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PERSONALITY The overall profile or combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts and interacts with others. Combines a set of physical and mental characteristics that reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels. Predictable relationships are expected between people’s personalities and their behaviors.

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FEATURES:  Personality refers to the set of traits & behaviors that characterize an individual.  It refers to the relatively stable pattern of behavior & consistent internal state & explains an individual’s behavioral tendencies.  Personality has both internal (thoughts, values & genetic characteristics that is inferred from observable behaviors) & external (observable behaviors) elements.  Personality of an individual is relatively stable in nature.  Personality is both inherited as well as it can be shaped by the environment. PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS  Heredity  Environment  Situation  Culture  Family and social background PERSONALITY THEORIES I. Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory This theory is based on the belief that man is encouraged more by unforeseen forces than the conscious and logical thought. Freud believed that most of the things in life are not present at the conscious level but they are present at an unconscious level. The features of Freud’s theory include three attributes − Id, Ego, and Superego. Id − It defines the innate component of personality. It is the impulsive and unconscious part of mind that seeks immediate satisfaction. Example − A hungry baby cries ll he/she is fed. Ego − It is derived from Id and assists in dealing with the external world. It also helps in translating the inner needs into expressions. It deals with practical and rational thinking process. Example − we have a fight with our friend and expect the friend to talk first, even though both of us want to talk. Superego − It is different from ego and is par ally unconscious. It includes the traditional values of society as interpreted by our parents. It also helps in the integral vision of punishment. Example − Ram came late today so he is grounded for a week. II. Erikson’s Theory

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This theory states that personality is groomed throughout lifetime. He presents eight distinct stages each with two possible outcomes. Successful completion of each stage leads to a healthy personality. These stages are − •

Infancy − It is the period between 0-1 years of age. In this stage, children learn the ability to trust others depending on their caregivers. Unsuccessful completion in this stage results in anxiety and insecurity.

Example− Children of this age are more comfortable with those faces they see more often and not with strangers. •

Early Childhood − It is the period between 1-3 years of age. In this stage, children learn to be independent. If given support, they become more confident else they become dependent over others.

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Example − Children in this age are taught how to walk, how to talk etc. •

Play Age − It is the period between 3-6 years of age. In this stage, children assert themselves frequently. The failure leads to development of a sense of guilt among them.

Example − Children in this age group, need to be taught how to behave and should be taught to be focused. •

School Age − It is the period between 6 years of age till puberty. In this stage, children become more innovative. They feel confident and want to achieve their goals. If not encouraged they may feel inferior.

Example − Teenagers should be protected and parents need to understand them and should handle them patiently. •

Adolescence − this stage is a transformation from childhood to adulthood. Here children find their own identity and should be guided and supported in order to help them choose the right direction.

Example − Decision such as which stream to choose science or commerce etc. happens during this stage. •

Young Childhood − this stage is also known as young adulthood. Here, they begin to open up and become more intimate with others.

Example − Making close friends. •

Adulthood − in this stage, they focus on establishing career and settling down with relationships that are important.

Example − Applying for jobs. •

Mature Adulthood − in this stage, a person is old and thus in this stage the productivity slows down.

Example− Taking care of the family.

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III. Sheldon’s Physiognomy Theory: This theory was proposed by William Sheldon. He presents personalities by classifying individuals into convenient categories based on their body shapes. They are − • • •

Endomorphs Mesomorphs Ectomorphs

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Endomorphs: In this category, the body is soft and spherical. People with this kind of personality love comfort; eat a lot, like to be around people and desire affection. Some common endomorph features are large amount of fat accumulation, insatiable appetite, larger frame etc. Some endomorph personalities are John Goodman, Jack Black etc. Mesomorphs: In this category, the body is hard and rectangular physique. People with this kind of personality like to take risk, are courageous and have power. Some common mesomorph features are wide shoulders, small waist, low body fat. Some mesomorph personalities are Jennifer Garner, Tina Turner etc. Ectomorphs: In this category, the body is fragile, flat chest and delicate body. People with this kind of personality are anxious, ambitious and dedicated. Some common ectomorph features are narrow frame, low body fat, etc. Some notable ectomorph personalities are Brad Pitt, Bruce Lee etc Trait Theory According to Trait Theory, traits are considered as the basic factors which decide the response of people. This response is nothing but the behavior of people to given situations. A trait is a predisposition to behave in a particular way to a particular situation. Traits have been divided into 16 major categories by Cattell they are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Tensed (versus) Relaxed Outgoing (versus) Reserved Controlled (versus) Undisciplined Bright (versus) Dull Self Sufficient (versus) Group Dependent Aggressive (versus) Docile Experimenting (versus) Conservative Happy Go Lucky (versus) Serious Self Respective (versus) Self Assured Stable (versus) Unstable Polished (versus) Unpretentious Conservative (versus) Expedient Imaginative (versus) Practical Uninhibited (versus) Shy Suspicious (versus) Trusting Tender Minded (versus) Tough Minded

According to Traits Theory, traits can be acquired at an early age through learning or may be inherited in a person. Traits that define the personality of humans are highly stable in nature. Many traits are

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found in general amidst the common people. However, the exact depth of a trait in individuals will vary based on many factors and can be measured using rating scales, questionnaires, etc. (3) Non-Freudian or Socio-psychological Theory: Socio-Psychological Theory is also called as NonFreudian Theory. It is based purely on relationships which are considered as the reason for the development of different types of Personalities. Based on this consideration the behaviour of consumers has been divided in to three types. The three types of consumer behaviors have been grouped into one and termed as CAD. Under this model, individuals have been classified as: • • •

Compliant Aggressive Detached

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(1) Compliant Individuals are the ones who are compassionate about being loved by others. They relish care and attention given by others. They are highly compliant in all their activities and can be termed as Conformists. (2) Aggressive Individuals are those who act against the intention of others. They are highly manipulative. They enjoy power and being at authoritative positions. Consumers who fall under this individual type go in only for branded products owing to their desire to be noticed. (3) Detached Individuals least care for brands. Freedom is important for them. They love to feel independent and are mostly self reliant in their thinking and activities. The above put together is termed as CAD Model. CAD Model has high reference points with respect to classifying consumer behavior in a holistic manner. MAJOR PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES Following are the five major personality attributes that influence OB − Locus of Control Locus of control is the center of control of an individual’s code of conduct. People can be grouped into two categories i.e., internals and externals respectively. People who consider themselves as the masters of their own fates are known as internals, while, those who affirm that their lives are controlled by outside forces known as externals. Before making any decision, internals actively search for information, they are achievement driven, and want to command their environment. Thus, internals do well on jobs that craves complex information processing, taking initiative and independent action. Externals, on the other hand, are more compliant, more willing to follow instructions, so, they do well in structured, routine jobs. Machiavellianism Machiavellianism is being practical, emotionally distant, and believing that ends justify means.

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Machiavellians are always wanting to win and are great persuaders. Here are the significant features of a high-mach individuals − High-Machs prefer precise interactions rather than beating about the bush. High-Machs tend to improvise; they do not necessarily abide by rules and regulations all the time. High-Machs get distracted by emotional details that are irrelevant to the outcome of a project. Self-esteem It is the extent up to which people either like or dislike themselves. Self-Esteem is directly related to the expectations of success and on-the-job satisfaction.

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On the other hand, individuals with low self-esteem are more susceptible to external distractions. So, they are more likely to seek the approval of others and to adapt the beliefs and behaviors of those they respect.

