are jointly responsible for achieving a shared goal. If one member fails then it can hinder the achievement of the collective goal. Even if the members fulfill their individual roles but they don't work synergistically, then they may not fulfill their potential or achieve as much as they could. Katzenbach and Smith (1992) defined “A team is a small group of people with complementary skills and abilities who are committed to a common goal and approach for which they hold each other accountable."

3. What is group? A group can be defined as a small group of people with complementary skills and abilities who are committed to a leader's goal and approach and are willing to be held accountable by the leader

4. How to develop a Good Team: The task of making a team is may be as easier but to develop a successful team can be a lot more difficult. Successfully team is considered to be one which has the team member who possesses right skill, knowledge and abilities to perform well and to achieve the desire target by the deadline and upto the level required.

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4.1 Competence: A success fu team is one whose members have the knowledge, skill and capability to address the issues for which the team was formed. The team should have the resources, strategies and support needed to accomplish its mission. 4.2 Expectations: Has, It should be clarified and communicated to the team member that what type of performance and what level of performance and what outcomes are required from them. Team member can also be told about the type of support resources of people, time and money. 4.3 Commitment: For a team to be successful it is necessary to ensure the commitment of team members in accomplishing the team mission and expected outcomes. Their commitment can be gained by making them perceive that their services are valuable to the organization and to their own careers. 4.4 Charter: Once a team has been formed and goal communicated the team members designed its own mission, vision and strategies to accomplish the mission. Its has set the timelines; and measured both the outcomes of its work and the process the team followed to accomplish their task. 4.5 Empowerment: Team members can have enough freedom and empowerment to feel the ownership necessary to accomplish the task. At the same time, team members clearly understand

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4.6 Collaboration: Team members should have understanding the stages of group development. All team members understand the roles and responsibilities of team members and team leaders. Team must know the idea of problem solving, process improvement and goal setting. Cooperation of team members is necessary to accomplish the team goal. 4.7 Communication: There should be established method for the teams to give feedback and receive honest performance feedback. Organization should communicate important business information regularly. Team members should also communicate clearly and

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honestly with each other to diverse opinions to the table to address and resolve conflicts raised. 4.8 Creative Innovation: Team can achieve its goal efficiently by encouraging the members to use creative thinking and come up with unique solutions and new ideas. Members can be rewarded who take reasonable risks to make improvement the one which fit in and maintain the status quo. 4.9 Consequences: Team members should feel responsible and accountable for team achievements Organization should have a reward system that recognizes both team and individual performance and it should share gains and increased profitability with team and individual contributors. 4.10 Cultural: Groups team-based, collaborative, empowering, enabling organizational culture may be different from the traditional, hierarchical organization. Rewards system appraisal, hiring approaches and motivation, continuous improvement, learning form failures and supporting risk are the important values of organization culture. Team may adopt the same culture for its tenure to achieve goals. Adopting tailor made socialized culture can help the team to reduce the time of team building process. Organization should also ponder on the point that the more it can change its climate to support teams, the more it will receive in pay back from the work of the teams?

4. Team Motivation For a team to perform up to the mark and achieve its target, a continuous supply of motivational fuel is required. Motivation is defined as an internal state--a need or want-that initiates and directs behavior. A classic treatment of motivation is expressed in "Hierarchy of Needs" by Abraham Maslow (1943). According to this theory, there are five principle layers of needs, beginning with the most basic physiological needs. As each layer of need is satisfied, the layer above becomes the prime motivator. Maslow hypothesized these layers of need as:

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Physiological - basic physical needs such as food, water, shelter, air, sleep. 4

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Safety and Security - a safe environment, stability, job security, protection.

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Belonging and Love - friends, spouse, family, a sense of community.

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Self Esteem - respect from others, recognition, status, attention, reputation, as well as, self-respect, competency, confidence, achievement,

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Self-actualization - autonomy, acceptance of self and others.

