Oral Epic Formula And The Structuring Of Epic Her1

Mirjana Detelić Institute for Balkan Studies, Belgrade (Serbia) ORAL EPIC FORMULA AND THE STRUCTURING OF EPIC HERO

If there was a need to sum up the present main stream in oral formula studies, there would in fact have to be two of them: Russian and American. Although Russia, to my best knowledge, has never had anything like a school in that field1, the distinguished figure of Georgij Ivanovič Maljcev (tragically deceased in his prime) made all the difference with his “tip of an iceberg” theory of formula. 2 This theory suggests that one single text/poem/variant gets connected with all others by the deep connotative meanings of chosen formulas. Here, formula is seen as a vehicle of condensed, formerly mythical substance or ritual practice, transformed into a cliché capable of triggering a chain of important poetic events. In that case, “the iceberg” would be that primary syncretic basis common to all participants in traditional culture, and its “tip” the actual text which makes the use of it.3 This also means that a work of oral literary art is seen as a closed system able to correspond and interconnect with other of the kind, within the broader systems of oral literature, folklore, and traditional culture itself. The most promising analytical method in this context is borrowed from the general theory of models. Its key-point is discovering the criteria for choosing what 1

Russian scholars (Vesselovsky, Potebnya, later also Propp) showed some interest in oral formula at about the same time the Van Gennep works first appeared, but they saw it as fraseology, a part of linguistics. 2 G. I. Maljcev was killed in a traffic accident right after his first and only book (his PhD thesis, in fact) was published. Its full title is: Г. И. Малыцев, Традиционные формулы русской народной необрядовой лирики, [ Traditional Formulas of Russian Popular Non-Ritual Lyric Poetry] Ленинград 1989. 3 “More than anything else, tradition is a rational, evaluative category. In a way, the formulas studied here are like a tip of an iceberg. The “underwater” part is most substantial and meaningful, but it cannot be expressed directly in texts. It reveals itself in very special ways. [...] The deep level of tradition has its own parameters, tendencies, and relations. It can be discussed as a complex and potentially inexhaustible center which “irradiates” meaning. Tradition is a generic category, and formulas appear as a canonized fixation of certain zones of traditional semantics. At one hand, it gives them a relative autonomy and, at the other, it offers them a chance to make multiple connections with tradition (in texts it shows as a potential score of “compositional associations”).” (Традиционные формулы, 68, 69)

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elements of reality are worth further processing into a work of art, or – to put it simply – what should be picked, and what skipped. The significance and elegance of this method come to limelight especially in case of complex folklore dramas - folklore wedding, for example. For the sake of illustration, in Serbian oral tradition epic poems sing only about the parts groom and his family take in the sequence of wedding rites and customs (proposing, formation of wedding guests suite, fetching the bride, going back to groom’s home).4 The wedding itself is frequently mentioned all the long, as an important event one is expected to boast of. On the contrary, songs about the bride’s part of the drama are not epic and they do not mention the wedding at all. They are connected with rites, so they often perform even a ritual weep for the bride and sing metaphorically of her former life in freedom (at her parents’ home), and unpredictable future life with strangers. Even in the language itself, this situation is adequately termed by two different expressions: udaja for bride (literally: giving-oneself-in), and ženidba for groom (literally: takingover-a-wife), in general congruence with genre differences within oral poetry. The modelative component of this approach to oral literature makes it the best possible choice for longer genres – epic ballads, folk and fairy tales and similar. In shorter literary forms - proverbs, riddles, charms and alike - which are, by terms of their use, typical open systems, the modeling simply does not work. Here the American, ParryLordian scheme of linear dissipation5 is more at home. Its main point is the notion of formulaic nucleus, a traditional resource of elements, rules, and patterns for formula making, mutual to all craftsmen of one and the same language and tradition. From that one source the material is spread all over the singing area through formulas and versification patterns which may be accepted even in neighboring lands, as long as they can be put to unbiased use. In that case a work of oral literary art is not seen as a whole but rather as a set of corresponding elements, i.e. as an open structure, described accordingly as a system of signs. The further consequence of this is thropization of text which enables it to make sense even where there is none. Again for the sake of 4

To some extent, I wrote about it in Mitski prostor i epika (Mythical Space and the Epics), Belgrade 1993. In 1998 CLIO released a special issue of its magazine “Kodovi slovenskih kultura” (Codes of Slavic Cultures) dedicated to the subject of wedding, with contributions by distinguished scholars like Radost Ivanova (Bulgaria), Anna Plotnikova (Russia), Albert Baiburin and Georgy Levington (Russia), Biljana Sikimic and Aleksandar Loma (Serbia) and others. 5 This term cannot be found in Lord’s books, but it could easily become “Lordian”. I used it on several occasions (Detelic 1996; Detelic 2003), always to define a horizontal concatenation of figurative speech.

