Halving, and Beyond John Gough —
[email protected] Mathematically, when we take “half” of something we split the thing into two equal parts. Even preschool children are likely to be familiar with a loose version of this, namely, the splitting into two, or sharing something between two people. But young children may not grasp the mathematical insistence on the two parts being EQUAL. They will say, for example, “I am a nice sharey person: you cut this cake in half, and I’ll take the smaller half”. Splitting straight down the middle is the first easy experience of halving, and halves. But things become more complicated if we pursue this a little. Note also that “down the middle” assumes we understand “middle”, and that the object has some “middle”. If the object is asymmetrical (albeit, not the word a young child would understand: we might accept “wonky” as a good alternative) this could be problematic. For example, here is a wedge of pizza:
find the “middle”. (I will also ignore the way, pizza being pizza, there may be two pieces of pineapple near one corner, and one piece near another corner, while there are only two pieces of salami, … so that “equal” becomes a problem, if we are trying to share more than just by abstract area or mass.) If the “object” happens to be a collection of Smarties, for example, we face different issues. Splitting down the middle is possible, if, for example , we slice each Smarty across a diameter of the circular crosssection, or slice it laterally through some version of a Smartie’s equator. But the more obvious, and lollysensible alternative is to do the sharing numerically: one for you, one for me, one for you, one for me, … all the way to end, and only slice any oddnumbered remnant. But this leaves open the issue of “equal”. Is the sharing “equal” if I end up with 3 Red and 2 Green, and 1 Brown, and you have 2 Red, and 4 Blue? (Color may be trivial with Smarties, but can be problematic with Jelly Beans where color means flavour: anyone for Black? It could even be the case that, for example, Green Smarties LAST longer than other colors: is it “fair” if we have the same overall number, but you have more Green than I do?) Hence, “half”, as an object (noun), not a process (verb), means “something that results from splitting an object or collection in two equal parts”. (Notice that unavoidably there is a bit of verblike description of action or process in the noundefinition.)
Sharing fairly between three people leads to the idea of a “third”. But this may not be immediately obvious. Consider Laura Ingalls Wilder describing three children trying to share two cookies. Visiting their Swedish neighbour in the big woods of Minnesota, Laura and Mary are each given one delicious cookie,: “… they nibbled the cookies very slowly while they walked home. Laura nibbled exactly half of hers, and Mary nibbled exactly half of hers, and the other halves they saved for Baby Carrie. Then when they got home, Carrie had two halfcookies, and that was a whole cookie. This wasn’t right. All they wanted to do was to divide the cookies fairly with Carrie. Still, if Mary saved half her cookie, while Laura ate the whole of hers, or of Laura saved her half, and Mary ate her whole cookie, that wouldn’t be fair, either. They didn’t know what to do. So each saved half, and gave it to Baby Carrie. But they always felt that somehow that wasn’t quite fair” (p 101). (This story occurs in Chapter 10 of Wilder’s classic autobiographical memoir Little House in the Big Woods— written when Laura was about 65 yearsold, remembering herself and her family when she had just turned 5 yearsold. Note: please do not confuse the books with the TV series, whose quality is dubious, and which veers significantly from the real lives of the original outstanding books.) As with half, “third” means, “something that results from splitting an object or collection in three equal parts”. Ditto “quarter, fifth, sixth, seventh, …”. Similarly, “threequarters” means “what you have when you have three its each of which has been made by splitting an object or collection into four equal parts”. There is more to these seemingly simple words than meets the eye. And there is an invisible languageversusconcept problem. We are sharing between, successively: — Two, to get two equal parts, each called a half; — Three, to get three equal parts, each called a third; — Four, to get four equal parts, each called a quarter; — Five, to get five equal parts, each called a fifth; — Six, to get six equal parts, each called a sixth; … and so on. The problem is the discrepancy between concept and vocabulary for the first five of these fundamental fractions. We might make this clearer if we shared and named them more consistently this way: — Two, to get two equal parts, each called a twoth; — Three, to get three equal parts, each called a threeth; — Four, to get four equal parts, each called a fourth; — Five, to get five equal parts, each called a fiveth;
— Six, to get six equal parts, each called a sixth; … and so on. Aha! So that’s what these irregular “numberth” fraction words mean — a “numberth” is “something that results from splitting an object or collection in number equal parts”! But don’t confuse them with the ordinal counting words, which are similarly irregular, at first: namely, first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, …. As with initially irregular fraction names, these might be better regularised as: — “oneth, twoth, threeth, fourth, fifth, sixth, …”. For example: Anther, Braid, and Clam were in a race: Braid won the race, and came oneth, Anther was next, and came twoth, and Clam was next and came threeth, but that was really last — Clam lost the race! (English is full of irregularities in counting and number words: Chatsworth Osborne, Jr. is the immediate second with that same name, hence tagged “Junior”; the winning team are the premiers; the losers are the woodenspooners, or the ultimate (as in “ultima thule”, the furthest land, and as in bottom of the heap, or “nadir”, not “zenith” or “acme”), or the last; the secondlast are the penultimate or alsorans; the thirdlast are the antepenultimate — logical when you analyse the original Latin.) Let me stress that “splitting down the middle” is easy, monolinearly, and yet not enough to make the larger meaning clear. There are other nonmonolinear ways to split, and still get two (mathematically) equal parts. Here are some examples. Are they each an equal splitting? How could we tell?
