Physiology of The Respiratory System FOR STUDENTS IN COLLEGE OF PHARMACY
2009-2010
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Respiration Ventilation: Movement of air into
and out of lungs External respiration: Gas exchange between air in lungs and blood Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood Internal respiration: Gas exchange between the blood and tissues
Respiratory System Functions Gas exchange: Oxygen enters blood
and carbon dioxide leaves Regulation of blood pH: Altered by changing blood carbon dioxide levels Voice production: Movement of air past vocal folds makes sound and speech Olfaction: Smell occurs when airborne molecules drawn into nasal cavity Protection: Against microorganisms by preventing entry and removing them
Respiratory System Divisions Upper tract Nose, pharynx and associated structures Lower tract Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
Nose and Pharynx Pharynx
Nose External nose Nasal cavity Functions
1.Passageway for air 2.Cleans the air 3.Humidifies, warms air 4.Smell 5.Along with paranasal sinuses are resonating chambers
Common opening
for digestive and respiratory systems Three regions Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx
Larynx Functions 1.Maintain an open passageway for air movement 2.Epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed material from moving into larynx 3.Vocal folds are primary source of
Tracheobronchial Tree Conducting zone
1.Trachea to terminal bronchioles which is ciliated for removal of debris 2.Passageway for air movement 3.Cartilage holds tube system open and smooth muscle controls tube diameter Respiratory zone
1.Respiratory bronchioles to alveoli 2.Site for gas exchange
Lungs
Two lungs:
Principal organs of respiration Right lung:
Three lobes Left lung: Two lobes
Divisions Lobes, bronchopulm onary segments, lobules
Pleura Pleural fluid
produced by pleural membranes
Acts as lubricant Helps hold parietal
and visceral pleural membranes
Ventilation Movement of air into and
out of lungs Air moves from area of higher pressure to area of lower pressure Pressure is inversely related to volume
Changing Alveolar Volume Lung recoil Causes alveoli to collapse resulting from Elastic recoil and surface tension Surfactant: Reduces tendency of lungs to collapse
Pleural pressure Negative pressure can cause alveoli to
expand Pneumothorax is an opening between pleural cavity and air that causes a loss of pleural pressure
Normal Breathing Cycle
Compliance Measure of the ease with which lungs
and thorax expand The greater the compliance, the easier it is for a change in pressure to cause expansion A lower-than-normal compliance means the lungs and thorax are harder to expand Conditions that decrease compliance Pulmonary
fibrosis Pulmonary edema Respiratory distress syndrome
Pulmonary Volumes Tidal volume Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal inspiration or expiration Inspiratory reserve volume Amount of air inspired forcefully after inspiration of normal tidal volume Expiratory reserve volume Amount of air forcefully expired after expiration of normal tidal volume Residual volume Volume of air remaining in respiratory passages and lungs after the most forceful expiration
Pulmonary Capacities Inspiratory capacity Tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume Functional residual capacity Expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume Vital capacity Sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume Total lung capacity Sum of inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus the tidal volume and residual volume
Spirometer and Lung Volumes/Capacities
Minute and Alveolar Ventilation Minute ventilation: Total amount of air
moved into and out of respiratory system per minute Respiratory rate or frequency: Number of breaths taken per minute Anatomic dead space: Part of respiratory system where gas exchange does not take place Alveolar ventilation: How much air per minute enters the parts of the respiratory system in which gas exchange takes place
Physical Principles of Gas Exchange Partial pressure The pressure exerted by each type of gas in
a mixture Dalton’s law Water vapor pressure Diffusion of gases through liquids Concentration of a gas in a liquid is
determined by its partial pressure and its solubility coefficient Henry’s law
Physical Principles of Gas Exchange Diffusion of gases through the respiratory
membrane
Depends on membrane’s thickness, the
diffusion coefficient of gas, surface areas of membrane, partial pressure of gases in alveoli and blood
Relationship between ventilation and
pulmonary capillary flow
Increased ventilation or increased
pulmonary capillary blood flow increases gas exchange Physiologic shunt is deoxygenated blood returning from lungs
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Diffusion Gradients Oxygen Moves from alveoli into blood. Blood is almost completely saturated with oxygen when it leaves the capillary P02 in blood decreases because of mixing with deoxygenated blood Oxygen moves from
Carbon dioxide Moves from
tissues into tissue capillaries Moves from pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli
Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin
(98.5%) and is dissolved in plasma (1.5%) Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve shows that hemoglobin is almost completely saturated when P02is 80 mm Hg or above. At lower partial pressures, the hemoglobin releases oxygen. A shift of the curve to the left because of an increase in pH, a decrease in carbon dioxide, or a decrease in temperature
Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport A shift of the curve to the right because
of a decrease in pH, an increase in carbon dioxide, or an increase in temperature results in a decrease in the ability of hemoglobin to hold oxygen The substance 2.3-bisphosphoglycerate increases the ability of hemoglobin to release oxygen Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than does maternal
Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve at Rest
Bohr effect
Temperature effects
Shifting the Curve
Transport of Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide is transported as
bicarbonate ions (70%) in combination with blood proteins (23%) and in solution with plasma (7%) Hemoglobin that has released oxygen binds more readily to carbon dioxide than hemoglobin that has oxygen bound to it (Haldane effect) In tissue capillaries, carbon dioxide combines with water inside RBCs to form carbonic acid which dissociates to form bicarbonate ions and hydrogen
Transport of Carbon Dioxide In lung capillaries, bicarbonate ions and
hydrogen ions move into RBCs and chloride ions move out. Bicarbonate ions combine with hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid is converted to carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the RBCs. Increased plasma carbon dioxide lowers blood pH. The respiratory system regulates blood pH by regulating plasma carbon dioxide levels
Respiratory Areas in Brainstem Medullary respiratory center Dorsal groups stimulate the
diaphragm Ventral groups stimulate the intercostal and abdominal muscles Pontine (pneumotaxic) respiratory group Involved with switching between inspiration and expiration
Modification of Ventilation Cerebral and limbic
system
Respiration can be
voluntarily controlled and modified by emotions
Chemical control Carbon dioxide is
major regulator Increase or
decrease in pH can stimulate chemo- sensitive area, causing a greater rate and depth of respiration
Oxygen levels in
blood affect respiration when a 50% or greater decrease from
Modifying Respiration
Herring-Breuer Reflex Limits the degree of inspiration and
prevents overinflation of the lungs Infants Reflex plays a role in regulating
basic rhythm of breathing and preventing overinflation of lungs
Adults Reflex important only when tidal volume large as in exercise
Ventilation in Exercise Ventilation increases abruptly At onset of exercise Movement of limbs has strong
influence Learned component Ventilation increases gradually After immediate increase, gradual increase occurs (4-6 minutes) Anaerobic threshold is highest level of exercise without causing significant change in blood pH If exceeded, lactic acid produced by
Effects of Aging Vital capacity and maximum minute
ventilation decrease Residual volume and dead space increase Ability to remove mucus from respiratory passageways decreases Gas exchange across respiratory membrane is reduced