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illustration, one of the common places of Serbian epics - Viče Arap iz bijela grla (The Arab shouts with his white throat) - becomes sensible because the formula “white throat” has in time gained a new, thropic meaning: “beautiful, loud voice”. The key-word here is “time”, for – in spite of the most usual prejudice – there is no such thing as a ready-made formula for every occasion. If the “black Arab” (which itself is a stereotype in Serbian epic tradition) does not have the adequate “black” formula for loud voice, singer will use what he has, or – better – what he knows that his audience will recognize in the right way on the ground of their mutual long-lasting epic experience. At the first glance these two approaches to oral literature may seem incompatible and mutually unfriendly, never to be brought together with good prognosis. The purpose of my humble contribution today will be to prove the opposite.6 It is common knowledge that epic – known also as heroic - poetry is built around the image of an epic hero (his destiny and deeds), so it has to be very careful and particular about the structuring of its poetic kernel. Every single poetic device a singer has at his disposal is meant to serve that purpose by telling a story of one or more important events of hero’s life. In general, an epic hero has to satisfy two kinds of needs – private and social, whence emerges the structural pattern of his epic image. In all Slavonic epics, and with South Slavs in particular, the image of an epic hero has to be composed of six elements divided in two groups: personal (outfit, horse, weapons), and public (family, castle, town). [Figure 1] They all together form a hero’s identity and the loss of one of them usually initiates the fall of hero himself (duke Prijezda7 of Serbian epics is good example for it, for the loss of his town Stalać, where there was his castle, made him destroy his sabre, kill his horse, and commit suicide together with his fateful wife Roxanda – all that in order to prevent the elements of his grandeur to fall into Turkish hands). Each and every one of those six items is of utmost importance for understanding the epic creative process. However, my particular interest was in the epic image of town, which was the subject of my long-lasting project at the Institute for Balkan studies in 6

This is not a new concept. Lately, for example, Foley issued a similar text about UNESI! “Smrt vojvode Prijezde” (Death of duke Prijezda), song no. 84 in Vuk Karadzic collection, vol. II. Very interesting Croat variant of this song was published in Matica hrvatska collection vol. I, with alterations in geography (Stalac in Serbia – Promin in Croatia) and names of characters (Prijezda, duke of Stalac, and his wife Roxanda – duke of Promin and his wife Lehovkinja [=Polish woman] Mara). 7

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Belgrade.8 I formed a corpus of 1350 epic poems collected in 21 volumes during the nineteenth century (and the very beginning of twentieth), on the territory of former Yugoslavia (Macedonia and Slovenia excluded for linguistic reasons).9 This territory is today divided between four independent countries (Bosnia/Hercegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia), whose population practices two religions (Christian and Moslem), and recognizes two churches (Orthodox and Catholic). In spite of their mutual differences, they all share the same epic tradition in the same decasyllabic verse, and with the same poetic basics. My first objective here was a reconstruction of the epic image of town which had to be grounded on thorough excerption and scrutinous numerical and statistic analysis. Once it was done, it showed that there were 848 different oikonyms mentioned in the corpus, which is significant but still does not tell anything about the image of town in epics. So the next step was to connect mere city-names with some substance, which was achieved by extracting the attributes that usually go with them. Those attributes are formed of nouns, adjectives, adverbial constructions (preposition + noun and/or adjective), and their combinations. In short, epic towns are either defined with some kind of formula, or they are not defined at all. All formulas appear in two forms – basic, with only two components (noun/adjective + oikonym), and complex with at least three parts (noun and/or adjective + adverbial construction + oikonym) or more, but always long/short enough to fit the frame of decasyllabic verse. Of the basic formulas, a few are significantly more in use than the others (oikonym + town/city/village/place, and oikonym + white/plain or flat/stone or made-of-stone/small). [Figure 2] The most frequent of complex formulas is the noun + adjective connection with remarkably strong preferences on the side of “white town” (beli grad) and “small village” 8