Some theorists argue that in our society today, most individuals do not proceed from fulfilling one level and proceeding to the next. Rather, most partially fulfill each level simultaneously with physiological and safety needs Fairweather (2005) says that there are three main principles to motivate team members; You need to get to know each member of your team better and they need to get to know you, You need to regularly tell each member of your team when they're doing well and when not so well and empower your employees. Some problems which may cause de-motivation among employees are very common within teams. These problems very easily recognizable and can be easily dealt with, for example, poor communication skills or a lack of communication skills, and a lack of understanding or appreciation of each team member. One thing which may cause the conflict and ultimately demotivation within a team is the lack of communication or bad communication. How can one possibly share the goals of a company or even create the goals of a company if you don’t have good communication skills. Good communication means being able to share a message which is heard, received, understood and appreciated. People often say communication is a two-way thing; communication is not what I tell you, it’s what you hear or the manner in which you hear it. Even people at top level do not necessarily have good communication skills. Grazier (1998) has laid down six factors which are important in motivating team members. These factors are 1) Purpose 2) Challenge 3) Camaraderie 4) Responsibility 5) Growth 6) Leadership. 5

5.1Purpose For long-term motivation, it is a purpose or mission that members have to aligns with their personal wants and needs. If mission is clear, then team member remains motivated throughout the project life. However, if the topic is not in line with his wants and needs, his motivation to continue may diminish. Motivation lacks among members because the team’s purpose is not in line with some of the members’ wants and needs. 5.2Challenge Another factor which affects team motivation is challenge. Many people will say that their most rewarding team experiences resulted from some sort of challenge. The challenge itself was the motivator. Level of motivation also depends upon its level of difficulty. If a challenge is too difficult, perhaps perceived as impossible, then team members may give up before they start. However, the same result may occur if the members perceive the challenge as too easy. Little energy is required to accomplish something so easily obtained. So for teams, Stimulation in the form of a worthy challenge is another method of maintaining motivation. 5.3Camaraderie Camaraderie is another factor that emerges from a successful team. Camaraderie means comradeship, fellowship, and loyalty. The members in these teams genuinely like each other and work hard to develop and maintain their relationships. It’s a lot easier for team members to support each other when they have a good relationship. The fallout from this kind of relationship building is open and direct communication, frequent praising of each others’ contributions and mutual support.

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5.4Responsibility In general, people and teams are motivated by being given responsibility. Having ownership of an identifiable block of work is a long-held tenet of motivation in groups. Employee empowerment is another factor which makes them motivate. Employees are made in charge of what they do. Employees feel more satisfied when they are given option to do the job in the way they feel easy. 5.5Growth Finally, personal and team growth can provide another basis for sustained motivation. When people feel they are moving forward, learning new concepts, adding to their skill base, and stretching their minds, motivation tends to remain high. Personal growth adds value to the individual, enhancing self-esteem and self-worth. Accordingly, team members and team leaders should look for opportunities that help add knowledge and skills. A good technique is to simply ask members what they would like to get from their association with the team, and then listen for areas of possible growth. 5.6Leadership Another factor which keeps the team motivates is leadership. If one thinks how hard it is to be a leader, what defines a good leader? In the leader’s opinion, it might be to be strong, be directive, be controlling, and be confident. What does the team require? They may require very little from their leader, i.e. asking for some instructions and then a permission to do the job alone. So in many ways a leader has to try and be a number of things to different people or, surround him or her with people that can do that. A clever leader is able to do this. A good leader can motivate the team for a short term, but the best leaders create the conditions for the team to motivate itself. A research by Goleman (2000) in the business world shows that having a range of different leadership styles and knowing which to apply in which sort of situation is closely associated with success.

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For example a charismatic leader that can be so effective in the short term cannot necessarily sustain motivation indefinitely. Motivation is inherently intrinsic, residing within oneself. Therefore, if one depends continually on another for their source of motivation, eventually it ends.