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Individuals with high self-esteem think that they have what it takes to succeed. So, they take more challenges while selecting a job.

Maslow’s humanistic theory of personality states that people achieve their full potential by moving from basic needs to self-actualization.

Self-monitoring Self-monitoring is the capability of regulating one’s behavior according to social situations. Individuals with high self-monitoring skill easily adjust their behavior according to external, situational factors. Their impulsive talents allow them to present public personae which are completely different from their private personalities. However, people with low self-monitoring skills cannot cover themselves. Regardless of any situation, they are always themselves. They have an attitude of, “what you see is what you get.” Risk taking Generally, managers are reluctant on taking risks. However, individual risk-taking inclination affects the bulk of information required by the managers and how long it takes them to make decisions. Thus, it is very important to recognize these differences and align risk-taking propensity with precise job demands that can make sense. Psychodynamic Theory Psychodynamics, also known as psychodynamic psychology, in its broadest sense, is an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. It is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation. Humanistic theory

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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types. Personality Types • Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I) • Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N) • Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F) • Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J) Extroverted vs. Introverted Extroverted individuals are outgoing, sociable, and assertive. Introverts are quiet and shy. Sensitive vs. Intuitive Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order. They focus on details. Intuitive rely on unconscious processes and look at the “big picture”. Thinking vs. Feeling Thinking types uses reason and logic to handle problems. Feelings types rely on their personal values and emotions. Judging vs. Perceiving Judging types want control, and prefer their world to be ordered and structured. Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous. MYERS BRIGGS 16 PRIMARY TRAITS:

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Key Points  As a leader of humanistic psychology, Abraham Maslow approached the study of personality by focusing on subjective experiences, free will, and the innate drive toward selfactualization .  Maslow expanded the field of humanistic psychology to include an explanation of how human needs change throughout an individual’s lifespan, and how these needs influence the development of personality.  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ranks human needs from the most basic physical needs to the most advanced needs of self-actualization. A person must acquire and master each level of need before proceeding to the next need.  Maslow studied the personalities of self-actualizers and found they had many things in common; he believed self-actualizers indicate a coherent personality syndrome and represent optimal psychological health and functioning.  Maslow’s ideas have been criticized for their lack of scientific rigor, as well as their Western cultural bias

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Big Five Personality Traits Extroversion This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness. Sociable, gregarious, and assertive. Agreeableness This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other pro-social behaviors. Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. Conscientiousness Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized. Emotional Stability Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, irritability, and sadness. Openness to Experience This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests. Locus of Control In personality psychology, locus of control is the degree to which people believe that they have control over the outcome of events in their lives, as opposed to external forces beyond their control. Understanding of the concept was developed by Julian B. Rotter in 1954, and has since become an aspect of personality studies. Individuals with a strong internal locus of control believe events in their life derive primarily from their own actions. Locus of control generated much research in a variety of areas in psychology. The construct is applicable to such fields as educational psychology, health psychology and clinical psychology. Locus of control is one of the four dimensions of core self-evaluations – one's fundamental appraisal of oneself – along with neuroticism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem.

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Machiavellianism Machiavellianism in psychology refers to a personality trait which sees a person so focused on their own interests they will manipulate, deceive, and exploit others to achieve their goals. Machiavellianism is one of the traits in what is called the ‘Dark Triad’, the other two being narcissism and psychopathy.

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The term itself derives from a reference to the infamous Niccolò Machiavelli, but it wasn’t a psychological term until the 1970s, when two social psychologists, Richard Christie and Florence L. Geis, developed what they called “the Machiavellianism Scale”. A personality inventory that is still used as the main assessement tool for Machaivellianism, this scale is now called ‘the Mach-IV test”. PERSONALTY TYPES Type A’s 1. are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly; 2. feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place; 3. strive to think or do two or more things at once; 4. cannot cope with leisure time; 5. are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire. The ‘Type A’ people:

   

They feel guilty while relaxing. They get irritated by minor mistakes of self and others. They feel impatient and dislike waiting. They also multitask and prefer to do several things at one time.

Type B’s 1. never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience; 2. feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments; 3. play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost; 4. can relax without guilt. The ‘Type B’ people are exactly opposite and hence are less affected by stress due to the above factors. Proactive Personality Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs. Creates positive change in the environment, regardless or even in spite of constraints or obstacles. PERCEPTION Perception is the basic cognitive or physiological process. It is the chief mechanism by which people come to know about their surroundings. Perception is the process of understanding the information

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received from the environment. It is the intellectual process through which a person selects the data from the environment, organizes it and obtains meaning from it. In its simple sense perception is understood as the act of seeing what is there to be seen , but what is seen in influenced by the perceiver the object on the environment. Perception may be defined as “the process of receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking, and reacting to sensory data to stimuli.”

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Perception is receiving the data from the environment. In this perception is having the process. According to this process, we can know how the person having the data from the environment. Types of environment or Models of Man: 1. Rational and economic man: In this model, individual will give the equal importance to all factors.( subject, object and verb). He never neglects anything. He is comparing his efforts to the outcome results. 2. Social man: He is always maintain the good relations, consider the social norms, satisfying himself his needs through interacting with others, accepting the society norms, and traditions etc ; he never neglect the social elements. 3. Organizational man: In this the person is always adjusting in various places, in various situations. In this the person can change according to the organizational environment and environmental conditions and organizational situations. 4. Complex man: He is always involving in all activities and giving equal importance to all things so in this the person is always satisfying his needs and wants. Process of perception: Receiving: There are 5 sensory organs in the human body. They are: eyes, nose, skin, ears, tongue. Selecting: After receiving the object the next important step is in the process of perception is selecting. In this selection process particular one object among the various objects, among the various situation and among the various environment.

Organizing: After selecting, the next important step in the process of perception is organizing. It includes arrange the activities in orderly and systematically in order to priority. Interpretation: After organizing the data or object the next step is interpretate in the mind of human being and before interpretation we have to eliminating understandable activities which are not relevant to our expectations and etc; Factors influencing the perception: The factors can be classified into 2 types. They are: 1. External factors 2. Internal factors 9|Page

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External factors: these factors consist of environmental influences and are in the form of the characteristics of perceptual inputs or stimuli. These characteristics may distinguish a particular stimulus from other stimulus of the same group. 1. Size: size of the object is also one of the important things. In this one particular thing is having the data. But it may be big or small. We will take the object should be understandable and selected data. 2. Intensity: the intensity principle of attention states that the more intense the external stimulus is the more likely, it is to be perceived. A loud sound, strong order or bright light is noticed more as compared to a soft sound, dim light. 3. Repetition: in this repetition states the object or data or pictures are more influencing the peoples, when they are looking are seeing repeatly. For to this repetition will make to purchase or change the behavior. 4. Novelty and familiarity: novelty and familiarity principle states that either a novel or a familiar external situation can serve as attention-getter. Now objects or events in a familiar setting or familiar objects or events in new setting draw better attention. 5. Contrast: the contrast principle states that stimuli which stand against the background. Letter of bold types , building colors are influence the people and attract the colors. 6. Motion: motion principle states that a moving object draws more attention as compared to a stationery object. In this principle people can analyze the object or stimuli. In this they can get the data from the stimuli. Internal factors: internal factors are related to the individual’s complex psychological makeup. 1. Self- concept: the way a person views the world depends a great deal on the concept or image he has about himself. This concept plays an internal role in perceptual selectivity. This is totally based on individual’s psychological balance. 2. Belief: A person’s beliefs have profound influence on his perception. The individual normally censors stimulus inputs to avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs. So peoples are having their own beliefs and opinions. These are also influence the perception. 3. Expectations: expectations affect what a person perceives. Expectations are related with the state of anticipation of a particular behavior from a person. 4. Inner needs: people’s perception is determined by their inner needs. The people’s are having some inner needs in the minds. So at that time people also search for their needs when the need parallel items are compared, people will receive quickly. 5. Response Disposition: It refers to a person’s tendency to perceive familiar stimuli rather than unfamiliar ones. A person will perceive the things with which he is familiar. 6. Response salience: it is the set of dispositions which are determined not by the familiarity of the stimulus, but by the person’s own cognitive predispositions. Thus a particular problem in an organization may be viewed as a marketing problem by marketing personnel, a control problem by accounting people and human relations problems by personnel people. It indicates that type of response salience which people have affects their perception. 7. Perceptual defense: It refers the screening of those elements which create conflict and threatening situation in people. Perceptual defense performed by: • Importance of conflicting information • Distorting the new information to match the old one, or • Acknowledging the new information but treating it as a non representative exception. Barriers in perceptual accuracy: Perception is one of the important things in the human body. 10 | P a g e