The project “Epic cities” started in 1998 and, up till now, resulted in: 1) Detelić-Loma-Pavlović, CD Rom Gradovi u hrišćanskoj i muslimanskoj deseteračkoj epici (Cities in Christian and Moslem Decasyllabic Epic Poetry), Balkanološki institut SANU, Beograd 2004; 2) Detelić, M., Epski gradovi. Leksikon (Epic Cities. A Lexicon), Balkanološki institut SANU, Posebna izdanja knj. 84, Beograd 2006 – in print; 3) Detelić, M. & Ilić, M., Ogled o belom gradu (An Essey on White City), Balkanološki institut SANU, Beograd 2006. 9 Macedonian and Slovene are different languages, mutually and in comparison to Serbo-Croatian. Although nowadays there is a tendency – political by origin and purpose – to proclaim four languages in those four countries, there is not a single linguistic evidence to support such doing. Therefore, I will continue to call this language Serbo-Croatian (Croato-Serbian), and claim it mutual (with local differences) to all peoples mentioned here. It certainly is the language all the songs were sung and written down in.

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(malo selo). These two, it may be stated with some relevance, appear to be the most typical folklore formulas in South Slav traditional epics. [Figure 3, Figure 4] The idea of “white town” (beli grad) is one of the most archaic features not only of pan-Slavonic, but also of pan-European significance. It can be traced back to its praIndo-European roots, and it is easily recognized as a structural element of actual European cultural inheritance and history.10 It is present in tradition of all Slavic peoples, but as an epic formula of some substance it can be traced only in Serbo-Croatian epic poetry. Compared with general use of adjective “white” in epic ballads, it becomes even more specific and shows that the high score of “white” occurrences is connected with even two out of three public elements in epic hero’s structure – family home (castle, tower) and his town. [Figure 5] In fact, all important buildings (church, castle, tower) and fortifications are described as white and almost only thus. The expectations here are largely betrayed because of the very well known common places as belo lice za ljubljenje (white face for kissing) in popular lyrics, as well as white breasts, arms, legs (whose proposed use everyone is free to imagine ad libitum). In the epics (Figure 5) they do not make appearance of any significance (throat 78; face 60; beard 18; teeth 10; neck 6; breasts and bosom 2; forehead, cheek, bones 1), except “white arm” which has to occur endlessly in poetry about people who live by their weapons (sword, sabre, spear). So, the adjective “white” has every importance in defining the public elements of the epic hero’s image, and almost none in his personal quarters. Here another word comes to focus, and this time it is the eponym of the genre – the adjective junački (heroic, belonging to a hero). It is mostly connected with the things in close relation to hero’s person (weapons, robes), or with the parts of his body (face, muscles, arms, legs, moustaches, bones, thighs, shoulders, head, forehead, chest, heart, voice). Some of them (head, heart, knee) are equally frequent in metaphoric and metonymic meaning (sve junačke glave, srce junačko, junačko koljeno). The same goes with phrases junački drum (»heroic road« – road the heros go by11) and junačko zdravlje (»heroic health« – to ask someone about his heroic health = to greet someone). Finally, as a key-word to the genre itself, the adjective »junački/heroic« is mandatory in combination with all isofunctional 10

See the discussion and bibliography in Detelic & Ilic 2006. Conf. groenir brautir, grêne straeta in Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian medieval poetry, meaning “nonexisting roads”, roads going along green pastures (Veselovski 2005, 87). 11