Who is a Leader? In order to face the challenge and manage the risk, an effective team leader must be both a component to the team and also a leader to manage the team’s progress. A leader can only have good knowledge of team activities if he engages himself in a team. The leader must know each member and the team as a whole in order to bring them all together and create a process that is open, productive, and promotes confidence. An effective leader uses each member’s contributions and energy to focus on a common goal. Essentially, a leader’s job is to add importance to the team’s effort, which cannot be done without being a member. The leader is a part of the overall process; therefore, a relationship naturally exists. However, it is up to the leader whether to nurture that relationship or minimize its importance. The team leader must understand the team’s vision and clearly define the goal to guarantee success and member loyalty. One cannot lead a team without knowing the purpose and goal of the team. Furthermore, a team leader must create a collaborative climate to ensure that the best thinking and ideas of the team are represented. Again, a wholesome climate cannot be established without knowing the members and becoming engaged in the team. The foundation of a highly motivated and successful team is the member’s understanding and relevance of their goal. An effective leader’s trust in the team goal is vital to the member’s commitment. The members become isolated and discouraged when the leader’s investment is minimal. Team members want the opportunity to prove their value and worth to the goal and the leader. The leader must be involved with the team members to effectively influence the member’s productivity and function in the grand scheme of things. Adair (1973) explained that an action-centered leader must: • direct the job to be

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done (task structuring) • support and review the individual people doing it • co-ordinate and foster the work team as a whole

6. Role of leader in a team: Calman (1998) “Leadership requires knowing where you want to go, taking people with you, and giving sufficient time and energy to make it happen." Team leaders have their primary responsibility of the encouragement of team working; this means that they are less concerned with individual performance and more with the performance of the team as a whole. They will therefore have to develop skills which will help the team to work collaboratively, a process which is often initially slower because of the need to encourage discussion and develop agreement, rather than impose solutions. They will also need to be good at interpersonal issues, to overcome any tensions of disagreements within the team, and at communication, so that all team members know about and understand the issues which affect them and their work. Mintzberg (1973) described the role of a leader as being the person responsible for the motivation and activation of subordinates. Leadership and motivation are inextricably linked, and successful leaders bring out the best in people. Modern leadership is more concerned with gaining commitment from team member since decision making now involves their consensus. The most important part of achieving motivation is to attend to the most important needs of the people you are leading. These include the obvious ones such as reward, safety and promotion etc. and all notable motivating factors in the more historical military models of leadership. When a team leader knows his team members, it builds a positive relationship with each team member. You'll gain a much better understanding of them and how they're handling the job. It will also give the impression that you care about the individual and show that you're there to help with problems both personal and business. Spending quality time will encourage opinions and ideas to flow from them and allows you to explain the company's mission. It gives them a feeling of being in on things which is a huge motivator.

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Plus the team leader should appreciate when the members perform their works well. It helps them keep happy, moving and motivated. On the other hand, this is also important to tell people when they're not performing well. Empowerments give employees a sense of ownership. They feel personal responsibility and take keen interest in doing the jobs. True teams develop into a knowledgeable work force, which is highly effective for leaders who allow subordinates to be stronger than them. These leaders consider their subordinates as an investment, that is, additional training increases their value. By using the investment concept, many opportunities become available for increasing efficiency. If employees are considered a cost, that is, "training is not cost effective," opportunity for increasing efficiency is limited. Many leaders limit subordinates learning opportunity because they want undisputed control. They want employees to follow orders and not have an opinion - it is job security for leaders. Control policies make it difficult for talented employees to be recognized. Worker responsibility makes early recognition possible because coworkers are first to recognize talent. This is why companies with true empowerment programs find all the talent. Greenleaf (1970) emphasized that the leader’s duty to serve his/her followers or fellow leader. Leadership thus arises out of a desire to serve rather than a desire to lead This is a consequence of a leader’s disengagement and lack of membership with the team that a leader remains unaware of team progress. The lack of attention to team by leader may results in decreased productivity and dissatisfaction among the team members. An effective leader needs to be able to pinpoint problems and praise excellence within the group, which cannot be done from the sideline.