Ron Smith (2003) makes other valuable suggestions for treating “half” in very careful, not so ordinary, not conceptually limiting, or trivially stereotypical ways. Students at all levels can have a lot of fun finding unusual ways of irregularly halving a square. Many of these make excellent poster, stainedglass window, collage, or quilt displays! (A chess or checker board is a redhalfandblackhalf division into a pattern of bi color squares!) Incidentally, a Geoboard is a great way to investigate dissections of a unit square into fractional parts! Which of the following (if any) display exact dissections into halves, quarters, or eighths, possibly in some combination?
To understand notdownthemiddle halves (and equivalents, and other fractions) we need to understand conservation of quantity (such as area, lines, and volumes — this is a Piagetian idea, although as far as I am aware Piaget did not investigate non standard halvings and fractions, generally, as examples of area conservation). Cutting a square into a smaller square, and another shape, is mathematically subtle. (Let me whisper that it involves a diagonal, Pythagoras’s Theorem and the square root of 2.) It takes special care, geometric analysis, rotating, and further analysis to see that here we have a smaller square that is half of the larger, with an Lshaped leftover section.
As noted, cutting, with a straight line segment, down the middle (of a symmetrical) shape is easy. But it is not the only way of halving. Importantly, it is also not the only way of halving, and then halving, and then halving, … successively, through half, quarter, eighth, and so on. Consider these not too obvious, quasi regular ways of chopping a square into successively smaller halve, halve of a half, and so on. (Don’t forget that successive halving is the mathematical inverse operation of successive doubling!)
It should also be emphasised that cutting other simple fractions, such a thirds, and thirds of thirds, and thirds of thirds of thirds, is not necessarily easy, and irregular equalarea dissections are well worth exploring, to counteract stereotype imagery. For example, which of the following, if any, are dissections into equal thirds? (N.B. We are looking for equal areas, not equal shapes!)
Note also that, with the exception of successive halvings, and the familiar twelvepart dissection of a circular clockface, using circles as models for fractions is much less useful or insightful than using squares, or rectangular strips, or lengths. (Of course the oriental yinyang dissection of a circle is particularly neat!) Finally, for the same reason that it is mathematically tricky to make a squareshaped half of a (unit) square, it is also mathematically tricky to make a squareshaped TENTH of a (unit) square. Happily, the easy alternative is to use a vertical cutting, followed by a horizontal cutting (or vice versa, horizontal, then vertical): this is what chefs, and SuDoku puzzlers call “slicing and dicing”. First “slice” the square unit into ten strips, … then “dice” each tenthstrip into ten squares — that is, ten one hundredths.
Of course this looks very different if we use a line as the model. Successive halvings:
Successive tenthings … ?
… Draw your own complete tenthsoftenths (etc.) of a unit numberline, or find a suitable school ruler or metre stick, and study the gradations of mm, cm, decicm, and m. References and Further Reading Gough, J. (1998). “Benchmarking Fractions? — A Curriculum Repair Kit For a ‘Hard’ Topic”. In J. Gough & J. Mousley (Eds.) (1998). Mathematics: Exploring All Angles, Mathematical Association of Victoria [MAV], Brunswick, pp. 136143. Gough, J. (1998). “Fraction Walls”. Prime Number vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 3031. Smith, R. (2003). “Never Teach it by Halves”, Classroom, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 1819. Wilder, L. I. (1932). Little House in the Big Woods, 1932: Harper, New York: Methuen, London, 1956.