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terms: battle (steko sam je u boju junačkom), duel (da junački megdan dijelimo), company (te junačku četu četujući), name (ni junačko ime nađenula), life (i junački život povratiti), fortune (ako Bog da i sreća junačka) etc. In combination with oikonyms, though, contrary to any one's prognosis, adjective heroic/junački occurs only once as a basic formula – with little Montenegrin town Kčevo, and three times as a part of complex formula junačko mesto/heroic place (big Montenegrin villages Njeguši and Rovca, and Hercegovinian county of Kotari). Such a distribution of two epic key-signifiers – »white« and »heroic« – is motivated by the needs of the genre itself. In epic poetry the adjective »heroic« is not only a carrier of code information essential to the genre – it itself IS that information, so it has to be used literally, precisely, and as close to its primary meaning as possible. This includes the primary subject too, and that subject is epic hero himself, so the word »heroic« - as a defining characteristic – goes with items close to his person (his body parts, his way of life, marks of his trade). The leading line here is the term CLOSE, hence the opposite – public features of the hero are expected to appear as FAR, which they actually do. Consulting again our Figure 2, we shall notice that the most frequent of all basic formulas - grad/town, beli/white and ravan/flat in combination with oikonyms – actually place the town, as a public element of his epic image, at the greatest distance from the hero's person. »Looking from afar«, or from the point of longest perspective, in epic poetry is not exclusively reserved for towns, but when it is – its realization depends on adjectives »white« and »flat«. If the chosen characteristics of town are »tvrd/firm or hard« and »kameni/stone or made-of-stone«, the perspective is drastically changed, because such qualities can be checked only from a reasonable vicinity. The point here is that terms chosen to suggest this long distance ARE NOT the carriers of code information essential for epic genre, but - especially in case of the adjective »white« - they are much older than epic itself. Connection with »white« and »flat« as distance markers betrays town for what it never is on the narrative level in epics, i.e. for a civilizational symbol with practically no match at all. 12 In every other aspect epic poetry treats towns as political and ideological category with long and bloody 12

In old and medieval tradition, cities were always depicted as distant, and that was their constant signifier. Conf. Frugoni 1991.

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history. Only here, in structuring the image of epic hero, it did not dare touch the archaic layers of white town formula which – I personally presume – is connected with ancient sacred spots of adoration and sacrifice, what first towns in pra-Slavonic abode had to be. Othervise, the image of town could have hardly remained unchanged in two culturally, religiously, socially, legislatively, and in every other way different world-views of Christians and Moslems with South Slav origin. Thus, what started as an open system analysis of formula structural patterns, ended in a possible reconstruction of one specific poetic device and its origin. In other words, it used the Parry-Lordian method to open the subject, and Maljcev's to close it. The further elaboration of the problem could use the same procedure again, in fact as many times as the need is. What made possible the mutually supportive action of the two, is the omnipresent but sometimes invisible and unnoticeable fact that orality (in both senses – as literature and as tradition) is one and the same in its every aspect. Like Columbo a few centuries ago, we too have every reason to believe that – going West – we shall reach nothing but the East.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Detelic 1993 - Детелић, Mирјана : Митски простор и епика [The Mythical Space and the Epics], САНУ – АИЗ «Досије», Београд 1993. Detelic 1996 - Детелић, Мирјана : Урок и невеста. Поетика епске формуле [The Charm and the Bride. The Poetics of Epic Formula], Балканолошки институт САНУ, Центар за научна истраживања САНУ и Универзитета у Крагујевцу, Београд 1996. Detelic 2003 – Detelić, Mirjana : “El uso de la fόrmula épica en la composición del motivo de la muerte de la prometida”, Actas del coloquio internacional Baladas y leyendas populares en España y en Yugoslavia, Aula Virtual Belgrado 2003, 4768. Detelic & Ilic 2006 - Детелић, М. & Илић, М. : Оглед о белом граду [An Essey on White City], Балканолошки институт САНУ, Београд 2006. Frugoni 1991 - Frugoni, Chiara : A Distant City. Images of Urban Experience in the Medieval World, Princeton UP 1991. Kodovi - Кодови словенских култура бр. 3: Свадба [Codes of the Slavonic Cultures / no.3: Wedding], CLIO, Београд 1998. Maljcev 1989 - Малыцев, Г. И. : Традиционные формулы русской народной необрядовой лирики, Ленинград 1989. Matica Hrvatska vol. I - Hrvatske narodne pjesme, skupila i izdala Matica hrvatska. Odio prvi. Junačke pjesme. I/1. Junačke pjesme, knjiga prva, uredili Dr Ivan Božić i Dr Stjepan Bosanac, Zagreb, 1890. Veselovski 2005 - Веселовски, Александар : Историјска поетика [Историческая поэтика], Zepter Book World, Београд 2005. Vuk Karadzic vol. II - Сабрана дела Вука Караџића, Српске народне пјесме, издање о стогодишњици смрти Вука Стефановића Караџића 1864-1964 и двестогодишњици његова рођења 1787-1987, Просвета. Пјесме јуначке најстарије, књига друга 1845, Београд, 1988.

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FIGURES 1 - 5

FIGURE 1 – STRUCTURE OF EPIC HERO’S IMAGE PRIVATE PUBLIC 1. personal outfit (beautiful robes, knightly armor 1. family (parents, siblings, wife and children, 2. 3.

etc.) knight horse (for battle, hunting, traveling etc.), sometimes accompanied with a hound standard knightly weapons (sabre, sword, knife or dagger, spear, bow and arrows etc.)