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In this perception is depending the sensory organs. When the person at receiving the data he is having some problems and facing some barriers in perception. Those are as follows: 1. Halo effect: in this halo effect the person is in the situation, he is not taking the full or required information. When the person gets the full information that time he can take and move a correct action. In this situation what he get the 1st information and he will ready to take decision on 1st attempt information. 2. Stereo typing: in this person is in the situation at what type of mood he is having that will be impact on another situational incident.

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Ex: A person is in cool. When you enter to meet that time, his response is also same. 3. First impression: first impression is nothing but we have a strong impact at 1st receiving data. So in this any one we get the data at first time, that will satisfy the person at that time he can get good impression on that one. 4. Egos: ego is one of the important concepts in man’s life. In our perceptual process ego dominate the perceptual things. When a person in ego state we can’t get the require and full information. 5. Response distinction: in this response distinction we will take the data according to the age, situation, knowledge and personality. Eg: when even we are going on road, a child also passing on road. Suddenly we saw a dog on road we can’t change our feelings but child may get fear, but at time child can take a stick he can’t get fear. Here his knowledge is placed. 6. Psychological pre occupation: the feelings have before we get the information. In this before we take the information what is our mind set and what we are thinking and what type of thinking’s placed in the mind that all are imposed in this. The above all are the barriers of perception. In this humans take the data from our 5 sensor organs and the mental condition of the personality and the personality stage. When the person is in correct position he can get correct data otherwise he can’t. So when he left the barriers he can success in this life. So everybody should overcome the barriers. Perceptual skills: Any time perception is one of the important thing. Every perception is for need satisfaction. For this purpose people should get correct perception. At this time people should have some perceptual skills those are as follows: 1 Perceiving oneself accurately: one of the major reasons why people misperceive others is that they fail to perceive themselves accurately. So people should understand himself more accurately. So in this everybody should know about themselves accurately. 2. Enhancing self- concept: self concept is normally a function of how successfully people accomplish the things they attempt to do. When self concept is developed and people have acquired a positive self regard, they are adopt to respect others more and perceive them more accurately. 3. Having positive attitudes: attitudes also effect the perception. When the people are in the positive attitude and positive mind their receiving is also positive. So they can get the information correct way and correctly. At that time they can take correct decisions. 11 | P a g e

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4. Being empathetic: empathy means being able to see a situation as it is experienced by others. This is putting your legs in another’s shoes. A person can understand the problem in true perceptive when he looks at it from others point of view also. This is help to understand the others problems. 5. Communicating more openly: communication is more important in the organizations and society. So in this everybody should have the open communication effective. When the communication is effective there is no problems and understanding also more effective. 6. Avoiding common perceptual distortions: As discussed earlier, there are some factors which effect the perception adversely like halo effect, stereo typing, attribution, first impression etc;. in order to have better perception of the situation, people in the organization should guard themselves specially against these common biases. So in this, people should avoid some common perceptual distortions.

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Attitude Attitudes are evaluative statements indicating one’s feeling either favourably or unfavourably towards persons,objects,events or situations Attitude is very complex cognitive process just like personality of an individual. POSITIVE ATTITUDE :- Positive mental attitude is a psychological term which describes a mental phenomenon in which the central idea is that one can increase achievement through optimistic thought processes. NEGATIVE ATTITUDE :-A negative attitude is characterized by a great disdain for everything. Someone who constantly points out the negative in everything. COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE

 Cognitive Component.  Affective Component.  Behavioral Component. These three components are described below: 1. Informational or Cognitive Component: The informational component consists of beliefs, values, ideas and other information a person has about the object. It makes no difference whether or not this information is empirically correct or real. For example, a person seeking a job may learn from his own sources and other employees working in the company that in a particular company the promotion chances are very favorable. In reality, it may or may not be correct. Yet the information that person is using is the key to his attitude about that job and about that company. 2. Emotional or Affective Component: The informational component sets the stage for the more critical part of an attitude, its affective component. The emotional components involve the person’s feeling or affect-positive, neutral or negative-about an object. This component can be explained by this statement.” I like this job because the future prospects in this company are very good”. 3. Behavioural Component: The behavioral component consists of the tendency of a person to behave in a particular manner towards an object. For example, the concerned individual in the above case may decide to take up the job because of good future prospects. Out of the three components of attitudes, only the behavioral component can be directly observed. One cannot see another person’s beliefs (the informational component) and his feelings (the emotional component). These two

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components can only be inferred. But still understanding these two components is essential in the study of organizational behavior or the behavioral component of attitudes. ABC Model of Attitude: All the three components of attitude explained above constitute, what is OF called the ABC model. Here, in the ABC model, the alphabet A stands for Affective component, B for Behavioral and C for the cognitive component. The importance of this model is that to have a proper and thorough understanding of the concept of attitude, all the three components mentioned above must be properly assessed. It is only the behavioral component which can be directly observed, the other two components: affective and cognitive can however only be inferred. COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES

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Attitudes structure can be described in terms of three components. Affective component: this involves a person’s feelings / emotions about the attitude object. For example: “I am scared of spiders”. Behavioral (or cognitive) component: the way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave. For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”. Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an attitude object. For example: “I believe spiders are dangerous”. Attitude and behavior are two quite different things. Attitude is a person's inner thoughts and feelings, while behavior is usually an outward expression of attitude, but the two are not always related. For instance, psychopaths are people whose attitudes are composed of low morality. However, this does not mean that they always commit immoral acts. Psychopaths are usually intelligent, so they know that even though there will be no moral consequences for them, there will still be legal consequences to deal with. This knowledge, in addition to their attitude, governs their behavior. When a person's attitude and behavior differ, dissonance will likely result, and a change in attitude or behavior will be the probable outcome. This model is known as the ABC model of attitudes. The three components are usually linked. However, there is evidence that the cognitive and affective components of behavior do not always match with behavior. They evaluative statements in an attitude are either favorable or unfavorable. They reflect how one feel about something.    

A person can have thousands of attitudes. But OB focuses on a limited number of job-related attitudes. These include job satisfaction, Job involvement (the degree to which person identifies with his or her job and actively participates in it) And organizational commitment (an indicator of loyalty to, and, identification with the organization).

