Attention Numeracy Coordinators: Authentic InquiryBased Integration — A Sketch for Middle Years John Gough —
[email protected] Introduction New words float around in education circles, along with suggestions that there are new ways of doing things, new pedagogies, and new ways of learning. I recently came across inquirybased learning, and authentic assessment, and wondered not only what they might mean, but how they could be implemented, especially in Middle Years, in an integrated way. I will assume that readers, especially numeracy coordinators, are familiar with the idea of presenting classroom activities to Middle Years students in ways that organically integrate curriculumareas and specialisms that would traditionally be timetabled as separate subjects. Similarly, “authentic assessment” may be reasonably familiar (for example Gough 2005). One technical definition of “authentic assessment” says it is based on so called “authentic activities”, namely those that aim to achieve realworld, purposeful, practical goals. These are the kinds of goals that real (adult) people pursue in real life (for example Anderson, Rede, & Simon, 1995). But what about “inquirybased learning”, and the suggestion that this is either a new way of learning, or a new pedagogy? Noting that “pedagogy” is jargon for “a way of teaching”, we will see that inquirybased learning is rather different from traditional expository or didactic textbookbased approaches. But I doubt that there are, or could be, new ways of learning. In my view almost all learning is, naturally, “constructivist”. When we learn we change brain cells in our head, make fresh or strengthened connections between brain cells, and specialised brain function centres. This is, literally, fleshandblood constructing. Similarly, at a conceptual level, we construct new concepts (building them by assembling and modifying and reconnecting existing concepts), and connect them (making a conceptual connection is a form of constructing) with other concepts. The online professional development workshop “InquiryBased Learning” (n.d.) offers this pointform summary of inquirybased learning from the perspective of teachers, and students. The students:
• view themselves as learners in the process of learning; • accept an "invitation to learn" and willingly engage in an exploration process; • raise questions, propose explanations, and use observations; • plan and carry out learning activities; • communicate using a variety of methods; and • critique their learning practices. The teacher: • reflects on the purpose and makes plans for inquiry learning; and • facilitates classroom learning. Oddly, there is no discussion of inquiry as a process. But perhaps that is simple common sense. I will assume so. Consider the following sketch of an inquirybased unit of work. The topic is arguably “authentic”. As will be shown, it integrates several subjects, including numeracy. Yearlevel: Year 7 or 8 (but this unit could be used at Years 56, or Years 910) SubjectSpecialism: Visual Arts/ Media Studies Theme: Photography Rationale: In an era of mobile phones with digital cameras, it is easy to argue that school students at almost any level would benefit from formal study, and structured experiences of photography, as a lifeskill, a recreation, and a possible careerpath. Apart from this, photography, whether digital or film, is a major medium in modern life, and very familiar for almost all Australian school students. They would easily accept the relevance, and potential personal and lifeskill interest of this theme. Inquiry / Question: Can we mount a Year 7 Photographic Exhibition? Starting the Unit of Work At this point there is a paradox. If the teacher preparing such a unit of work succeeds in conveying the first stimulusquestion to the class of students, then almost everything that follows should be developed by the students themselves. The teacher’s role will be facilitation (as in Carl Roger’s nondirective approach to teaching: 1969), classroom management (control), supervision, and motivation. Despite this, the teacher must provide details that anticipate some of the things the school students might do as they work towards answering the overarching question. The teacher must secondguess which way(s) the quarry might jump, and be ready to respond at a moment’s notice,
constructively: forewarned is forearmed. (Does this make teaching sound like a combat zone?) That is, the detailed outline of the unit is a hypothetical sketch of what MIGHT occur, as a result of students’ initiatives. However it is NOT an outline of what the teacher would DO, because the teacher’s role is not any kind of direct doing, only a handsoff inthe background handling of the students’ spontaneous initiatives. Initial Assumptions The main stimulusquestion is based on several assumptions about the students, the proposed theme, and the school. — Assumption 1 The students have never mounted an exhibition before. Despite this many of the students are likely to have been involved in preparing class displays for school events such as Open Day, or preparing materials for the theatre scenery and costumes of a school play, or having samples of their Art work (or other practical work) included in some school Art show or an equivalent. It is assumed that this proposed exhibition will be far more serious, and will involve the students far more extensively in setting up the entire exhibition, from the very start, through to the day of days of the actual exhibition. Few students