2. 3.

often a fateful servant too) castle (his heirloom, ancestral home, not necessarily in form of a castle, but certainly with all its functions) town/city (usually a fortress or a chain of them, but in some occasions a town proper, like Niš, Belgrade, Istanbul etc.)

Figure 1

FIGURE 2 - BASIC FORMULAS NOUNS

ADJECTIVES

grad/town + oikonym – 206 selo/village + oikonym – 127 šeher (šer šeer šever)/Turkish town + oikonym - 27 mesto/place + oikonym – 16 Figure 2

beli/white + oikonym - 157 ravan/flat, or plane + oikonym - 130 kameni/stone, or made-of-stone + oikonym - 50 mali/small + oikonym - 34

FIGURE 3 – COMPLEX FORMULAS I Table 1 WHITE TOWN (beli/bili/bijeli grad) - 130 Aršan Bagdat Bar Beč Berkot Bišće

Gusinje Hrvat Irig Išarčić, Izorčić Jadran Jajce

Leđan, Leđen, Leđar Lijevno Loznica Ljubuška Madžar Maglaj

Splet, Saplet Spuž Stalać Stambol, Stambul Stijena Stolac, Stojac

Maloš

Pirlitor, Piritor Pladin Počitelj Podvjest Požun Prelip, Prilep, Prilip Primorje

Beograd, Bijograd, Biograd Branički grad Budim, Budin Bukreš Bunić Carigrad

Janok, Janjok

Medun Misir Mleci, Mljetok Morović Mostar

Priština Pritoka Prizren Prokuplje Rig

Šibenik Temišvar Timok Travnik Trebinje

Cetinja

Jedrene, Jedrena Jelača Jugovac Kanjiža, kaniški grad Karlovac, Karlovac (Sremski) Kladuša

Nadin

Risan, Rišanj

Ćorfes

Klijenak

Rudnik

Diklići Dmitrovica

Klis Klobuk

Nikšić, Nihšić, Nišić, Nikš, Nišićski, Nišinski grad Niš Novi, Novin

Udbina, Udbinja, Udbinj, Udbin Udžbar

Senj Sibinj

Ulcinj Ušćup

Šabac

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Dobuj Dubica Dubrovac Dubrovnik Duklin Duvno Đurđija Glamoč Gospić

Kolašin, Kulašin Konjic Korun Kostur Kotar Kotor Kratovo Krojan Kruševac

Obodski grad Obrst Olaš Onogošt Orlov Osjek, Osijek Ozija Ozin Pazar

Siesak, Sisak Siget Silistrija Sjenica Skadar, Skatar Skoplje Slunj Smederevo Sofija

Gračac Gradačac

Kumanovo Kuršumlija

Perast Peterburg, Petrburg

Solilo Solun, Solunić

Užice Varad Varadin Vidin Višegrad Vučitrn Zadar, Zadarje Zvornik Žabljak, Žabjak, Žabljački grad

Table 2 ALL OTHER APPEARANCES OF “BELO/WHITE +” - šeher/ šer [TURKISH TOWN]– 2 (Mitrovica, Sarajevo) - selo [VILLAGE]– 3 (Čelebijć, Tuđemili, Bojkovo) - varoš [SMALL TOWN]– 1 (Podgorica) - kuća [HOUSE] – 1 (Jedrene) - prostrani [SPATIOUS]– 1 (Beč / Wienna) - kameni [MADE OF STONE]– 2 (Klin, Bišće) - zenđil [RICH] – 1 (Skadar) - carev [BELONGING TO TSAR] – 1 (Osijek)

- stojni [CAPITAL] – 2 (Biograd, Carigrad/Constantinople) - njemački [GERMAN] – 1 (Beč / Wienna) - krvavi [BLOODY] - 1 (Senj) - tvrdi – 1 [FIRM] (Skadar) - na krajinu [ON THE BORDER] – 8 (Varna, Frutak, Senj, Risan, Spuž, Duvno, Bišće) - na bogazu [IN THE COUNTRY] – 1 (Ribnik) - na Bojani [BY THE BOJANA RIVER] – 1 (Skadar/Scodra) - pokraj Une [BY THE UNA RIVER] – 2 (Pridor, Ripač)