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE

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According to Katz, attitudes serve four important functions from the viewpoint of organizational behavior. These are as follows. The Adjustment Function. Attitudes often help people to adjust to their work environment. Welltreated employees tend to develop a positive attitude towards their job, management and the organization in general while berated and ill treated organizational members develop a negative attitude. In other words, attitudes help employees adjust to their environment and form a basis for future behavior.

The Value-Expressive Function. Attitudes provide individuals with a basis for expressing their values. For example, a manager who values hard and sincere work will be more vocal against an employee who is having a very casual approach towards work. The Knowledge Function. Attitudes provide standards and frames of reference that allow people to understand, and perceive the world around him. If one has a strong negative attitude towards the management, whatever the management does, even employee welfare programmes can be perceived as something ‘bad’ and as actually against them. ABC Model of Attitude  ABC,the three letters stands for affect, behavior & cognition.  Emphasizes the inter relationship among knowing, feeling & doing.  Relative importance of component depends upon level of motivation. Functions Of Attitude

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The Adjustment Function: Attitudes often help people to adjust to their work environment. Ego-Defensive Function: Attitudes help people to retain their dignity and self- image.  The Value-Expressive Function: Attitudes provide individuals with a basis for expressing  their values.  The Knowledge Function: Attitudes provide standards and frames of reference that allow people to understand and perceive the world around him. Formation Of Attitude Experience with Object: Attitude can develop from a personally rewarding or punishing experience with a object. Classical Conditioning: It involves involuntary responses and is acquired through the pairing of two stimuli. Operant Conditioning: It is based on the “Law of Effect” and involves voluntary responses ,Behaviors. Vicarious Learning: Formation of attitude by observing behaviour of others and consequences of that behaviour.

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Ego-Defensive Function. Attitudes help people to retain their dignity and self- image. When a young faculty member who is full of fresh ideas and enthusiasm, joins the organization, the older members might feel somewhat threatened by him. But they tend to disapprove his creative ideas as ‘crazy’ and ‘impractical’ and dismiss him altogether.

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Family and Peer Groups : A person may learn attitudes through imitation of parents. Neighborhood : Involves being told what attitudes to have by parents, schools, community organizations, religious doctrine, friends, etc. Economic Status : Our Economical and occupational positions also contribute to attitude formation. Mass Communication : Television, Radio, Newspaper and magazine feed their audiences large quantities of information.

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THEORIES OF ATTITUDE Cognitive Consistency Theories: Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behaviour. This means that people seek to reconcile divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behaviour so that they appear rational and consistent. When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the individual to an equilibrium state where attitudes and behaviour are again consistent. This can be done by either altering the attitude or the behaviour or by developing a rationalization for the discrepancy. The cognitive consistency theories are concerned with inconsistencies that arise between related beliefs, bits of knowledge and evaluation about an object or an issue. Though various consistency theories differ in several respects, all of them have a common object that is reducing the inconsistency and returning the individual to the equilibrium state. There are four important theories under this grouping: (A) Balance Theory: F. Heider provided the basic model of balance theory. The theory is basically concerned with the consistency in the judgment of people and/or issues that are linked by some form of relationship. B. Congruity Theory: C.E. Os good and P.H. Tannenbaum have proposed the congruity theory of attitudes which is similar to the balance theory. This theory focuses on the changes in the evaluation of a source and a concept that are linked by an associative or dissociative assertion. Congruity exists when a source and concept that are positively associated have exactly the same evaluations and when a source and concept that are negatively associated have exactly the opposite evaluations attached to them. Congruity is a stable state and incongruity is an unstable one. As a result, incongruity leads to a change of attitude. This theory states that how much change should be there in the attitudes towards the source and the concept so that incongruity is resolved. C. Affective Cognitive Consistency Theory: M.I. Rosenberg has suggested the affectivecognitive consistency theory which is concerned with the consistency between a person’s overall attitude or effect towards an object or issue and his beliefs about its relationship to his more general values. This theory is concerned mainly with what happens within the individual when an attitude changes. It assumes that the relationship between the affective and cognitive components of the attitude change when an attitude is altered. D. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance. Dissonance means an inconsistency. Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual might perceive between two or more of his attitudes or between his behaviour and attitudes. Festinger argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance and hence the discomfort. 15 | P a g e

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Functional Theory: The functional theory considers how attitudes and efforts are related to the motivational structure of the individual. This theory focuses on two things: (i) The meaning of the influence situation in terms of both the kinds of motives that it arouses and (ii) The individual’s method of coping and achieving his goals.

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An understanding of the functions served by attitudes is important for attitude change procedures since a particular method may produce change in individuals whose attitudes serve one particular function, but may produce no change in individuals for whom the attitudes serve a different function. The most prominent person who visualized functional theory is Katz and he suggested four functions of attitudes. However, Katz functional theory has not stimulated much research except for the work on changing ego defensive attitudes. Social Judgment Theory: The social judgment theory was originally formulated by Sherif and Hoveland. This theory attempts to explain how existing attitudes produce distortions of attitude related objects and how these judgments mediate attitude change. Thus, a person’s initial attitude towards an issue, serves as an anchor for the judgment of attitude related stimuli. The person’s initial attitude on an issue provides a point of reference against which he evaluates other opinions. These views can be considered in terms of attitudinal continuum and can be considered as comprised of latitudes. The latitude of acceptance, which is the range of opinions the individual finds acceptable, encompasses the opinion that best characterises his own stand. The attitude of rejection, which is the range of opinions the individual finds objectionable, encompasses the opinion he finds most objectionable. The attitude of non-commitment is the range of opinions that the person finds neither acceptable nor unacceptable. EMOTION EMOTION is considered as Energy in MOTION. It is an energy moving through your body. The root word is "emote", which implies the direction the energy is moving - out. Emotions are an attempt to express outwardly, to express what we believe. If your belief is unconscious then you act on automatic pilot. If conscious, then you have some choice. In either case, how you feel is a reflection of how you think. Your negative thoughts produce negative emotions. Your positive thoughts produce positive emotions. So, emotion is not something that happens to you. Emotion is actually something you are doing. GROUP DYNAMICS It was founded by Kurt Lewin to study group decision, group productivity, group interaction, group cohesiveness and group communication. The underlying assumption was that the laws of the group behavior can be established independently of the goals or specific activities of group irrespective of the structure of the group. Group dynamics contains two terms: group and dynamics. Group is basically a collectivity of two or more persons. Dynamics comes from Greek 16 | P a g e

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word meaning FORCE. Thus, “Group dynamics is concerned with the interactions of forces among group members in a social situation.” Types of Groups: One way to classify the groups is by way of formality – formal and informal. While formal groups are established by an organization to achieve its goals, informal groups merge spontaneously. Formal groups may take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups.