will have been to a serious exhibition of any kind, other than the extreme formality of a school visit to a museum or major public gallery, or the less likely possibility that galleryminded parents may have taken their children with them to a major gallery. — Assumption 2 The school has adequate facilities, or access to facilities, for such an exhibition. This will include having: cameras, photographic equipment, a darkroom, computers with suitable graphicsediting software, Photographyspecialist teachers and support technicians, an exhibition space with portable walls or other means for hanging photos and suitable lighting. — Assumption 3 The students are NOT photographynaïve. Almost all students will know what a photo is, and how it is different from other kinds of picture (graphic art). Almost all students will have been photographed, seen themselves in a photo, and have
handled photos. Many students will have used a family or hobbyclub camera, and taken photos of their own. Some students will own a camera. A few students will have family members or friends who are keen and reasonably experienced photographers. A few students will be familiar with technical details of photography. Outlining Possibilities The initial stimulusquestion mentions a “a Year 7 Photographic Exhibition”. But it does not specify more than this. We may hope the students will take up the invitation, and start generating their own ideas for mounting such an exhibition. Students may negotiate to: • be the only photographers whose work is being exhibited; • be participants amongst a larger collection of photographers enrolled in other year levels in the school; • include parents as participating photographers; • have a specific theme (or several themes) for the exhibition: for example, “A Day in our School”, “School Kids at Home”, “Generation Gaps”, “Learning Landscapes”; • organise the exhibition in terms of photogenre: for example, individual portrait, group photos, animals, landscape, abstract; • offer prizes for categories; • charge a fee for an entry of a photo: or charge a fee for entry to view the exhibition; or produce and sell a picturecatalog or picturecalendar of the exhibition; • seek commercial sponsorship; • advertise in local (or other) newspapers (and other media), and/or seek other forms of media promotion and reporting of the exhibition; and • generally monitor their own work, and develop final reports on the exhibition and their learning, along with selfassessment and peerassessment contributing to other forms of assessment and reporting of their learning. It seems likely that, given the challenge of the exhibition, and its opportunities, the students will want to learn as much as they can about photography, as a subject to be studied, as well as a skill to be practised. Depending on their background, interest, and the facilities of the school and teaching staff, this may include: • traditional film photography: blackandwhite, sepia, color; • digital still photography; • photographic development, editing, printing, mounting; • theory of photography, including lighting, point of view, range, focus, exposure, aperture, shutterspeed, grain or film resolution, dyes, filters, printstock, cropping,
lengthwidth ratios, enlarging, photoreduction; • kinds of cameras, from camera obscura and pinhole cameras, to singlelens reflex, and varieties of digital cameras; • history and uses of photography; and • photography as art. Students will need to organise the: • time from the announcement of the overarching question to the date (possibly pre specified, or to be determined by the students) of the exhibition, and beyond; • costs of mounting the exhibition; • scheduling and managing of the negotiations needed to develop the whole project; • recording of the meetings and other worksessions that contribute to the project; and • development of publicity, reporting, and other documentation of the project. Where is the numeracy? Given the initialstimulus question’s focus on photography and exhibiting, rather than on mathematics, it might be wondered where any numeracy would arise. Note that I define “numeracy” as (most of) Primary school mathematics, used outside the (Primary or Secondary) mathematics classroom. This means that numeracy is contained within the larger curriculum of school mathematics That is, not ALL of school mathematics is contained in numeracy: some parts of school mathematics are NOT numeracy. It also means numeracy is a collection of lowerlevel mathematics skills that are used widely in other nonmathematics school subject areas (so called KLAs, or Key Learning Areas), and also outside school altogether, in everyday life at home and in recreation, and in ordinary nonspecialised nontechnical aspects of adult work (see Gough 2002). Importantly, although this unit of work is intended for Year 7 students, and could be used with students up to Year 10, any numeracy is likely to be located in the Primary years, and will exclude any Secondarylevel mathematics. This means that the teacher supervising this unit of work would not be required to present explicit mathematics lessons within the unit, because the teacher should expect that almost all Year 7 students in the class will have already been taught the numeracy (Primary mathematics) it might require. However some incidental reviewing of familiar mathematics concepts and skill, and occasional assistance with applying these to the topics of photography and exhibitions, may be needed, for individuals and small groups.
