Ugc Paper 1 Book (2019).pdf

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PREFACE I am glad indeed to place this title NTA NET/SET PAPER 1ST (SECOND EDITION) in the hands of those students who are preparing for NTA exam. This book is written strictly according to the prescribed syllabus. In preparing this book, I have freely drawn the material both from the books of Indian & foreign authors. The book is divided into 10 units. I request every teacher and the taught to bring such mistakes to the notice of the author so that they can be redressed in the nest edition. I welcome every constructive suggestion that goes in improving the quality of the work and the utility of the book.

Srinagar-J&K 190001

HILAL AHMED

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2019

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CONTENTS

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UNIT-1 UNIT-2 UNIT-3

TEACHING APTITUDES RESEARCH APTITUDE READING COMPREHENSION UNIT-4 COMMUNICATION UNIT-5 MATHEMATICAL REASONING UNIT-6 LOGICAL REASONING UNIT-7 DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION UNIT-8 INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY UNIT-9 PEOPLE & ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION UNIT-10 HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

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UNIT-1 TEACHING APTITUDES CONCEPT OF TEACHING Teaching is process which usually takes place in the class room situations. It is more of formal processes. In the class room situations we see that the teacher has something in his mind and he wants to convey it to the students. For this purpose, he takes the help of teaching. He makes all efforts to make the students understand it. His teaching is successful if the students are able to grasp it fully. NEED OF TEACHING:

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Through teaching, the teacher aims at: Giving some knowledge to the students; Passing some information to them; Making the students acquire some skill; Changing the attitude of the learners; Modifying the behavior of the students; Giving some experiences of life; etc., Teaching in the class depends upon how the teacher performs his duty of teaching. A sincere and hard working teacher always comes out all successful. He makes every effort to achieve the desired ends. He always goes well prepared in every way. In his class room teaching, there is always a very good class room interaction. He faces the class clearly and boldly. He is always facing to case with the students while speaking in the class. Naturally, that type of teacher will be able to impress the students fully. Such a teaching can be called effective teaching. Teaching may also take place outside the class rooms. The students come in contact with their teacher in the corridors, in the staff room, in the canteen, in the playgrounds; in the school assemble grounds etc., the process of teaching surely goes on there also which is more of informal type. Learning by the students through informal contacts with the teacher is many a time more sound and lasts longer. In fact, teaching is an art of educating other people. In this age of science and technology when there is explosion of knowledge, the process of teaching has reached new dimensions. It is no longer a simple art of imparting information to the students. It is now tending to become a technology by itself instructional television, computer assisted instruction, teaching machines, etc. Teaching is an activity which goes on between the two parties i.e. the giver and the receiver. Here the giver is the teacher more matured person with more experiences of life. The receiver may be an individual, a small group or a big group. Teaching is not a mechanical process. It is an intricate, exacting, challenging job. Teaching can’t be boiled down to a convenient formula of “telling and testing”. It is the complex art of guiding pupils 5|Page

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through a variety of selected experiences towards the attainment of a widening field of learning. The Aim of Teaching: The aims of teaching with respect to its various modes, are as follows Teaching – To bring changes in the behavior of students. Conditioning – To improve the learning skills of students. Training – Shaping the behavior and conduct. Instruction – Acquisition of knowledge. Indoctrination – Formation of belief. Objectives of Teaching:

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Major objectives of teaching are as follows: To bring desired changes in pupils. To shape behavior and conduct. Acquisition of knowledge To improve the learning skills of students. Formation of belief. To provide a social and efficient member to the society. LEVELS OF TEACHING We all know that teaching is a purposeful activity. Through teaching the teacher brings a desirable change in the learner. Both the concepts teaching and learning are interrelated to each other. Development of all-round personality of the learner is the final goal of teaching and learning. During teaching an interaction takes place between an experienced person (teacher) and an inexperienced person (student). Here the main aim is to bring change in the behavior of the student. Teachers teach students at three levels. They have to keep in mind about the developmental stage of the learners so that desired educational objectives can be achieved. These three levels are:  Memory level: Thoughtless teaching  Understanding level: Thoughtful teaching  Reflective level: Upper thoughtful level Memory level of teaching