Table 3 ALL OTHER FORMULAS “GRAD/TOWN +” - grad carev [BELONGING TO TZAR] – 13 (Berkot, Budim, Carigrad/ Stambol /Constantinople, Dubrovnik, Glamoč, Janok/Janjok, Janja, Krupa, Ozija/Ochakov, Peć, Požuj/Bratislava, Stijena, Temišvar/Timisoara) - grad kaurski [CHRISTIAN] – 10 (Aršan, Budim, Izmir, Janjok, Korlat, Novi, Oblić, Obzir, Timok, Zadar/ Zadarje) - tvrdi grad [FIRM] – 10 (Beč/Wienna, Dubrovnik, Klobuk, Kolašin, Kostur, Onogošt, Sarajevo, Varadin/Varad, Žabjački/Žabljački) - grad krajični/na krajini [ON THE BORDER] – 10 (Arad, Bar, Bušanac, Cetin, Drežnik, Mostar, Novi/Novin, Senj, Spuž, Trebinje, Zmijulj) - kameni grad [MADE OF STONE] – 9 (Cetinja, Kaniža, Kotor, Obzir, Pečuj/Pecu, Senj, Siget/Sziget, Udbina, Užice, Zadarje/Zara) - lijepi grad[BEAUTIFUL] – 7 (Carigrad, Dubrovnik, Gradiški, Jasenovac, Kupinovo, Mostar, Vučitrn) - grad krvavi [BLOODY] – 7 (Brestovac, Kolašin, Nikšić/Nikšićki, Onogošt, Spuž, Zabesa, Žabljački) grad latinski [LATIN] – 4 (Grabež, Kotor, Mlijetak/Venice, Dubrovnik) - grad turački [TURKISH] – 4 (Bar, Čekmedžin/Kucukcekmece, Lijevno, Udbina) - veliki grad [BIG] - 4(Kolašin, Madžar, Soltum, Stambol/Constantinople) - grad stolični [CAPITAL] – 4 (Beč, Prizren, Petrov/Peterburg, Stambol/Constantinople) - grad primorski/u primorje [MARITIME] – 5 (Budva, Grebić, Kavaj, Toptan, Varad) - vlaški grad [CHRISTIAN] - 3(Baltulin, Izmir, Kotar)

- grad arapski ARABIAN] – 1 (Okan)

- grad na ćenaru [IN THE COUNTRY SIDE] – 1 (Nišić/ Nikšić) - grad franceski [FRENCH] – 1 (Pariz) - bijesan grad [WILD] – 1 (Petrebur) - grad nesretni [UNLUCKY] – 1 (Timok) - grad pitomi [MILD] – 1 (Trebinje) - grad pogani [FILTHY] – 1 (Rig) - srednji grad [MIDDLE] – 1 (Pazar) - grad na bojištu [ON THE BATTLE PLACE] – 1 (Neretva) - grad vezirski [BELONGING TO VIZIER] – 1 (Travnik) - kotarski grad [COUNTY] – 1 (Zadarje) - grad starinski [ANCIENT] – 1 (Tvrdoš) - ponositi grad [PROUD] – 1 (Žabljak)

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- grad maleni [SMALL] – 3 (Kratovo, Kruševac, Banjska) - grad prokleti [CURSED] – 2 (Karlovac, Nevesinje)

- prostrani grad [SPATIOUS] – 1 (Smederevo) - na Moravi grad [BY THE MORAVA RIVER] – 1 (Leskovac) - preko mora grad [OVER THE SEA] – 1 (Pribinje) - ukraj Save grad [BY THE SAVA RIVER] – 1 (Šabac)

- pusti grad [WASTE] – 2 (Nikšicki, Sarajevo) - grad široki [BROAD] – 2 (Beč, Skadar/Scodra) - slavni grad [FAMOUS] -2 (Carigrad/Constantinople, Petribor/Peterburg) Figure 3

FIGURE 4 - COMPLEX FORMULAS II Table 1 SMALL VILLAGE (malo/malehno/malečno/maleno selo) - 47 Arbanasi Bezuje Boleč Boljevići Bratač Bujurić Bukovica Crljenice Crnci

Čekićevo Dubovo Dubrovica Dupilo Jaružica Kazanci Komadine Konjevići Kovačas

Krivošije Kupinovo Landovo Lazarić Lipnik Ljubostinje Ljubotin Ljumovići Markovina