It is easy to see that numeracy arises immediately in topics requiring: • calculation: e.g. estimating costs, adding inventory items, and budgeting, generally; • measurement: e.g. estimating distance, aperture size, focal length, time of exposure, scheduling of activities, length and width of paper, enlargement and reduction; • spatial arrangements, shapes, and angles: e.g. arranging the display panels, lighting, and hanging of photos: flow of patrons through the display: aspect ratios of length and width: visual perspective, point of view, lighting angles; • data handling: e.g. maintaining good accounts of income and outgoings, lists of participants, postal and email addresses for invitations; and • logical analysis, and problemsolving. Naturally the unit of work would supply specific learning outcomes, and performance indicators, along with Levels (such as from the Victorian CSF (Curriculum and Standards Framework) for Mathematics, and/or standards and Levels from the VELS (Victorian Essential Learning Standards) for Mathematics, along with specific indicative examples of actual items of mathematics that might arise in lessons or other student activities during the project. Moreover, further standards, benchmarks, essential learnings (etc.) may be identified in nonsubjectspecialist strands of interdisciplinary learning, such as communication, design, creativity, and technology, ICT, and thinking. Where is the literacy? Obviously any use of reading and writing requires literacy. As with the discussion of numeracy and yearlevel, it is likely that the level of demand of literacy through tis project will not be higher than upper Primary. However, let me note, further, that I choose to make a careful distinction between “literacy”, which is concerned with the use of visual language in the form of written or alphabeticised language, contrasted with “oracy” which is concerned with speaking and listening, that is, with oral, NONwritten forms of language. Moreover I use the expression “visual literacy” to refer to the use of NONVERBAL spatial visual skills in reading and making images, physical objects, gestures, facial expressions, and body language. I am aware that others are content to use a loose term such as “literacies” to encompass all of these, and to refer to “text” to mean virtually any situation that is used to communicate in some way. My preference is to use “text” to refer to situations that involve language (words, oral or written). But these details are less important here. Leaving aside the speaking and listening (oracy) that arises continually during ordinary classroom and working discourse, the alphabeticised literacy, that is, actual reading and writing (and other forms of drafting, including sketching, and tabulating) will arise where
students: • study photography, or mathematics, or the visual arts and media, generally; • make personal and group notes about individual learning, and group activity; • draft publicity material, advertisements, invitations, exhibition signage; • make labelnames for photos, captions, commentary, and contributor biographies; • draft a catalogue or program for the exhibition; and • make running notes on meetings, and planning, and final reports on the project. Naturally the unit of work would supply learning outcomes (etc.; as for mathematics) for English, along with specific indicative examples of actual items of English that might arise in lessons or other student activities during the project. Moreover, as with numeracy, further literacyrelated standards (etc.) may be identified in the nonsubjectspecialist interdisciplinary strands. Some Ideas and Problems Such an initial stimulusquestion will present NO curriculum challenge IF students have already successfully mounted a Photographic Exhibition, or some equivalent. That is, if the topic of a unit of work is something that students have already experienced, then there will be no learning for them if they attempt to answer the question. Instead they will simply be carrying out familiar, established routines, like any experienced exhibition manager. Such a question is equivalent to a direct instruction from the teacher: “Mount your own Photographic Exhibition”. Expressing such a command in the form of a question makes the task look a little more like an inquiry. But that may be only windowdressing. Perhaps the use of the word “inquiry” indicates nothing more than the insistence that what is being done is NOT familiar, and hence is likely to require new “finding out” and/or “new doing”. It could then be argued that as some form of inquiry, such a task is actually asking subquestions such as: — What could our Photographic Exhibition be? — What steps must we take to mount such an exhibition? But what IS an “inquiry process”? A simple Googlesearch reveals some possibilities. Consider, for example Jeni Wilson and Lesley Wing Jan “What is Inquiry Learning?” (n.d.). They provide this outline: Inquiry: The process in a nutshell — • Problem or question • Hypothesis