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It is the first and thoughtless level of teaching. It is concerned with memory or mental ability that exists in all living beings. Teaching at memory level is considered to be the lowest level of teaching. At this level:  The thinking ability does not play any role.  Students only cram the facts, information, formulas and laws that are taught to them.  The teaching is nothing but learning the subject matter by rote 6|Page

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 The role of the teacher is prominent and that of the student is secondary. The study material is organized and pre-planned. The teacher presents the study material in a sequential order. Memory level teaching lacks insight. Psychologically, it is cognitive level teaching. Merits of memory level teaching  Useful for children at lower classes. This is because of their intellect us under development and they have a rote memory.  The role of the teacher is important in this level of teaching and he is free to make choices of subject matter, plan it and can present it at will.  The knowledge acquired at memory level teaching forms a basis for the future i.e. when student’s intelligence and thinking is required.  Memory level teaching acts as the first step for understanding and reflective levels of teaching. It is pre-requisite for understanding level teaching.

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Demerits of memory level teaching  This does not contribute to the development of the student’s capabilities.  Since at this level student learns by rote, the knowledge gained does not prove helpful in real life situations as it does not develops the talents of students.  The pupils are kept in strict discipline and cramming is insisted on this teaching.  Intelligence does not carry any importance in this type of teaching and it lacks motivation Memory Level of Teaching Understanding level Understanding something is to perceive the meaning, grasp the idea and comprehend the meaning. In the field of Education and Psychology, the meaning of ‘understanding‘ can be classified as:  seeing the total use of facts  seeing relationship  a generalized insight The teaching at the understanding level is of a higher quality than the one at the memory level. It is more useful and thoughtful from the point of view of mental capabilities. At this level of teaching, the teacher explains the student about the relationship between principles and facts and teach them how these principles can be applied. Memory level teaching barrier is essential to be crossed for this level of teaching. As compared to memory level teaching, the understanding level teaching has greater merit. This enables students to have complete command over subject material. In the understanding level role of the teacher is more active. The students at this level are second any. At this level, no cramming is encouraged. The new knowledge acquired at this level is related to the earlier knowledge gained. A generalization is made on the basis of facts and the facts are used in the new situations. 7|Page

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Merits of the understanding level of teaching:  At this level of teaching students to make use of their thinking abilities.  Knowledge acquired at this level forms the basis of the reflective level of teaching.  Here the teacher presents subject matter before the students in an organized and sequential form. The new knowledge acquired is related to to the previously acquired knowledge.  Here the students do not learn by rote. Here they learn by understanding the facts and information and their use and purpose. Demerits of the understanding level of teaching  Teaching at this level is subject centered. There is no interaction between the teacher and students at this level.  This type of teaching mastery ie emphasized.

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Reflective level of teaching This level is also known as introspective level. Reflecting on something means giving careful thought to something over a period of time. It also means thinking deeply about something. Reflective level of teaching is considered to be the highest level at which teaching is carried out.  It is highly thoughtful and useful.  A student can attain this level only after going through memory level and understanding level.  Teaching at the reflective level enables the students to solve the real problems of life.  At this level, the student is made to face a real problematic situation. The student by understanding the situation and using his critical abilities succeeds in solving the problem.  At this level emphasis is laid on identifying the problem, defining it and finding a solution to it. The student’s original thinking and creative-abilities develop at this level.  The role of the teacher in this level of teaching is democratic. He does not force knowledge on the students but develops in their talents and capabilities.  The role of the students is quite active.  Reflective level of teaching is that which is problem-centered and the student is busy in original imagination.

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Merits of reflective level teaching  The teaching at this level is not teacher-centered or subject-centered, it is leanercentered.  There is an interaction between the teacher and the taught at the reflective level teaching.  At this level, teaching is appropriate for the higher class. 8|Page

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 At this level, teaching is highly thoughtful and useful than the teaching at the memory or understanding level. Demerits of reflective level teaching  Not suitable for small children at the lower level of teaching. It is suitable only for mentally matured children  At this level, the study material is neither organized nor pre-planned. Therefore students cannot acquire systematic and organized knowledge of their study courses. Nature and characteristics of teaching 1. The main character of teaching is to provide guidance and training. 2. Teaching is an interaction between teacher and students. 3. Teaching is an art to giving knowledge to students with effective way. 4. Teaching is a science to educate fact and causes of different topics of different subjects.