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1. Command Groups: Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. 2. Task Groups: Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished. 3. Functional Groups: A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of current goals and objectives. GROUP NORMS: Norms define the acceptable standard or boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, shared by group members. They are typically created in order to facilitate group survival, make behaviour more predictable, avoid embarrassing situations, and express the values of the group. Each group will create its own norms that might determine from the work performance to dress to making comments in a meeting. Groups exert pressure on members to force them to conform to the group’s standards and at times not to perform at higher levels. The norms often reflect the level of commitment, motivation, and performance of the group. The majority of the group must agree that the norms are appropriate in order for the behaviour to be accepted. There must also be a shared understanding that the group supports the norms. It should be noted, however, that members might violate group norms from time to time. If the majority of members do not adhere to the norms, then they will eventually change and will no longer serve as a standard for evaluating behaviour. Group members who do not conform to the norms will be punished by being excluded, ignored, or asked to leave the group. GROUP COHESIVENESS: Cohesiveness refers to the bonding of group members or unity, feelings of attraction for each other and desire to remain part of the group. Many factors influence the amount of group cohesiveness – agreement on group goals, frequency of interaction, personal attractiveness, inter-group competition, favourable evaluation, etc. The more difficult it is to obtain group membership the more cohesive the group will be. Groups also tend to become cohesive when they are in intense competition with other groups or face a 17 | P a g e

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serious external threat to survival. Smaller groups and those who spend considerable time together also tend to be more cohesive. Cohesiveness in work groups has many positive effects, including worker satisfaction, low turnover and absenteeism, and higher productivity. However, highly cohesive groups may be detrimental to organizational performance if their goals are misaligned with organizational goals. Highly cohesive groups may also be more vulnerable to groupthink. Groupthink occurs when members of a group exert pressure on each other to come to a consensus in decision making. Groupthink results in careless judgments, unrealistic appraisals of alternative courses of action, and a lack of reality testing.

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Evidence suggests that groups typically outperform individuals when the tasks involved require a variety of skills, experience, and decision making. Groups are often more flexible and can quickly assemble, achieve goals, and disband or move on to another set of objectives. Many organizations have found that groups have many motivational aspects as well. Group members are more likely to participate in decision-making and problem-solving activities leading to empowerment and increased productivity. Groups complete most of the work in an organization; thus, the effectiveness of the organization is limited by the effectiveness of its groups. POWER & POLITICS Power and politics are two face of a single coin. They move parallelily together. Power refers to the possession of authority and influence over others. TYPES OF POWER •Coercive power: Coercive power is the ability of a manager to force an employee to follow an order by threatening the employee with punishment if the employee does not comply with the order. •Legitimate power: Legitimate power is power you derive from your formal position or office held in the organization's hierarchy of authority. •Reward power: Reward power is simply the power of a manager to give some type of reward to an employee as a means to influence the employee to act. Rewards can be  Tangible  Intangible. Tangible rewards are physical things like; Monetary awards, wage or salary increases, bonuses, plaques, Certificates, medals gifts. Intangible rewards are not physical things, but can be more effective like Praise, Positive feedback, Recognition, More responsibility including a rise in status, Well-timed 'thank-you’. •Referent power: Referent power is power of an individual over the Team or Followers, based on a high level of identification with, admiration of, or respect for the power holder/ leader. Examples of referent power are Nationalism, patriotism, celebrities, mass leaders, widely-respected people.

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•Expert power: Expert power is power based upon employees perception that a manager or some other member of an organization has a high level of knowledge or a specialized set of skills that other employees or members of the organization do not possess.

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WHAT IS POLITICS? Workplace politics is the process and behavior in human interactions involving power and authority. It is also a tool to assess the operational capacity and to balance diverse views of interested parties. It is also known as office politics and organizational politics. It is the use of power and social networking within an organization to achieve changes that benefit the organization or individuals within it. Influence by individuals may serve personal interests without regard to their effect on the organization itself. Some of the personal advantages may include access to tangible assets, or intangible benefits such as status or pseudoauthority that influences the behavior of others. On the other hand, organizational politics can increase efficiency, form interpersonal relationships, expedite change, and profit the organization and its members simultaneously. Both individuals and groups may engage in office politics which can be highly destructive, as people focus on personal gains at the expense of the organization. "Self-serving political actions can negatively influence our social groupings, cooperation, information sharing, and many other organizational functions." Thus, it is vital to pay attention to organizational politics and create the right political landscape. "Politics is the lubricant that oils your organization's internal gears." Office politics has also been described as "simply how power gets worked out on a practical, day-to-day basis Workplace politics, (office politics or organizational politics) is the use of power and social networking within an organization to achieve changes that benefit the organization or individuals within it. Influence by individuals may serve personal interests without regard to their effect on the organization itself. WHY IS POLITICS REQUIRED? • To come in the limelight and gain undue attention and appreciation from the seniors. • To obtain advantages which are beyond their control. • Getting thing done at right time. EFFECTS OF POLITICS  Decrease job satisfaction  Increased anxiety and stress  Decreased in overall productivity  Affects Concentration  Spoils the Ambience  Changes the Attitude of employees  Demotivated employees  Wrong Information

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IS P&P REQUIRED IN AN ORGANISATION?

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The political game is played everywhere, whether it is during a conversation at work, at home, at school, or event at the grocery store. Politics are prevalent in the workplace. Unlike power, politics do not have to be played by everyone within an organization. Yes, P&P is required in order for things to run smoothly is part of any organization. For employees to advance in their career, they need to recognize and accept the game in their organization. Organizational politics is necessary for a leader to acquire and retain power and to accomplish major goals. Although political behavior can be unethical and destructive, it also can and should be ethical and contribute to a balanced set of interests. Your democratic institutions... must foster, defend, and enlarge institutions by which knowledge can be made greater and choices wider and more certain. ...The real function of power and the order it creates... is the liberation of men and women to think and be and make the most of themselves. CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION Conflict and negotiation are significant components to operate business. Business possessors may have conflict with many groups like partners, managers, employees and the general public. Negotiation is often essential to develop harmonious solution for all parties involved in the conflict. Many small businesses keep away from internal conflict and negotiation because owners are mainly responsible for completing business functions. However, external conflict and negotiation happen for most companies in the business setting. Conflicting situation often occurs when individuals have dissimilar ideas, beliefs or theories regarding business operations. Business holders may also find conflict when bargaining with individuals or other businesses. Negotiation is the process of talk about each individual position about an issue and tries to get a solution that benefits both parties. Conflict and negotiation are typically more widespread in leading business organizations since more individuals are involved in the company operations. Conflict and negotiation may result in several options being created to resolve difficult situations. Business owners might follow some steps when processing discussion options and solutions; identifying the problem, analyzing the issue, creating different strategies or approaches, and acting on outcomes or ideas. These steps provide a logical process to follow when solving conflict and negotiation issues. Conflict: Conflict occurs whenever deviations exist in a social situation over issues of substance. Emotional antagonisms cause frictions between individuals or groups. Traditional view of conflict revealed that all conflicts are harmful and must be avoided. Professionals of the human relations avowed that conflict was a natural event in all groups and organizations. Since conflict was predictable, the human relations discipline supported acceptance of conflict. Supporters rationalized its existence: It cannot be eradicated and there are even times when conflict may promote a group's performance.