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9. Theories for leaders: The Trait Approach was a second step from the “Great Man” theory as a way of identifying the key characteristics of successful leaders. Trait theorist believes that leadership traits could be separated. People with such traits could then be recruited, selected, and hired into leadership positions. This approach was common in the military and is still used as a set of criteria to select candidates for commissions. The problem with the trait approach lies in the fact that almost as many traits as studies undertaken were identified. Studied came to the end with a result of different or new trait then before. Although some traits were found in a considerable number of studies, the results were generally inconclusive. Some leaders might have possessed certain traits but the absence of them did not necessarily mean that the person was not a leader. After the publication of the late Douglas McGregor's (1960) book, The Human Side of Enterprise in, attention shifted to ‘behavioral theories’. His approach emphasizes on human relationships, along with output and performance. He presented Theory X and Theory Y. It can be concluded on the basis of these theories that a leader holding Theory X assumptions would prefer an autocratic style, whereas one holding Theory Y assumptions would prefer a more participative style. Another development in behavioral approach was the Managerial Grid developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1964). They focused on task/ production and employee orientations of managers and combinations of concerns between the two extremes as well. This grid of was developed plotting ‘concern for production’ on the X-axis and ‘concern for people’ Y-axis and plots five basic leadership styles. 11

These approaches propose that “Team Management” - a high concern for both employees and production - is the most effective type of leadership behavior. Behavioral theories may help managers develop particular leadership behaviors they do not give much idea as to what constitutes effective leadership in different situations. Most researchers today conclude that no one leadership style is right for every manager under all circumstances. Fiedler’s (1967) was first contributor to this contingency-situational theories approach. According to him there is no single best way for managers to lead. Situations will create different leadership style requirements for a manager. The solution to a managerial situation is contingent on the factors that impinge on the situation. Fiedler looked at three situations that could define the condition of a managerial task: 11. How good are the relationships between the leader and the other team members: 2. is the task structured or unstructured 3. How much power and authority a leader can exercise. 2 The Hersey and Blanchard(1997) was another contributor to the contingency leadership theories Their theory is based on the amount of direction (task behavior) and socioemotional support (relationship behavior) a leader must provide given the situation and the "level of maturity" of the followers.

Developing good communication in a team: If a team cannot get the job done, the blame ultimately falls on the leader. Team may also fail because some time leadership thinks that what they have perceived has also been perceived by the team members in the same it would be great if they did. Problem will persist. Communications also play a vital role in the success of a team. Communication is has an important role in a team because in a team all are working towards a same goal. Leader need to define and ensure that the goal is shared by all the members. If there are

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confusions about the goal those need to be resolved quickly in order for the team to move forward.When decisions need to be made the team has to be made aware of the decision that is at hand everyone needs to be on board. Communication keeps the team members informed, therefore a team working towards the same goal can be more effective and efficient In order to develop effective communication in a team it is necessary to socialize the member before putting on the job or are do they tend to be very direct. The member becomes acquainted to each other after they are socialized. Leader should know how your team prefers to communicate in a given situation. He can even adapt his management style to meet the needs of each individual member. Effective communication means it has been eensured that goals are clearly defined Interaction is aimed at solving problems and achieving team goals. Ensure team members trust each other by having open communication In order to reduce the filtration in what has been told to the group members it is necessary that leader has to be specific i-e include facts and details to avoid being vague, be accurate and as much as possible be sure that the information you are giving is true and reliable, be truthful when communicating and do not use questionable information, making sure messages are easy to follow, give all needed information in regards to ideas, be brief- not unnecessarily wordy, stay on task and give information that is needed and also have recipients give comments on information Leader can improve communication among team members by Open discussion, using response cards, conducting subgroup discussion, Fishbowl technique, Team Gutters. 10. Evaluation of Individual Performance: Among the other task that a leader performs is evaluation of its members. In order to ensure that every thing is going well leader has to look at the day to day performance of its employee. The real evaluation happens in hundreds of encounters during everyday work. It's what one has to do several times a day as a key part of their job, do evaluation every day. Then, use he formal evaluation meeting as an occasion to review and plan with your subordinates.