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5. Teaching is continuing process. 7. Teaching is formal as well as informal 8. Teaching is communication of information to students. In teaching, teacher imparts information in an interesting way so that students can easily understand the information. POINTS TO REMEMBER Instruction: It is delivery of contents by the teacher. It does not involve an interaction between the teacher and the learner; but still it facilitates achievement of teaching objectives. Teaching is a wider concept and instruction is a part of teaching. Indoctrination: Indoctrination can be termed as the highest order of teaching. In indoctrination, the beliefs and ideas are impressed upon others and can be included in teaching. Teaching can be done without indoctrination but no indoctrination is possible without teaching. Microteaching: is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills. It employs real teaching situation for developing teaching skills and helps to get deeper knowledge regarding the art of teaching. This Stanford technique involves the steps of ‘plan, teach, observe, re-plan, re-teach, and re-observe’. Most of the pre-service teacher education programs widely use microteaching, and it is a proven method to attain gross improvement in the instructional experiences. Effective student teaching should be the prime quality of a teacher. As an innovative method of equipping teachers to be effective, skills and practices of microteaching have been implemented.

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UNIT-9 PEOPLE & ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION Environment is the natural component in which biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) factors interact with each other. These interactions shape the habitat and ecosystem of an organism.  In biological sense, environment constitutes the physical (nutrients, water, air etc.) and biological factors (biomolecules, organisms) along with their chemical interactions (chemical cycles – carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle etc.) that affect an organism or a group of organisms.  All organisms are dependent on the environment to carry out their natural life processes (birth to death) and to meet their physical requirements (food, energy, water, oxygen, shelter etc.).  The environment is not static. Both biotic and abiotic factors are in a constant flux and keep changing continuously.

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Habitat Habitat is the physical environment in which an organism lives (it corresponds to address of an organism). It is an ecological or environmental area inhabited by particular species of plants,  animals, fungi, etc. Many habitats make up the environment. A single habitat may be common for more than one organism which have similar  requirements. For example, a single aquatic habitat may support a fish, frog, crab, phytoplankton  and many other kinds of organisms. The various species sharing a habitat thus have the same ‘address’. Forest, river etc.  are other examples of habitat. 

All habitats are environments but all environments are not habitats. Biosphere The biosphere is the biological component (supporting life) of earth which includes the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.  The biosphere includes all living organisms on earth, together with the dead organic matter produced by them.  Biosphere is absent at extremes of the North and South poles, the highest mountains and the deepest oceans, since existing hostile conditions there do not support life [Life is the characteristic feature of biosphere].

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Occasionally spores of fungi and bacteria do occur at great height beyond 8,000 metres, but they are metabolically inactive, and hence represent only dormant life.

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Ecosystem An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of nature, where living organisms [producers, consumers, and decomposers] interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment.  Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a large forest or a sea. Forest, grassland and desert are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake,  wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be considered as man-made ecosystems.  In the ecosystem, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.  An ecosystem can be of any size but usually encompasses specific and limited species. Eg: Aquatic Ecosystem. [This is how ecosystem is different from Environment]

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Everything that lives in an ecosystem is dependent on the other species and elements that are also part of that ecological community. If one part of an ecosystem is damaged or disappears, it has an impact on everything else Components of an Ecosystem The components of the ecosystem are categorized into abiotic or non-living and biotic or living components. Both the components of ecosystem and environment are same.

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Abiotic Components Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-living parts which act as major limiting factors.

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Biotic Components Primary producers - Autotrophs (self-nourishing) Primary producers are basically green plants, certain bacteria and algae that carry out photosynthesis. In terrestrial ecosystem, grasses, plants and trees are the primary producers while in  aquatic ecosystem, microscopic algae [plankton] are the primary producers. 

Consumers — Heterotrophs or Phagotrophs (other nourishing) Consumers are incapable of producing their own food. They depend on organic food derived from plants, animals or both.  Consumers can be divided into two broad groups namely micro and macro consumers. 

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Macro consumers 

Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly on plants e.g. cow.

Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g. wolves, dogs, etc.  Carnivores which feed on both primary and secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers e.g. lion which can eat wolves, snakes etc.  Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants and animals e.g. man, bear, etc. 

Micro consumers - Saprotrophs (decomposers or osmotrophs) They are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and nutrients from dead organic substances (detritus) of plant and animals.  The products of decomposition such as inorganic nutrients which are released in the ecosystem are reused by producers and thus recycled.  Earthworm and certain soil organisms (such as nematodes, and arthropods) are detritus feeders and help in the decomposition of organic matter and are called detrivores. 

Ecology The term ecology was derived from two Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning home and ‘logos’ meaning study.  Ecology is the branch of biology concerned with the relations of organisms to one another (energy flow and mineral cycling) and to their physical surroundings (environment). Ecology encompasses study of individual, organisms, population, community,  ecosystem, biome and biosphere which form the various levels of ecological organization.

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The Indian texts of Vedas, the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the AranyakasUpanishads contain many references to ecological concepts. The Indian treatise on medicine, the Caraka-Samhita and the surgical text Susruta-Samhita, show that people during this period had a good understanding of plant and animal ecology.

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Levels of Organizations In Ecology Ecology not only deals with the study of the relationship of individual organisms with their environment, but also with the study of populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and biosphere as a whole.  Individual: Organism is an individual living being that has the ability to act or function independently. It may be any organism.  Species: Species are a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or of interbreeding, considered as the basic unit of taxonomy and denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g. Homo sapiens. Population: Population is a community of interbreeding organisms [same species],  occupying a defined area during a specific time.

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Population growth rate is the percentage variation between the number of individuals in a population at two different times. It can be positive due to birth and/or immigration or negative due to death and/or emigration Ecotone An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition area between two biomes [diverse ecosystems]. It is where two communities meet and integrate. For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial  ecosystem. Other examples are grassland (between forest and desert), estuary (between fresh water and salt water) and river bank or marsh land (between dry and wet). 

Ecological Niche Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem. In nature, many species occupy the same habitat but they perform different functions.  

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Functions Of Ecosystem 

The function of an ecosystem include:

1. 2. 3.

Ecological succession or ecosystem development Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms Energy flow through food chain [Next Post] 14 | P a g e

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Ecological Succession Biotic communities are dynamic in nature and change over a period of time. The process by which communities of plant and animal species in an area are replaced or changed into another over a period of time is known as ecological succession. Succession is a universal process of directional change in vegetation, on an ecological  time scale. Succession occurs when a series of communities replace one another due to large  scale destruction (natural or manmade). This process continues with one community replacing another, until a stable, mature community develops.  Succession is a progressive series of changes which leads to the establishment of a relatively stable climax community. 

The first plant to colonize an area is called the pioneer community. The final stage of succession is called the climax community. The stage leading to the climax community are called successional stages or seres. Each transitional (temporary) community that is formed and replaced during succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community. Succession is characterized by the following: increased productivity, the shift of  nutrients from' the reservoirs, increased diversity of organisms with increased niche development, and a gradual increase in the complexity of food webs.  Succession would occur faster in area existing in the middle of the large continent. This is because, here seeds of plants belonging to the different seres would reach much faster, establish and ultimately result in climax community. The terminal (final) stage of succession forms the community which is called  as climax community. A climax community is stable, mature, more complex and long lasting.  The entire sequence of communities in a given area, succeeding each other, during the course of succession is termed sere. Succession that occurs on land where moisture content is low for e.g. on bare rock is known as xerarch. Succession that takes place in a water body, like ponds or lake is called hydrarch.

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Primary Succession Primary succession takes place an over a bare or unoccupied areas such as rocks outcrop, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands and lava flows as well as glacial moraines (muddy area exposed by a retreating glacier) where no community has existed previously.

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In primary succession on a terrestrial site the new site is first colonized by a few hardy pioneer species that are often microbes, lichens and mosses. The pioneers over a few generations alter the habitat conditions by their growth and development

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Secondary Succession Secondary succession occurs when plants recognize an area in which the climax community has been disturbed.  Secondary succession is the sequential development of biotic communities after the complete or partial destruction of the existing community. 

Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem – Trophic Levels The flow of energy from producer to top consumers is called energy flow which is unidirectional. To understand the energy flow through the ecosystem we need to study about the  trophic levels [tropical level interaction]. Trophic level is the representation of energy flow in an ecosystem. The trophic level of  an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. Trophic level interaction deals with how the members of an ecosystem are connected  based on nutritional needs.

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Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to subsequent trophic levels is unidirectional.  Energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards due to loss of energy in the form of heat at each trophic level.  This energy loss at each tropic level is quite significant. Hence there are usually not more than four-five trophic levels [beyond this the energy available is negligible to support an organism]. The trophic level interaction involves three concepts namely  

1. 2. 3.

Food Chain Food Web Ecological Pyramids

Food Chain Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten link is called a food chain. E.g. Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk/Eagle.  Each step in the food chain is called trophic level. A food chain starts with producers and ends with top carnivores.  The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain.

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Types of Food Chains 1.

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Detritus food chain

Grazing food chain The consumers which start the food chain, utilizing the plant or plant part as their food, constitute the grazing food chain. This food chain begins from green plants at the base and the primary consumer is herbivore. For example, In terrestrial ecosystem, grass is eaten by caterpillar, which is eaten by  lizard and lizard is eaten by snake. In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton (primary producers) are eaten by zoo planktons  which are eaten by fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans. 

Detritus food chain This type of food chain starts from dead organic matter of decaying animals and plant bodies.  Dead organic matter or detritus feeding organisms are called detrivores or decomposer. The detrivores are eaten by predators.  The two food chains are linked. The initial energy source for detritus food chain is the waste materials and dead organic matter from the grazing food chain.  In an aquatic ecosystem, grazing food chain is the major conduit for energy flow. As against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain than through the grazing food chain.

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Food Web Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web. Food web represents all the possible paths of energy flow in an ecosystem. If any of the intermediate food chain is removed, the succeeding links of the chain will  be affected largely. The food web provides more than one alternative for food to most of the organisms in  an ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of survival.

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Also food availability and preferences of food of the organisms may shift seasonally e.g. we eat watermelon in summer and peaches in the winter. Thus there are interconnected networks of feeding relationships that take the form of food webs.  Pollutants And Trophic Level – Biomagnification 

Pollutants, especially non-degradable ones move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem. Non-degradable pollutants mean materials, which cannot be metabolized by the living organisms. Example: Chlorinated Hydrocarbons.  Chlorinated Hydrocarbons or Organochloride or CHC are hydrocarbons whose some or most hydrogen atoms have been replaced by chlorine E.g. DDT, endosulfan etc.).  A variety of simple chlorinated hydrocarbons including dichloromethane, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride. 

Applications of CHC Production of vinyl chloride almost all of which was converted into polyvinylchloride (PVC) [PVC pipes]. Chloroform, dichloromethane, dichloroethene, and trichloroethane are useful  solvents. These solvents are immiscible with water and effective in cleaning applications such as degreasing and dry cleaning.  Pesticides and insecticides such as DDT, heptachlor, and endosulfan are CHCs.

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Effects of CHC Dioxins (highly toxic organic compound produced as a by-product in some manufacturing processes), produced when organic matter is burned in the presence of chlorine, and some insecticides, such as DDT, are persistent organic pollutants.  DDT, which was widely used to control insects in the mid-20th century, accumulates in food chains, and causes reproductive problems (e.g., eggshell thinning) in certain bird species.  DDT residues continue to be found in humans and mammals across the planet many years after production and use have been limited.  In Arctic areas, particularly high levels are found in marine mammals. These chemicals concentrate in mammals, and are even found in human breast milk. In some species of marine mammals, particularly those that produce milk with a high  fat content, males typically have far higher levels, as females reduce their concentration by transfer to their offspring through lactation. Endosulfan became a highly controversial agrichemical due to its acute toxicity,  potential for bioaccumulation, and role as an endocrine disruptor (enhances the effect of estrogens causing reproductive and developmental damage in both animals and humans). 

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Because of its threats to human health and the environment, a global ban on the manufacture and use of endosulfan was negotiated under the Stockholm Convention in April 2011.  Movement of these pollutants involves two main processes: 

1. 2.

Bioaccumulation. Biomagnification.

Bioaccumulation It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain.  In bioaccumulation there is an increase in concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first organism in a food chain. 