• Data collection and analysis • Drawing conclusions • Making generalisations and reflecting • Authentic action Adapted from “Inquiry Models of Instruction” http://ss.uno.edu//SS/TeachDevel/TeachMethods/InquiryMethod.html And also: Inquiry Stages and Purposes: 1. Tuning In 2. Finding Out 3. Sorting Out 4. Going further 5. Reflection 6. Action However this seems to me to correspond to what I regard as problemsolving. Perhaps “inquirybased learning” is equivalent, or closely related to “problembased learning” (for example the Samford University ProblemBased Learning website, 1998). I have argued for some time that “problem solving” actually IS what we do when we are learning (e.g. Gough 1989, 1997). If I am correct in my loose equating of “problembased learning” and “inquirybased learning”, then what both of these latter mean is, in fact, little more than “learning”, BECAUSE learning is a kind of inquiry, and it is a process of solving a problem (namely, that we start to realise we do NOT know something, and we are willing to try to do something about this). Maybe the use of “inquirybased” in the title for this unit of work misplaces the focus on “inquiry” when what is really intended is that the unit of work should be initiated briefly but convincingly by the teacher, and then pursued in studentcentred, studentdirecting ways, BY the students. The real focus — the real change in pedagogy — may be: WHO is in CHARGE, rather than what KIND of learning is happening. Maybe this discussion should dispense with “inquirybased learning” as a guiding label, and talk about developing a teacherprompted and teachersupported, but otherwise studentdirected unit of work. It seems clear to me that, as noted above, the central issue is whether or not students are learning. If “inquiry” is loosely regarded as a kind of asking, then perhaps what is being
asked is: — “What do we know, at the start, what do we want to know that we do not yet know, and how can we set about getting this knew knowledge?” The paradox here is that where students do NOT (yet) know something, they are unlikely to know that they do not know. They are also unlikely to know anything about what they might want to know. Traditionally, at this point, a teacher, who does already know many things that the students demonstrably do not yet know, may attempt to direct the students towards some of the things the students might usefully learn. Yet this approach is to be ruled out in any inquirybased approach, where the inquiry, or the guiding question, is meant to be shaped by the students, and the attempts to seek answers are meant to be devised by the students. In extreme cases, studentcentred and studentdirected wouldbe learning could become a case of the blind leading the blind. A very detailed, rather prescriptive, but sensible account of Inquirybased learning is provided, with other teachertraining examples and materials, at: http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ (last accessed 9 March 2006) This includes close links with other teachertraining materials on “Constructivist Classrooms”. Interestingly it provides a definition: — "Inquiry" is defined as "a seeking for truth, information, or knowledge — seeking information by questioning". Again, this seems synonymous with “learning”. Wilson and Jan mention Kath Murdoch, in passing, as a leading Australian exponent of inquirybased learning. (For example: Murdoch, 1992, 1998, and 2004.) They emphasise that inquirybased learning MUST include NEW learning, not practice or routine application of familiar ideas, skills, and values. They say, explicitly: “[inquirybased learning] involves students forming their own questions about a topic and having time to explore the answers. The students are both problem posers and problem solvers within inquiry learning. … [and inquirybased learning] … encourages learners to examine the complexity of the world and form concepts and
generalizations instead of being told simple answers to complex problems. … [and] is highly influenced by the theory of constructivism.” Interestingly, they further argue: “Inquiry learning and integrated curriculum have recently been advocated by many middle years proponents as an effective ways to engage middle years learners. We believe there are many benefits of the inquiry approach to learning for learners of all ages.” They also offer helpful definitional and procedural distinctions, such as: “Are projects the same as inquiry? If projects do not require students to explicate their prior knowledge, gather new (preferably direct) information, organise ideas, draw conclusions and reflect on their gained ideas, the projects are probably not inquiry based.” This clearly implies that, where an otherwise oldfashioned project is on a topic that is NEW for the student(s) and/or the process of tackling a project is NEW for the student(s), such a project WILL be a newfangled inquirybased activity! Clearly much of Wilson and Jan’s approach is commonsense. This leaves the mathematics specialist, and the English (Literature?) specialist, struggling to motivate reluctant youthculturealienated popcultureminded adolescents to engage with the mathematics and English curriculum that follows on after the Primary demands of numeracy and literacy. For most of the Secondary curriculum, especially for mathematics, it is not possible to draw on the motivational attraction of authentic learning. As I have argued earlier, relevance is difficult to demonstrate convincingly to middle school students who lack information or experience of adult worklife (Gough 1998). To motivate the study of Shakespeare, for example, the Literature teacher, for example, may exploits the attraction of film versions starring Leonardo DiCaprio, or Mel Gibson, hoping this will be a suitably thin end of an academic wedge. The mathematics teacher is forced to rely on personal charisma, professional thrustworthiness, and the sheer intellectual interest of a strikingly posed, seemingly simple question. Such a “starter” inquirystimuli may be one of Mike Ollerton’s 100 ideas (Ollerton 2005), and the teacher will hope that, as Ollerton says, it will be a “starter task [to] develop students’ deeper