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Main causes of conflict in organization are poor communication, lack of openness, failure to respond to employee needs. Additionally, differences between groups might be highlighted by real differences in power, opportunity, clients serviced. There are different types of conflict:

 Substantive conflict: A fundamental disagreement over ends or goals to be pursued

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and the means for their accomplishment.  Emotional conflict: Interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment. Conflict management: Conflicts are unavoidable in an organization. However, conflicts can be used as motivators for transformation in organization. In business environment, several factors create competition; they may be differing departmental objectives, individual objectives, and competition for use of resources or differing viewpoints. These have to be integrated and exploited powerfully to achieve organizational objectives. A manager should be competent to observe emerging conflicts and take proper preventative action. The manager should recognize the causes creating conflict, the outcome of conflict, and various methods by which conflict can be managed in the organization. In this way, the manager should develop an approach to resolve conflicts before their troublesome repercussions have an impact on productivity and creativity. Negotiation: Majority of companies have to negotiate in many areas of organizational conflict. Negotiation is an open process for two parties to find a satisfactory solution to a complex conflict. Negotiation is process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. In an organizational context, negotiations may take place between two people, within a group, between groups and over the Internet. Negotiation can take extensive forms from skilled negotiator acting on behalf of a particular organization or position in a formal setting to an informal negotiation between friends. Negotiation can be contrasted with intervention, where a neutral third party listens to each side's arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties. It can also be compared with arbitration, which resembles a legal proceeding. In arbitration, both sides make an argument as to the merits of their case and the arbitrator decides the outcome. This negotiation is also called positional or hard-bargaining negotiation. Basically, negotiation is a problem-solving procedure in which two or more people willingly discuss their differences and try to reach a joint decision on their common concerns. Negotiation requires participants to recognize issues, about which they differ, educate each other about their needs and interests, generate possible settlement options and bargain over the terms of the final agreement. Winning negotiations result in some kind of exchange or promise being made by the negotiators to each other. The exchange may be tangible or intangible. STRESS

 It derived from the Latin word stringers which means to draw tight.  Stress is different from anxiety which a state of uncertainty. from agitation which is physical part of anxiety. 21 | P a g e

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is also different

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 Stress also differs from frustration which is blocked goal attainment.  Stress is an internal phenomenon & a mental attitude. Stress is mental, emotional or physical reaction resulting from individual response to environmental pressure & similar stumili.  Hans selye- father of stress. Burnout- It is a syndrome wherein a person breaks down physically and emotionally due to continuous over work a long period of time. Work addicts or work aholic are suspetible to burnout. Causes of Stress

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Career Concern: If an employee feels that he is very much behind in the corporate ladder, then he may experience stress. If he seems that there are no opportunities for self-growth, he may experience stress. Hence, unfulfilled career expectations are the significant source of stress. Role Ambiguity: It occurs when the person doesn't know what he is supposed to do, on the job. His tasks and responsibilities are not clear. The employee is not sure what he is expected to do. It creates confusion in the minds of the worker and results in stress. Rotating Work Shifts: Stress may occur in those individuals who work on different work shifts. Employees may be expected to work on day shift for some days and then on the night shift. That may create problems in adjusting to the shift timings, and it can affect not only personal life but also family life of the employee. Role Conflict: It takes place when people have different expectations from the person performing a particular role. It can also occur if the job is not as per expectation, or when a job demands a certain type of behavior that is against the person's moral values. Occupational Demands: Some jobs are more demanding than others. Jobs that involve risk, and danger are more stressful. Research findings indicate, job that cause stress needs constant monitoring of equipments and devices, unpleasant physical conditions, making decisions, etc. Lack of Participation in Decision-making: Many experienced employees feel that management should consult them on matters affecting their jobs. In reality, the superiors hardly ask the concerned employees before taking a decision. That develops a feeling of being neglected, which may lead to stress. Work Overload: Excessive workload leads to stress as it puts a person under tremendous pressure. Work overload may take two different forms: Poor Working Conditions: Employees may be subject to poor working conditions. It would include bad lighting and ventilation, unhygienic sanitation facilities, excessive noise, and dust, presence of toxic gasses and fumes, inadequate safety measures, etc. All these unpleasant conditions create physiological and psychological imbalance in humans thereby causing stress. Lack of Group Cohesiveness: Every group is characterized by its cohesiveness, although they differ widely in its degree. Individuals experience stress when there is no unity among work group members. There are mistrust, jealousy, frequent quarrels, etc., in groups and this lead to stress to employees. Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict: These conflicts take place due to differences in perceptions, attitudes, values and beliefs between two or more individuals and groups. Such conflicts can be a source of stress for group members. 22 | P a g e

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Organizational Changes: When changes occur, people have to adapt to those changes, and this may cause stress. Stress is higher when changes are significant or unusual like transfer or adoption of new technology. Certain factors outside the scope of an organization also cause stress. Civic Amenities: Poor civic amenities in the area in which one lives can be a cause of stress. Inadequate or lack of public facilities like improper water supply, excessive noise or air pollution, lack of proper transport facility can be quite stressful.

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Life Changes: Life changes can bring stress to a person. Life changes can be slow or sudden. Gradual life changes include getting older, and abrupt life changes include death or accident of a loved one. Sudden life changes are highly stressful and very difficult to cope. Frustration: Frustration is another cause of stress. It arises when goal-directed behavior gets blocked. Management should attempt to remove barriers and help the employees to reach their goals. Racial, Caste, and Religious Conflicts: Employees living in areas, which are often prone to conflicts among people based on differences seen in their race, caste and religion do suffer more from stress. In the case of a religion, the minorities and lower-caste people (especially in India) are subject to more stress. Technological Changes: When there are any changes in technical fields, employees are under the constant fear of losing jobs or need to adjust to new technologies. It can be a source of stress. Career Changes: When a person suddenly switches to another job, he is under stress to shoulder new responsibilities adequately. Under-promotion, over-promotion, demotion and transfers can also cause stress. TYPES OF STRESS DISTRESS: Stress due to an excess of adaptive demands placed upon us. The demands are so great that they lead to bodily and mental damage. e.g.: unexpected death of a loved one. EUSTRESS: The optimal amount of stress, which helps to promote health and growth. e.g.: praise from a superior for hard working. INDICATORS OF STRESS Physiological indicators: The physiological signs and symptoms of stress result from activation of sympathetic and neuro- endocrine systems of body. PHYSIOLOGICAL INDICATORS ARE:

 The manifestations: of stress includes anxiety, fear, anger, depression and unconscious ego defense mechanism.  Anxiety: state of mental uneasiness, apprehension, dread or feeling of helpless. It can be experienced at conscious, subconscious or unconscious level  Fear: It is an emotion/ feeling of apprehension aroused by impending or seeming danger, pain or threat.  Depression: It is an extreme feeling of sadness, despair, lack of worth or emptiness.

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 Unconscious ego defense mechanism: It is a psychological adaptive mechanism developing as the personality attempts to defend itself and allay inner tensions. COGNITIVE INDICATORS: Problem solving: the person assesses the situation or problem analyzes, chose alternatives, carries out selected alternatives and evaluates. Structuring: arrangement/ manipulation of a situation so that threatening events do not occur. Self-control: assuming a manner and facial expression that conveys a sense of being in control or in change. Suppression: willfully putting a thought or feeling out of mind.