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Biomagnification

Biomagnification refers to the tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one trophic level to the next.  Thus in biomagnification there is an increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain to another.  In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active. E.g. DDT.  If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken down before it can become dangerous. If it is not mobile, it will stay in one place and is unlikely to be taken up by organisms.   If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants that dissolve in fats, however, may be retained for a long time.  It is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in fatty tissues of organisms such as fish. 

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In mammals, we often test the milk produced by females, since the milk has a lot of fat in it and is often more susceptible to damage from toxins (poisons).

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Nitrogen Cycle [Gaseous Cycle] Apart from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen is the most prevalent element in living organisms. Nitrogen is a constituent of amino acids, proteins, hormones, chlorophylls and many of  the vitamins. Plants compete with microbes for the limited nitrogen that is available in soil. Thus,  nitrogen is a limiting nutrient for both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Nitrogen exists as two nitrogen atoms (N2) joined by a very strong triple covalent  bond (N ≡ N). In nature, lightning and ultraviolet radiation provide enough energy to convert  nitrogen to nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, N2O). Industrial combustions, forest fires, automobile exhausts and power-generating  stations are also sources of atmospheric nitrogen oxides. Eutrophication – Algal Bloom 

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Eutrophic water body: it is a a body of water rich in nutrients and so supporting a dense plant population, the decomposition of which kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen. Eutrophication is the response to the addition of nutrients such  as nitrates and phosphates naturally or artificially, fertilizing the aquatic ecosystem. Algal blooms are the consequence of Eutrophication.   Eutrophication occurs naturally due to deposition of nutrients [such as in depositional environments] carried by flood waters. It takes over centuries for eutrophication to occur naturally. Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate is caused by human  activities [discharge of wastewaters or agricultural runoff, Combustion of fossil fuel (produces gases —nitrogen oxides), growing urban population in the coastal areas) and the consequent phenomenon is known as ‘cultural eutrophication’. It takes only decades. Phytoplankton (algae and blue-green bacteria) thrive on the excess nutrients and  their population explosion covers almost entire surface layer. This condition is known as algal bloom.  Oxygen in aquatic ecosystem is replenished by photosynthetic aquatic plants. Algal Blooms restrict the penetration of sunlight resulting in death of aquatic plants, and hence restricts the replenishment of oxygen. The oxygen level is already depleted due to the population explosion of  phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are photosynthetic during day time adding oxygen to aquatic  ecosystem. But during nights, they consume far more oxygen as they respire aggressively. 

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i.e. Algal blooms accentuate the rate of oxygen depletion as the population of phytoplankton is very high. The primary consumers like small fish are killed due to oxygen deprivation caused by  algal blooms. Death of primary consumers adversely effects the food chain and leads to the  destruction of higher life forms. Further, more oxygen is taken up by microorganisms during the decomposition  process of dead algae, plants and fishes. Due to reduced oxygen level, the remaining fishes and other aquatic organisms also die. All this eventually leads to degradation of aquatic ecosystem. The new anaerobic conditions [absence of oxygen] created promote growth of  bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum which produces toxins deadly to aquatic organisms, birds and mammals.

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Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) are the product of the Millennium Summit of September 2000. At this summit world leaders adopted the UN Millennium Declaration, committing their nations to a new global partnership by adoption of Millennium Declaration by the General Assembly of the United Nations. This summit committed to reduce extreme poverty and setting out a series of time-bound targets, with a deadline of 2015. These “time bound targets” are now known as the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs). According to United Nations MDG are “quantified targets for addressing extreme poverty in its many dimensions-income poverty, hunger, disease, lack of adequate shelter, and exclusion-while promoting gender equality, education, and environmental sustainability. They are also basic human rights-the rights of each person on the planet to health, education, shelter, and security.”The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have helped in bringing out a much needed focus and pressure on basic development issues, which in turn led the governments at national and sub national levels to do better planning and implement more intensive policies and programmes. MDG’s have played a big role in improving the social indicators in India. India has achieved the target of reducing countries poverty levels by fifty percent by Dec, 2015.