mathematical thinking’, and not the opening of a oneoff lesson with starter, middle, and plenary (Ollerton p xiv). For example; IDEA 83: Can you dissect a cube into four congruent equilateral triangularbased pyramids and a tetrahedron? (Ollerton p 95). If you can do this, what else can you do that extends on your answer? Apart from starting inquirybased learning, a good initial stimulus question is likely to be: • a “good question”: Sullivan and Clarke (1991); • a “rich assessment (or learning) task” (RAT): Clarke Clarke, Beesey, Stephens, and Sullivan (1996); • a “Potentially Rich [Learning] Situation” (PRS): Biggs (1975); • an “opportunity to learn mathematics”: Watson (2003); or • an “openended question”: Sullivan (1992), Sullivan and Lillburn (1997). What uses newseeming language, and makes claims against old approaches, may not be new at all! Inquiry, as a process, generates approaches, answers, and further inquiries! References and Further Reading Anderson, J.R., Rede, L.M., & Simon, H.A. (1995). “Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology to mathematics education”, Texas Educational Review (Summer) pp. 115. webpublished by Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University: http://www.act.psy.cmu/personal/ja/misapplied.html. (last accessed October 2004) Biggs, J. (1975). “Process Learning: Challenge to Mathematics Education', Australian Mathematics Teacher, vol. 31, no. 3, pp 100112. Clarke, D., Clarke, B., Beesey, C., Stephens, M., Sullivan, P. (1996). “Developing and Using Rich Assessment Tasks With the CSF'”, in H. Forgasz, T. Jones, G. Leder, J.Lynch, K. Macguire & C. Pearn (editors), Mathematics Making Connections [Thirtythird Annual Conference] Mathematical Association of Victoria, Brunswick, 1996, pp 287294. Gough, J. (1989, 1997). “When Is A Problem Not A Problem? — Whys And Means”. Conference paper in B. Doig (ed.) Everyone Counts Mathematical Association of Victoria; Parkville, 1989 pp 232 235: a version of this was published in Australian Primary Mathematics Classrooms (APMC) vol. 2, no. 1, 1997, pp. 1722. Gough, J. (1998). “Maths? Huh!—When Will I Ever Use It? — Some Reflections”, Australian Mathematics Teacher, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 1216. Gough, J. (2002) “Primary schooling in mathematics and information & communication
technology: Are we doing enough?”: Keynote paper at the 39th Annual Conference of the Mathematical Association of Victoria, and appeared in Colleen Vale, John Roumeliotis, and John Horwood (Eds) Valuing Mathematics in Society, Mathematical Association of Victoria, Brunswick, 2002, pp. 6579. Gough, J. (2005). “Editorial: Authentic Assessment Does Not Mean Genuine Assessment”, Vinculum, vol. 42, no. 1, p. 2. “Inquirybased Learning”: Concept to Classroom [an online professional development resource] Thirteen — ed online (n.d.) http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/ Mathematics curriculum & standards framework II. [CSF II] Board of Studies, Melbourne (2000): book, and CDROM; and at the website http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au [last accessed 9 March 2006]. Murdoch, K. (1992). Integrating Naturally. Mount Waverly, Victoria. Murdoch, K. (1998). Classroom Connections: Strategies for Integrated Learning, Eleanor Curtain, Melbourne. Murdoch, K. (2004). “What makes a good inquiry unit?”. EQ (Curriculum Corporation: Australia), Autumn, 2004. http://www.curriculum.edu.au/eq/archive/autumn2004/html/article_02.shtml [last accessed 9 March 2006] Ollerton, M. (2005). 100 Ideas for Teaching Mathematics. Continuum, London. Rogers, C.R. (1969). Freedom to Learn: A View of What Education Might Become, Merrill, Columbus: later editions also. Samford University ProblemBased Learning (PBL) website (1998): http://www.samford.edu/pbl/ Sullivan, P., & Clarke, D. (1991). “Catering to all abilities through ‘good’ questions”. Arithmetic Teacher, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 14–18. Sullivan, P. (1992). “Openended questions, mathematical investigations and the role of the teacher”. In M.Horne & M. Supple (Eds.) Mathematics: Meeting the Challenge. Mathematical Association of Victoria [MAV], Brunswick, 1992, pp. 98–103. Sullivan, P., & Lilburn. P. (1997). OpenEnded Maths Activities; Using ‘Good’ Questions to Enhance Learning, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Victorian Essential Learning Standards (2005): http://vels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/ [last accessed 9 March 2006]. Watson, A. (1998). Questions and Prompts for Mathematical Thinking. Association of Teachers of Mathematics [ATM], Derby. Watson, A. (2003). Opportunities to learn mathematics. In L. Bragg, C. Campbell, G. Herbert & J. Mousley (Eds) MERGA 26: MERINO: Mathematics Education Research:
Innovation, Networking, Opportunity. Mathematics Education Research Group of Australia [MERGA], Deakin University, Burwood, 29–38. Wilson, J., & Jan, L.W. (n.d.) “What is Inquiry Learning?”. http://www.nationalpriorities.org.uk/Resources/Priority2/2Noumea/NoPr_T006Inqu iryLearning.pdf [last accessed 9 March 2006]