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It is necessary to make job and question related to job clear to the team members. Figuring out what's most important. What are the critical things that you’re subordinate should be able to do? What level of performance should he or she strive for? What behavior is important to keep the team functioning at top level? The things issues once clarified can later be use a basic of performance evaluation. Another perquisite of performance appraisal is that every day interaction should make bring the improvement in performance. Show up a lot so you learn about your people and they get to learn about you, and every meeting is an opportunity to coach, encourage, counsel and correct the team members. Spending most of the time in suggestion and coaching will give each team member a chance to get thing more clear rectify their mistake resulting in improved behavior. This is how the members come to know if they are not doing well enough. If they keep doing what they're doing, their specific behavior an be recorded as how and what happened, when and where. Along with this a record of their counseling session can also be kept. What did you say? What did he or she say? How did you agree that things would change? Take enough time in the formal session. In one organization where I did research we compared the time that top supervisors devoted to the annual performance appraisal meeting to the time that other supervisors took. The top supervisors spent almost twice as long in the formal session as their less-effective peers. Then a formal performance appraisal session can be taken to evaluation of the team members. Specific attributes of required performance are necessary to formulated first. Then any performance appraisal measure can be used and performance attributes of each member can be scaled accordingly. When individual perform on a team basis, it is generally agreed that a team member who did not significantly contribute to the group effort should be given a lower points than other team members. The problem is to determine who contributed and how much. A commonly accepted procedure is to require each team member to engage in the evaluation process. There are number of ways and scale which are used to evaluate the

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individual performance in team. The attributes commonly used are attendance at team meetings, constructive participation in team meetings, contribution to group effort independent of team meetings, ability and desire to work as a team, and overall contribution. A scale can be used with the points from 1 to 10 assigned to each team member on the basis of their performance regarding a specific aspect.

12. Conclusion Leadership is critical to the team success. In the absence of leadership team members use their own methods. Some perform very efficiently to prove themselves, pushing boundaries and taking on too much risk while others perform as little as possible, yet complain about how much work needs to get done. Sometime a team may has a leader is busy concentrating on their own political or career agenda and some leaders don’t even understand their role All goods teams are a combination of attitudes, talent and traits matched shared by the members and they have right leadership on them who give them the right vision, goals and objectives, and "we can" concept. A team leader takes responsibility for its actions and pride in its accomplishments. Great team leaders spend time clarifying goals, cultivating their own leadership skills and identifying new ways to achieve great results. Effective leaders keep the track of the progress to make sure the organization's goals and strategies remain clear. At the same time, they help build the capability of individual team members He assess their strength and weakness and help them fulfill their motivational needs.

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13. Reference and Bibliography •

Adair, J. (1973) Action-Centered Leadership. New York, McGraw-Hill.

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AstraZeneca. (1999) Leadership in AstraZeneca. AstraZeneca HR, Dec 1999.

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Bass, B. (1985) Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations. New York: Free Press.

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Bass, B. M. & Avolio, B. J. (1994) Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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Belbin, R. M. (1993) Team Roles at Work. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

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Bergmann, H., Hurson, K. and Russ-Eft, D. (1999) Everyone a Leader: A grassroots model for the new workplace. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

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Blackler, F. and Kennedy, A. (2003) The Design of a Development Program for Experienced Top Managers from the Public Sector. Working Paper: Lancaster University.

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Blake, R.R. and J.S. Mouton (1964) The managerial grid. Houston TX: Gulf.