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Day dreaming: unfulfilled wishes and desires are imagined as fulfilled or a threatening experience is re worked or re played so that it ends differently from reality. Stress management It is the amelioration of stress and especially chronic stress often for the purpose of improving everyday functioning. Stress produces numerous symptoms which vary according to persons, situations, and severity. These can include physical health decline as well as depression. Types of Stress management (A)Acute Stress: Acute stress is usually for short time and may be due to work pressure, meeting deadlines pressure or minor accident, over exertion, increased physical activity, searching something but you misplaced it, or similar things. Symptoms of this type of tension are headaches, back pain, stomach problems, rapid heartbeat, muscle aches or body pain. (B)Chronic Stress: This type of stress is the most serious of all the 3 stress types. Chronic stress is a prolonged stress that exists for weeks, months, or even years. This stress is due to poverty, broken or stressed families and marriages, chronic illness and successive failures in life. People suffering from this type of stress get used to it and may even not realize that they are under chronic stress. It is very harmful to their health. Causes of Stress Management  Whenever our body feels something not favorable, then it tries to defend itself. If this situation continues for a long time, then our body is working overtime.  There are several causes of stress. For example, you are under stress when you are worried about something, worried about your children, worried about the illness of your father, worried about your job security, or worried about your loans or similar things. Business advantages of stress management:  Less absenteeism due to stress related disorders  Less worker's compensation loss due to stress-related illness or accidents  Improved job performance  Less stressful, more efficient workplace  Improved employee attitude  Improved employee overall health. 24 | P a g e

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Disadvantages of stress management Stress is a disadvantage because it can potentially raise your heart rate and weaken your immune system. Also, it can be a factor in poor decision making because under stress we may not think logically or consider the consequences of the choices we make. ABC Strategy  A = Awareness  B = Balance  C = Control

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FEATURES:

    

Always take time for yourself at least 30 min/ day. Be aware of your own stress meter; know when to step back and cool down. Concentrate on controlling your own situation, without controlling everybody else. Daily exercise will burn off the stress chemicals. Eat lots of fresh fruit, veggies, bread and water; give your body the best for it to perform at its best.  Forgive others, do not hold grudges and be tolerant; not everyone is capable as you.  Gain perspective on things, how important is the issue?  Identify stressors and plan to deal with them better next time.  Judge your own performance realistically; don‘t set goals out of your own reach.  Keep a positive attitude, your outlook will influence outcomes and the way others treat you.  Limit alcohol, drugs and other stimulants, they affect your perception and behavior.  Manage money well, seek advice and save at least 10% of what you earn.  No is a word you need to learn to use without feeling guilty.  Outdoor activities by yourself, or with friends and families, can be a great way to relax.  Play your favorite music rather than watching TV.  Sleep well, with firm mattress and supportive pillow; don‘t over heat yourself and allow plenty of ventilation.  Treat yourself once a week with a massage, dinner out and the movies.  Understand things from the other person point of view.  Verify information from the source before exploding. POINTS TO REMEMBER: Stressor is the stimuli proceeding or precipitating a change. It may be internal (fear, guilt) or external (trauma, peer pressure, etc) TECNHIQUES OF STRESS MANAGEMENT Stress management involves controlling and reducing the tension that occurs in stressful situations by making emotional and physical changes. The degree of stress and the desire to make the changes will determine how much change takes place.

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LAUGHTER: Adopting a humorous view towards life`s situations can take the edge off everyday stressors. Not being too serious or in a constant alert mode helps maintain the equanimity of mind and promote clear thinking. Being able to laugh stress away is the smartest way to ward off its effects. AUTOGENIC TRANING: It is a relaxation technique developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Heinrich Schultz and first published in 1932. The technique involves the daily practice of sessions that last around 15 minutes, usually in the morning, at lunch time, and in the evening. During each session, the practitioner will repeat a set of visualizations that induce a state of relaxation. Each session can be practiced in a position chosen amongst a set of recommended postures (for e.g.: lying down, sitting meditation). The technique can be used to alleviate many stress-induced psychosomatic disorders. Autogenic Training restores the balance between the activity of the sympathetic (flight or fight) and the parasympathetic (rest and digest) branches of the autonomic nervous system. This has important health benefits, as the parasympathetic activity promotes digestion and bowel movements, lowers the blood pressure, slows the heart rate, and promotes the functions of the immune system. GETTING A HOBBY: Hobby is an activity or interest that is undertaken for pleasure or relaxation, typically done during one's leisure time.eg: collecting, games, outdoor recreation, gardening, performing the arts, reading, cooking and etc. Meditation is a holistic discipline during which time the practitioner trains his or her mind in order to realize some benefit. Meditation is generally a subjective, personal experience and most often done without any external involvement, except perhaps prayer beads to count prayers. Meditation often involves invoking and cultivating a feeling or internal state, such as compassion, or attending to some focal point, etc. The term can refer to the process of reaching this state, as well as to the state itself. YOGA-NIDRA: Yoga-nidra may be rendered in English as "yoga sleep". These aspects may include relaxation and guided visualization techniques as well as the psychology of dream, sleep and yoga. The practice of yoga relaxation has been found to reduce tension and anxiety. The autonomic symptoms of high anxiety such as headache, giddiness, chest pain, palpitations, sweating, abdominal pain respond well. NOOTROPICS: Nootropics also referred to as smart drugs, memory enhancers, and cognitive enhancers, are drugs, supplements, nutraceuticals, and functional foods that improve mental functions such as cognition, memory, intelligence, motivation, attention, and concentration. Nootropics are thought to work by altering the availability of the brain's supply of neurochemicals (neurotransmitters, enzymes, and hormones), by improving the brain's oxygen supply, or by stimulating nerve growth. However the efficacy of nootropic substances, in most cases, has not been conclusively determined. Organizational culture Organizational culture can be defined as the group norms, values, beliefs and assumptions practiced in an organization. It brings stability and control within the firm. The organization is more stable and its objective can be understood more clearly. Organizational culture helps the group members to resolve their differences, overcome the barriers and also helps them in tackling risks.

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Elements of Organizational Culture The two key elements seen in organizational culture are − Visible elements − These elements are seen by the outer world. Example, dress code, activities, setup, etc.



Invisible elements − These inner elements of the group cannot be seen by people outside the group or firm. Example, values, norms, assumptions, etc. Now let us discuss some other elements of organizational culture. They are −



 Stories − Stories regarding the history of the firm, or founder.  Rituals − Precise practices an organization follows as a habit.  Symbol − The logo or signature or the style statement of a company.

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 Language − A common language that can be followed by all, like English.  Practice − Discipline, daily routine or say the tight schedule everyone follows without any failure.

 Values and Norms − The idea over which a company is based or the thought of the irm is considered as its value and the condition to adopt them are called norms.

 Assumptions − It means we consider something to be true without any facts. Assumptions can be used as the standard of working, means the employees prepare themselves to remain above standard. Different Types of Organizational Culture The culture a firm follows can be further classified into different types. They are −

    

Mechanistic and Organic culture Authoritarian and Participative culture Subculture and Dominant culture Strong and Weak culture Entrepreneurial and Market culture

Mechanistic and Organic Culture Mechanistic culture is formed by formal rule and standard operating procedures. Everything needs to be defined clearly to the employees like their task, responsibility and concerned authorities. Communication process is carried according to the direction given by the organization. Accountability is one of the key factors of mechanistic culture. Organic culture is defined as the essence of social values in an organization. Thus there exists a high degree of sociability with very few formal rules and regulations in the company. It has a systematic hierarchy of authority that leads towards free flow of communication. Some key elements of organic culture include authority, responsibility, accountability and direct flow towards the employee. Authoritarian and Participative Culture Authoritarian culture means power of one. In this culture, power remains with the top level management. All the decisions are made by the top management with no employee involvement in the decision making as well as goal shaping process. The authority demands obedience from the 27 | P a g e

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employee and warns them for punishment in case of mistake or irregularity. This type of culture is followed by military organization. In participative culture, employees actively participate in the decision making and goal shaping process. As the name suggests, it believes in collaborative decision making. In this type of culture, employees are perfectionist, active and professional. Along with group decision making, group problem solving process is also seen here.