Martinići Međice Mljetičak Mutilić Ozrinići Petnica Popovići Pošćenje Prijeradi

Rudinica, Rudinice Selca Slatina Smriječno Štitar Trnovica Tušimnja Ugljevo Velestovo Vilus Vučeraci

Table 2 ALL OTHER APPEARANCES OF “MALO/SMALL +” - kasaba mala [TURKISH SMALL TOWN] – 2 (Prača, Konjic) - mjesto malo [A PLACE] – 1 (Vučitrn) - karaula mala [BORDERLINE GUARDIAN TOWER] – 1 (Sokolac)

Table 3 ALL OTHER FORMULAS “SELO/VILLAGE +” - lijepo selo [BEAUTIFUL] – 15 (Begaljica, Boljević, Brankovina, Dodoši, Kupinovo, Martinići / Martinovo, Metković, Mratišić, Nevesinje, Ostružnica, Pelinovo, Povija, Riječani/ Riječansko, Ritopek, Željeznik) - selo krvavo [BLOODY] – 12 (Ćurilac, Dubovik, Farmarci, Goransko, Krusi, Markovina, Martinići, Popovići, Rvaši, Salkovina, Velestovo, Zagarač) - selo krajičko [ON THE BORDER] – 6 (Dodoši, Dujeva, Kruse, Martinić, Pješivci, Zaljuće) - selo pitomo [MILD] – 4 (Guča, Lipljan, Raduč, Velet) - bijelo selo [WHITE] – 3 (Čelebijć, Tuđemili, Bojkovo) - gizdavo selo [ORNATE] – 3 (Bajice, Boljevići, Martinići/Martinić) - selo veliko [BIG] – 2 (Bregovo, Knić) - selo vlaško [CHRISTIAN] – 2 (Pilić, Plačko) - tvrdo selo [FIRM] – 1 (Klimenci) - bogato selo [RICH] – 1 (Miljkovići) Figure 4

- najbliže selo [THE NEAREST] – 1 (Martinići)

- najdonje selo [THE LOWEST] – 1 (Martinići) - najprvo selo [THE FIRST] – 1 (Rogame) - neko selo [A VILLAGE] – 1 (Troponja) - nesretnje selo [UNLUCKY] – 1 (Dračevica) - selo ajdučko [BELONGING TO BRIGANDS] – 1 (Ljevišta) - selo begovo [BELONGING TO BEG] – 1 (Zdilari) - selo kameno [MADE OF STONE] – 1 (Crnci) - selo ponosito [PROUD] – 1 (Topola) - selo razureno [DISPERSED] – 1 (Farmaci)

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FIGURE 5 – “WHITE” IN OTHER EPIC CONTEXTS NUMBER OF OCCURENCES WHITE + 521 222 137 each 130 78 60 54 50 33 31 25 18 14 12 10 8 each 6 each 5 each 4 each 3 each 2 each

1 each

Kula/tower Dvori/castle Crkva/church; ruka/arm Dan/day Grlo/throat Lice/face Knjiga/book (letter) Ovce/sheep Hleb/bread Vila/fairy Šator/tent Brada/beard Platno/linen Zora/dawn Zubi/teeth Pšenica/wheat; ferman/official Turkish letter; tower Pene/foam; vrat/neck; košulja/shirt Sukno/cloth; svet/world; svila/silk Ljudsko meso/human flesh; krilo/lap Sneg/snow; konj/horse; jaganjci/lambs; krila/wings; mleko/milk; kauk/Turkish hat; srebro/silver; vrata/door; megdan/duel Glava/head; stado/flock; dojke/breasts; nedra/bosom; rukavi/sleeves; ruho/outfit; grob/grave; mermer kamen/marble stone; kamara/room; ćuprija/bridge; bedem/rampart; pare/money; nevestinsko belilo/bride’s face powder Brdo/hill; cvet/flower; riba/fish; labud/swan; pleća/shoulders; kosti/bones; devoja;ko krilo/ maiden’s lap; sisa/breast; čelo/forehead; obraz/cheek; kola;/cake; jaje/egg; pojas/girdle; jagluk/handkerchief; vlakno/thread; konopac/rope; lim/tin; lađa/boat; ćošak/corner; krčma/inn; tekija/school; manastir/monastery; prozor/window; avlija/garden; puška/rifle; riznica/vault; hartija/paper; groši/pennies; blago/treasure; raj/paradise; nedelja/sunday

Figure 5

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