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Burns, J. M. (1978) Leadership. New York: Harper & Row. Cabinet Office Senior Civil Service Competence Framework. Online at: http://www.cabinetoffice. Gov.uk/civilservice/scs/competences.htm.

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Calman, K. (1998) Lessons from Whitehall. BMJ

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Dyer, J. L. (1984) Team research and team training: A state-of-the-art review. Human Factors Review, pp. 285-319.

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Fairweather, A. (1972) The 3 Secrets of Team Motivation. Growth and motivation.

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Fiedler (1967) A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Goleman, D. (2000) Leadership that gets results. Harvard Business Review. MarApr: 78-90.

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Gosling, J. and Mintzberg, H. (2003) Mindsets for Managers. Working paper, Center for Leadership Studies.

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Grazier, P. 1998. When the team work best. Team Motivation: EI Network.

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Greenleaf, R. (1970) Servant as Leader. Center for Applied Studies.

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Grint, K. (2000) Literature Review on Leadership. Cabinet Office: Performance and Innovation Unit.

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Gronn, P. (1995) Greatness Re-visited: The current obsession with transformational leadership. Leading and Managing 1(1), 14-27.

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Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1977) Management of Organizational Behavior. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Higgs, D. (2003) Review of the role and effectiveness of non-executive directors. Department of Trade and Industry - January 2003. Online at www.dti.gov.uk/cld/non_exec_review

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Hooper, A. and Potter, J. (1997) The Business of Leadership. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Company.

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Katzenbach, J. and Smith, D. (1994) The Wisdom of Teams. New York: Harperbusiness.

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Katzenbach, J. R. and Smith, D. K. (1992) The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High-Performance Organization.

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LaFasto, F. and Larson , E. (2001) Team Members and Leaders Tell What It Takes to Succeed. New York: Sage Publications.

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Lewin, K. (1935) A Dynamic Theory of Personality. New York: McGraw Hill.

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Mackin, D. (2007) The Difference Between A Team And A Group.

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Mayo, E. (1933) The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization. New York: Macmillan.

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McGregor, D. (1960) The Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw.

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Mintzberg, H. (1973) The nature of managerial work. London: Harper Collins.

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Stogdill, R. (1974) Handbook of Leadership (1st Ed.). New York: Free Press. Heathfield, S., 2005. Twelve Tips for Team Building: How to Build Successful Work Teams. Cited at : http://humanresources.about.com/od/teambuilding/Team_Building_Creates_Succ essful_Teams.htm http://www.academy.umd.edu/publications/global_leadership/marlene_thorn.htm

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http://www.imf.org

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http://www.threestarleadership.com/articles/perfevalmadesimple.htm

14. Appendix Traits 1- Adaptable to situations 2- Alert to social environment 3- Ambitious and achievement-orientated 4- Assertive 5- Cooperative 6- Decisive 7- Dependable 8- Dominant (desire to influence others) 9- Energetic (high activity level) 10- Persistent 11- Self-confident 12- Tolerant of stress 13- Willing to assume responsibility

Skills 1- Clever (intelligent) 2- Conceptually skilled 3- Creative 4- Diplomatic and tactful 5- Fluent in speaking 6- Knowledgeable about group task 7- Organised (administrative ability) 8- Persuasive 9- Socially skilled

Leadership Skills and Traits (Stogdill, 1974)

Theory X managers believe that: 1• The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible. 2• Because of this human characteristic, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort to achieve organizational objectives. 3• The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security above all else.

Theory Y managers believe that: 1• The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest, and the average human being, under proper conditions, learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility. 2• People will exercise self-direction and self-control to achieve objectives to which they are committed. 3• The capacity to exercise a relatively high level of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population, and the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized under the conditions of modern industrial life.

Theory X and Y Managers (McGregor, 1960) The Blake Mouton Managerial Grid (Blake & Mouton, 1964)

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