Linguistic Topic # 9: The Noun Phrase And The Verb

Linguistic Topic # 9: The Noun Phrase and the Verb Phrase: structure and syntactic functions R. Quirk I.

General Structural Characteristics of Phrases

1. Formal vs Functional Characteristics Phrases are the immediate formal constituents of clauses (see LT#10). Each phrase is named after a class of words which has a primary and indeed obligatory function within it. Consider the following example: → Arabian nights The head of this noun phrase is a noun, while the adjective functions as a determiner. Yet, the head of a noun phrase may also be a pronoun: → the poor; the unemployed etc. In such cases a distinction is made between form (noun, pronoun etc.) and function (modifier, head, determinative, complementation etc.) •

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Phrases, which contain more than one obligatory element (head), are called non-headed (prepositional phrases, for example. In the sentence ‘I went to London’ neither ‘to’ nor ‘London’ could be omitted). Another kind of construction is illustrated by adjective phrases, which have one obligatory element (an adjective), optionally preceded or followed by other elements. Such phrases are called headed ‘→(very) important (indeed)’; The two most important categories of verb-phrases and noun-phrases do not entirely fit into either group: for them the headed/non-headed distinction is inadequate

2.Verb phrases (VP) and Noun Phrases (NP) The verb phrase and the noun phrase can be considered the most important phrasal categories for functional reasons: • The verb phrase operates as the verb element in a clause and therefore it is the most indispensable and ‘central’ part in a clause; • The noun phrase is important more because of its multiplicity of function (it can function as any of the clause constituents, except for the V- element) • A declarative sentence normally contains a verb phrase and at least one noun phrase 2.1

Verb Phrases:

VPs are headed to the extent that they contain main verbs, but not necessarily auxiliary verbs. Yet, a nonfinite1 main verb cannot normally stand on its own in independent clauses: the auxiliaries cannot be omitted: → Jack can play the trombone. 1

The s-form and the past form are called FINITE, whereas the to-infinitive, the –ing participle and the –ed participle are NON-FINITE

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In terms of structure, however, VPs usually consist of: • A main verb, which either stands alone as the entire verb phrase • Or is preceded by up to four verbs in an auxiliary function NP The ship

2.2.

Auxiliary/ auxiliaries was has been must have been may have been being

Main verb sank sinking sunk sinking sunk

Noun Phrases:

Similar remarks apply to the NPs. A noun-phrase is headed to the extent that there’s a central constituent (or head) to which other constituents can be optionally added. But if we change a plural noun phrase for a singular one, the head can no longer stand alone: → The room contains (some) (beautiful) (Flemish) vases. → The room contains a (beautiful) (Flemish) vase. For a large class of NP a determinative element is usually obligatory. However, there are head elements that cannot be accompanied by adjectives and/or articles (such as ‘I’, for instance). Therefore, phrases, like clauses, cannot be described by a single structural formula and various sub-classifications should be made of phrases and of the syntactic functions of their elements. Usually NPs consist of: • A head (typically a noun, but can also be a pronoun; the head usually imposes its inherent categories on the whole group) → An exciting trip to the mountains (sg, countable, common noun: therefore a determinative ‘an’ is obligatory etc.) - there are the so-called substitute-heads: these are usually words, which have no semantic identity of their own and usually are accompanied by a determinative, a modifier, a qualifier etc. → this one (determiner + head) → a small red one (determinative, modifier, second modifier, head) → that one over there (d, h, q) - the head can also be a pronoun • Elements which determine the head (either obligatory or optionally) • Element which modify the head or complement another element in the phrase (optionally)

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Determinative2

Premodification3

Head

Postmodification

I remember

Alice’s that all those

fine warm

him wedding girl days

a the

better best

story trip

with the red hair in the country last year -

Complementation4 (Postmodification) than that that I ever had

3. Other Phrases 3.1. Adjective Phrases (AP) APs consist of: • An adjective as head • Optionally preceded or followed by modifying elements -

Premodification

Head

Postmodification

The weather was

too Incredibly -

pleasant hot cold fine

enough

Complementation (Postmodification) to be enjoyable

Sometimes an obligatory or optional complementation is added. 3.2. Adverb Phrases (AdP) AdPs consist of: • An adverb as head • Optionally preceded or followed by modifying elements

2

Determination: used for the function of words and (sometimes) phrases, which determine what kind of reference a NP has: whether it is definite (the), indefinite (a/an), partitive (some) or universal (all). Semantically, all NPs are determined in some way or other, but some noun heads are by their very nature self-determining (proper nouns and personal pronouns, for instance, are inherently definite and in this sense incorporate their own determiner). 3 Modification: a largely optional function. Premodifiers precede the head and postmodifiers follow it. Add ‘descriptive’ information to the head. 4 Complementation: part of a phrase or clause, which follows a word and completes the specification of meaning, which that word implies. As such, complementation may be either obligatory or optional on the syntactic level. A major difference between complementation and modification on the syntactic level is that: • The modifying function always relates to the head of a phrase • The complementing function may relate to a premodifier, which is separated by its compklementation from the head → Greek is a more difficult language than French (‘than French’ complements the comparative adverb ‘more’ rather than the head noun ‘language’. ) Heads are obligatory and modifiers are generally optional, but determination and complementation depend on the presence of some other element (usually the head) and are functions whose conditions of occurrence cannot be defined so simply. Note that some authors also speak of qualifiers: usually after the head, used to describe it still furter; realized not by individual words, but by embedded clauses and groups → the unforgettable times that we spent together.

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I spoke him

to

Premodification

Head

Postmodification

-

yesterda y often severely clearly

-

quite very as

indeed

Complementation (Postmodification)

as I could

3.3. Prepositional Phrases (PrepP) PrepPs consist of: • A preposition • Followed by a prepositional complement (which is normally a noun phrase) I met her

Preposition for at on by

Prepositional Complement dinner the corner of the street Saturday morning a strange coincidence

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II.