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The MDGs consists of eight goals, all these goals target various developmental and human rights issues. The eight (8) Goals are as under:      

Goal 1: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; Goal 2: achieve universal primary education; Goal 3: promote gender equality and empower women; Goal 4: reduce child mortality; Goal 5: improve maternal health; Goal 6: combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases;

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 Goal 7: ensure environmental sustainability;  Goal 8: develop a global partnership for development.

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Key points  The number of people now living in extreme poverty has declined by more than half, falling from 1.9 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015.  The number of people in the working middle class—living on more than $4 a day—nearly tripled between 1991 and 2015.  The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions dropped by almost half since 1990.  The number of out-of-school children of primary school age worldwide fell by almost half, to an estimated 57 million in 2015, down from 100 million in 2000.  Gender parity in primary school has been achieved in the majority of countries.  The mortality rate of children under-five was cut by more than half since 1990.  Since 1990, maternal mortality fell by 45 percent worldwide.  Over 6.2 million malaria deaths have been averted between 2000 and 2015.  New HIV infections fell by approximately 40 percent between 2000 and 2013.  By June 2014, 13.6 million people living with HIV were receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) globally, an immense increase from just 800,000 in 2003.  Between 2000 and 2013, tuberculosis prevention, diagnosis and treatment interventions saved an estimated 37 million lives.  Worldwide 2.1 billion people have gained access to improved sanitation.  Globally, 147 countries have met the MDG drinking water target, 95 countries have met the MDG sanitation target and 77 countries have met both.  Official development assistance from developed countries increased 66 percent in real terms from 2000 and 2014, reaching $135.2 billion. Sustainable Development Goals

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The Sustainable Development Goals are a set of 17 universal goals that United Nations members states had adopted to frame the global development agenda for the next 15 years. What are the proposed 17 goals? 1) End poverty in all its forms everywhere 2) End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture. 22 | P a g e

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3) Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages. 4) Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. 5) Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. 6) Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. 7) Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. 8) Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all. 9) Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation. 10) Reduce inequality within and among countries. 11) Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. 12) Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. 13) Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (taking note of agreements made by the UNFCCC forum) 14) Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. 15) Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss. 16) Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. 17) Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development. On September 25, 2015, the world leaders gathered at the United Nations Headquarters in New York and adopted an outcome document which marked the culmination of the negotiations on sustainable development called ‘Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’. This is a truly universal and transformative global development agenda for the next 15 years that aims to guide the international community and national governments on a pathway towards sustainable development, taking everyone on board.  The Outcome document contains 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets, as well as a section on means of implementation and renewed global partnership, and a framework for review and follow-up.  This historic agenda calls upon countries at all development stages -poor, rich and middle-income -to join the efforts in realizing economic growth, social inclusion, environmental protection, all underpinned by good governance. 23 | P a g e

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 The ‘five Ps’--people, planet, prosperity, peace, and partnership--encapsulates the broad scope of the agenda.  The SDGs strengthens all the three dimensions of sustainable developmenteconomic, social and environmental.  SDGs would replace the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that were in place from 2000 to 2015.  Adopted in 2000, the MDGs had eight key targets like eradication of poverty and hunger, universal primary education, gender equality, child mortality, maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, environment sustainability and to develop a global partnership for development.  Some of the targets have already been met, such as halving the number of people living in extreme poverty. Despite the progress, the indignity of poverty has not ended for all.  The new SDGs are expected to go a step ahead, address the root causes of poverty and other sustainable development agenda and areas which could not be completed earlier.  This process emanated from one of the main outcomes of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), held in Rio de Janeiro in June 2012.  The UN General Assembly (UNGA) constituted a 30 member Open Working Group (OWG) in January, 2013 for preparing a proposal on the SDGs. The OWG submitted its final report to the UNGA.  The agenda highlights poverty eradication as the overarching goal and has at its core the integration of the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.  This also calls for an invigorated, global partnership for sustainable development, including for multi-stakeholder partnerships, in addition to enhancing capacities of stake holders in better quality measurement and compilation of data or information on sustainable development.  One of the core elements of the outcome document was an effective follow-up and review architecture which is crucial to support the implementation of the new agenda.  The High Level Political Forum on sustainable development, set up after the Rio+20 Conference, will be the apex forum for follow up and review while the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council and specialized agencies will also be reviewing specific areas.

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FOR COMPLETE BOOK

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