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Subculture and Dominant Culture In subculture, some members of the organization make and follow a culture but not all members. It is a part of organizational culture, thus we can see many subcultures in an organization. Every department in a company have their own culture that gets converted to a subculture. So, the strength and adaptability of an organizational culture is dependent on the success of subculture. In dominant culture, majority of subculture combine to become a dominant culture. The success of dominant culture is dependent on the homogeneity of the subculture, that is, the mixture of different cultures. At the same point of time, some cold war between a dominant culture and a minor culture can also be seen. Strong and Weak Culture In a strong culture, the employees are loyal and have a feeling of belongingness towards the organization. They are proud of their company as well as of the work they do and they slave towards their goal with proper coordination and control. Perception and commitment are two aspects that are seen within the employees. In this culture, there is less employee turnover and high productivity. In a weak culture, the employees hardly praise their organization. There is no loyalty towards the company. Thus, employee dissatisfaction and high labor turnover are two aspects of this culture. Entrepreneurial and Market Culture Entrepreneurial culture is a flexible and risk-taking culture. Here the employees show their innovativeness in thinking and are experimental in practice. Individual initiations make the goal easy to achieve. Employees are given freedom in their activity. The organization rewards the employees for better performance. Market culture is based on achievement of goal. It is a highly target-oriented and completely profit-oriented culture. Here the relationship between the employees and the organization is to achieve the goal. The social relation among the workers is not motivating. How to Create an Organizational Culture An organizational culture is created with the combination of certain criteria that are mentioned below −

 The founder of the organization may partly set a culture.  The environment within which the organization standards may influence its activities to set a culture.

 Sometimes interchange of culture in between different organizations create different new cultures.

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The culture of an organizational can change due to composition of workforce, merger and acquisition, planned organizational change, and influence of other organizational culture. Organizational Behavior - Change Organizational change can be defined as the alteration in structure, technology or people in an organization or behavior by an organization. Here we need to note that change in organizational culture is different from change in an organization. A new method or style or new rule is implemented here. An organizational change occurs due to two major factors namely − External factor − External factors are those factors that are present outside the irm but force the firm to change or implement a new law, rule etc. For example, all banks are bound to follow the rules laid down by the RBI.

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Internal factor − Internal factors are those factors that are caused or introduced inside an organization that forces a change. For example, no smoking in the workplace.

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

Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Analysis Kurt Lewin, is a noted organizational theorist, who proposed the force field analysis for organizational change. In this theory, he has prioritized two factors for change in an organization, namely − Driving force − Driving force can be de ined as an organizational force that makes a change with respect to structure, people and technology. In short, it drives the organization from one culture to another.

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Restoring force − Restoring force is the force which changes the culture from the existing state to the old state. It indicates a backward motion while the driving force indicates a forward motion.

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Importance of Organizational Change There is a need of change in an organization because there is always a hope for further development, and in order to survive in a competitive market, the organization needs to be updated with changes. However, we have listed some reasons to explain why changes are deliberately made and carefully planned by the organization before implementation. 

It improves the means to satisfy the economic requirements of people.

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It enhances the profitability of organization.

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It promotes employee satisfaction and well-being.

Planned Change We can define planned change as any kind of alteration or modification which is done in advance and differently for improvement. The Need for Planned Change Planned change takes places in an organization when there is a demand for change due to two types of forces. These forces are grouped into internal sources and external sources. Internal forces that lead to a planned change in an organization include obsolescence of production and service, new market opportunities, new strategic direction, increasing workforce diversity, and shift in socio-cultural values.

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External forces that lead to a planned change in an organization include regulators, competitors, market force, customers, and technology. Each of these forces can create pressing demand for change in small or big, public or private, business or non-business organizations. Process of Planned Change Once the management decides to implement some changes in the organization, it needs to be done carefully as it is a very sensitive issue. It is very important for all the employees to adapt to change. According to Kurt Lewin, the planned organizational change is implemented in three different stages. They are − Unfreezing − In this stage, the organization studies if the change is required or not, what and why is the change necessary. Considering the entire situation, the organization decides for appropriate change. Thus a plan and strategy is formulated as required.

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Changing − In this stage, the organization executes the plan and program for change. For this purpose, proper precautions are taken in order to maintain cooperation and coordination between the employees and management, avoiding miscommunication or disputes. Adequate supervision and control is arranged as needed.

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Refreezing − This is the final stage, in order to bring organizational change. By way of supervision, the organization tries to evaluate the effectiveness of change. Collecting all this information, the management interprets whether to continue or replace change by some other alternatives or to make further minor changes.

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Types of Planned Change On the basis of a company’s requirement planned change is classified into three types. They are − 

Change in structure

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Change in technology

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Change in people

Change in Structure We say that the planned change required is change in structure when development is required in these following areas − 

Change in management

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New management

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Change in position or location

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Change in objective, rules, regulations etc.

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Launching new branches

Change in Technology We say that the planned change required is change in technology when development is required in these following areas − 

Need of office automation

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Installing new hardware and software

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Executing new working procedures

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New methods in production function 30 | P a g e

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Producing new products and devices

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New training, research and development program

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Change in People We say that the planned change required is change in people when development is required in these following areas − 

New candidate requirement

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Promotion or demotion

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Transfer to other location

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Suspension or dismissal

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Deputation

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Training and development

Organizational Behavior - Development Organizational Development is a field of research, theory, as well as practice devoted to expanding the knowledge and effectiveness of how people accomplish successful organizational change and performance. Organizational development is not an overnight transformation that can be done in an organization, rather it is a gradual process that has to be executed systematically and by taking care of the external environment. Organization Development Techniques Companies adopt organizational development technique to modify the behavior of people who are resisting change. It is a program to bring a change in the values, norms, attitudes, perception, and behavior of people and improve the quality of inter-personal relations. Some of the major organizational development techniques are − 

Sensitivity technique

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Survey feedback

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Process consultation

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Team building

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Intergroup development

Now let us have a look at all these techniques. Sensitivity Technique Here sensitivity refers to the psychological aspect of human mind that has to be shaped to act as expected by the group. In this technique, one’s own weakness is exposed and members understand how others react towards them. Stress is on group dynamics and tackling inter-relationship disputes. The idea is to improve the behavior of people in order to maintain smooth inter-personal relationship without any power or influence. Members are motivated to have an open, heart-toheart talk to develop mature relationship. Sensitivity training borders on psychotherapy where the emotions as well as body language are considered.

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Survey Feedback In this technique, the discrepancies among a group are weeded out using questionnaires, which identify the difference in perception amongst the same working family, group or department. The collected data is then tabulated and distributed for further deliberations. This acts as the basis for further discussions and the discrepancies if any can be sorted out by open discussions with all concerned, defending and opposing till a consensus is reached. This technique mainly focuses on ideas and not on persons who put up those ideas.

Team Building In this technique, attempts are made at the group or inter-group level. The main objective is to improve co-ordination thereby improving the performance as a group. This can be done by goal setting, development of inter-personal relations, role analysis to identify roles and responsibilities and team process analysis. Intergroup Development Inter group development technique attempts to change the perceptions of groups about themselves or about other groups. This can be done by organizing independent group meeting, developing a list consisting of perception of itself, views about other departments and how others view them, trying to understand and resolve the actual cause of conflicts, or sub grouping the groups to remove difference in perceptions and impressions that groups have about each other.

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Process Consultation In this technique, a firm may either seek the support of experts from within the firm or from outside. The firm must check that process consultation is done through an external expert with the needed support provided by the authorities from within the organization.

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