The Structure of the Verb Phrase

We have seen that in one respect the structure of the verb phrase may be described in terms of auxiliaries and main verbs. In other way, the structure may be represented in terms of finite and non-finite verb words. 1. Finite Verb Phrases A finite verb phrase is a verb phrase in which: • The first (or only word) is a finite verb • The rest of the verb phrase (if any) consisting of non-finite verb forms only. 1.1.

Finite verb phrases can occur as the verb phrases of independent clauses

1.2.

Finite verb phrases have tense contrast (distinction between present and past), as finite verbs distinguish past and present tense → He works as a journalist now; → He worked as a journalist last year;

1.3.

Person and number concord with the subject of a clause, as finite verbs distinguish –s form (not valid for modals, of course). → He works as a journalist → He is a journalist → They work as journalists → They are journalists

1.4.

Finite verb phrases contain a finite verb form, which may be either an operator or a simple present or past form.

1.5.

Finite verb phrases have mood → The council requires that every member attend at least one meeting per month (subjunctive mood)

2. Nonfinite Verb Phrases Any phrase in which one of the following verb forms is the first or the only word is a non-finite verb-phrase: • The infinitive • The –ing participle • The –ed participle Hence, such phrases do not occur as the verb phrase of an independent clause Finite verb phrases He smokes Mary is having a smoke He must smoke 40 a day You have been smoking all day

Non-finite verb phrases To smoke like that must be dangerous I regret having started to smoke The cigars smoked here tend to be expensive That was the last cigarette to have been smoked by me

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3. Simple and Complex Verb Phrases A verb phrase is simple when it consists of only one word (a main verb). → He works hard. It is important that he work hard. A verb phrase is complex when it consists of more than one word. → John has worked hard → John should be working hard → They may have been sold. There are four basic types of construction in a complex verb phrase: • Type A (Modal): modal auxiliary + base of the verb (→ must examine) • Type B (Perfective): auxiliary HAVE + -ed participle (→ have examined) • Type C (Progressive): auxiliary BE + -ing participle (→ is examining) • Type D (Passive): auxiliary BE + - ed participle (→ be examined) These four basic constructions also enter into combinations with each other: AB: must have examined AC: must be examining AD: must be examined BC: have been examining BD: have been examined CD: is being examined ABC: must have been examining ABD: must have been examined Etc … 3.1.

Simple and Complex Finite Verb Phrases

The order in which the four constructions can form combinations is indicated by the alphabetical symbols ABCD, which label them. A cannot follow, b cannot follow C etc., but gaps are allowed: AC, AD, BD etc. On the whole, the more complex the verb phrase pattern is, the less commonly it occurs. 3.2.

Simple and Complex Nonfinite Verb Phrases

Unlike finite verb phrases, nonfinite verb phrases have no tense or mood distinctions and cannot occur as the VP of a main clause. Since modal5 auxiliaries have no nonfinite forms, the modal construction Type A is not available within nonfinite verb phrases. As it has already been noted, in a single complex finite verb phrase the order of constructions is limited to ABCD. There is a similar restriction of non-finite verb phrases to the order BCD could also be noted. Modal auxiliaries can only occur as the first (operator) element of the verb phrase. They cannot occur in non-finite functions (as infinitives or participles). 5

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If, however, a non-finite VP follows a finite one, it is possible that: • The same construction is repeated in each phrase → We had hoped / to have finished by then (perfective + perfective) • The overall alphabetical order is rearranged → I was hoping / to have finished by then. (C + B) III.

The Structure of the Noun Phrase

In describing the noun-phrases we need to distinguish the following constituent parts: 1. The Head The head is the constituent around which (for the most part) the other constituents cluster and which dictates concord with other parts of the sentence: → (The tall girl standing in the corner) is my sister → (The tall girs standing in the corner) are my sisters → (The tall girl in the corner who (not *which) wears a blue sweater) is my sister There may be more than one head: → table and chairs Occasionally the head may be a pronoun (→ this one) 2. The Determinative The determinative includes: Predeterminers: all items which precede any central determiner (including zero article) in a NP: all, both, double Central determiners: definite articles, indefinite articles, demonstrative and possessive pronouns and deictic references (this, these, every, each, my) Postdeterminers: follow central determiners, but precede premodifiers (postdeterminers include numerals: many, few, several) → the few survivors

2.1. 2.2. 2.3.

3. The Premodification All the items placed before the head, other than determinatives. Premodifiers are usually: • Adjectives: some furniture • Adjective phrases • Nouns → some furniture → some expensive furniture → some expensive office furniture → some very expensive office furniture → some very very expensive office furniture

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4. The Post-modification (or the qualifier) All the items placed after the head: • Prepositional phrases: the car outside the station • Nonfinite clauses: the car standing outside the station • Relative clauses: the car that stood outside the station • Complementation: a bigger car than that The indefinitely complex noun phrase Just as the sentence may be indefinitely complex, so may the NP. This must be so, since sentences can be reshaped so as to come within noun-phrase structure: (1) The girl is Mary Smith (2) The girl is tall (3) The girl is standing in the corner (4) The girls became angry because you knocked over her glass The tall girl standing in the corner who became angry because you knocked over her glass is Mary Smith IV.

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Syntactic Functions No. 1. 2.

Formal Constituents Verb Phrase Noun Phrase

3. 4. 5.

Adjective Phrase Adverb Phrase Prepositional phrase

Functional Equivalent Verb Subject Object Complements Adverbials Complement Adverbial Adverbial

The NP can realize any structural element but the predicator Note that adverb phrases and prepositional phrases can exceptionally function as subjects.

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