Islamic Classical Sciences: Patronization Of Islamic Rulers

Patronization of Islamic Sciences in the History of Islam Ismail Yurdakok [email protected]

Introduction. After established the institutions of the Islamic State, muslims began to support researches of sciences. Before the end of the first century of Islam, science studies were patronized by muslims. ‘Starters: First Abbasid Calips’ is mentioned in the first part of the paper. ‘Two Bayt al-Hikma’s are noted in the first and second parts. Patronages of Buwayhids, Andalusians, Marinids and others are seen in the second part. And ‘Ottomans:Last Patrons of Islamic Sciences’ was stated in the third part. 1- Starters: First Abbasid Caliphs Umayyad Prince Khalid b. Yazid (d.85A.H/704 A.D) is the first that made translated medicine, astronomy and chemistry books from Greek and Coptic languages into Arabic.(1) Prince had paid a salary to two monks Staphon and Marianos from Alexandria. Umayyad Sultans Marwan b. Hakam and Umar b. Abdulaziz also supported the translations but only in the medicine. But it is a reality that Abbasid Caliph Ca’far Mansur (754-75 A.D) gave acceleration this movement: Mansur’s secretary (a native Iranian) Ibn Muqaffa translated the first three books of Aristo’s Organon and Porphyrios (Furfuriyus) and Eisagoge (Isagoji). Ptolemy’s Sintaksis (as alMajisti) and Euclid’s Elemento Geometricae (as Usul al-Handasa) were translated into Arabic in this period.(2) Two books on mathematics and astronomy that an Indian tourist brought them to Baghdad also were translated and muslims got acquainted Indian numbers. Fazari (d.190 A.H/806 A.D) the first muslim astronomer that made the first astrolobe in Islamic world; Mansur had wanted from Fazari to translate the astronomy book that written in Sanskrit language and brought by an Indian envoy to Baghdad. Fazari and the other Arab astronomer Yaqub b. Tariq completed the translation of this book into Arabic in 153 A.H/770 A.D. This book (its original name Siddhanta, and in Islamic astronomy literature:Zij al-Sind-Hind Zij or Kitab al-Sind-Hind) was used to the reign of Ma’mun. Fazari was one of the famous astronomers that Ca’far Mansur had supported this group that Abu Sahl Fadl b. Nawbakht, MashaAllah b. Athari al-Basri and Umar b. Farrukhan al-Tabari are the members of this study team. Fazari wrote 9 books on astronomy with sponsorship of Mansur.(3) Christian physician Buhtishu the head of the Gundishapur Medical School was invited to Baghdad and he translated some books from Greek and Persian medicine books into Arabic as a chief physician in the Palace of Mansur. And then physicians from his descendants translated the books of medicine. This rapid movement went on in the time of Harun Rashid. Abu Sahl al-Fadl b. Nawbakht translated some books from Persian with the encouragement of Harun Rashid. Astronomer and mathematician Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Nihawandi began his observations

in 790 in Jundishapur (in Huzistan of today’s Iran) and Yahya b. Barmak (Grand Vizier (of Harun Rashid) betwen 786-803 A.D) was giving support his studies and wrote at least three books (al-Zij al-Mushtamil, al-Madkhal ila Ilm al-Hay’a, Kitab al-Jam’a wa al-Tafriq) in this term. Harun Rashid’s son Ma’mun made built two observatory in the district of Shammasiya of Baghdad and the other on the Qasiyun Mountain near Dimashq. (4) Ma’mun established Bayt al-Hikma (in 830 A.D) Although Mansur had established Khizanat al-Hikma as a library of the Palace, but Ma’mun (813-833 A.D) gave a new identity to Khizanat al-Hikma and assigned great funds for new Bayt al-Hikma. Bayt al-Hikma became an Academy of Sciences under the patronage of Ma’mun. Ma’mun sent culture envoys to Byzantium Empire for assuring books that director of Bayt al-Hikma Salm and Ibn al-Bitriq, Hajjaj b. Matar and Yuhanna b. Masawayh were in this envoy.(5) Bayt al-Hikma gained an identity of as the biggest research center of Medieval Age. At the beginning, Bayt al-Hikma was a translation office and a library but in the course of the time it growed from the physical and functional aspects and became a research center and an education institution. Ibn Nadim says there were approximately 70 translators in Bay alHikma. 47 of them were translating from Greek to Syriac , from Syriac to Arabic or directly from Greek to Arabic; 16 of them were translating from Persian to Arabic; 3 of them from Sanskrit to Arabic and the other from Nabatian language to Arabic. (6) Which aids (were include) to patronization? As an example Ma’mun also was giving support to famous Arabic syntax scholar Farra (144-207 A.H/ 761-822) and a room had been assigned to Farra in the palace of Ma’mun and some servants and secretaries were working for only Farra.(7) Bayt al-Hikma also was in the Palace of Abbasid caliphs. There were rooms for books, rooms for authors, translators, secretaries, transcribers and bookbinders and a reading-hall. Ibn al-Nadim had seen and used the facilities of Bayt al-Hikma that he gives valuable notes(8) Ma’mun had paid 300,000 dinar (gold coins) for only translations from Greek.(9) Even some translations used to be put on one of the two pans of balance and gold dusts on the other pan and the scholar was being awarded in this way. More than 500 years, Bayt al-Hikma went on its activity to Mongol occupation. Mathematician Thabit b. Qurra, his son and grandsons were supported by Abbasid Dynasty. Thabit b. Qurra was in the researcher team of Bayt al-Hikma. He was a non-muslim a (pagan) Sabean of Harran but was supported by Ma’mun like similar cases are seen a lot in Islamic history. Thabit and his son Sinan (supported by Qahir Billah), and son of Sinan, Ibrahim; this ‘three’ are famous mathematicians. Ibrahim also an astronomer and his father Sinan is also a physician. Ibrahim wrote his first booklet Kitab Alat al-Adlal when he was 16 years old. Ibrahim was in the fourth generation of Islamic sciences after Banu Musa and he had got a very rich scientific legacy from his father and grandfather. He wrote ten books on astronomy and geometry.(10) Another mathematician (and astronomer) Habash alHasib was also supported by Abbasid caliphs. He was born in Marw(Turkistan) and his life passed in Baghdad. Probably he was in the observation team of Ma’mun that his observations had lasted 35 years. He had fixed the latitudes of Venus and Mercury.He went on his studies in the periods of Ma’mun and Mu’tasim Billah. He applied trigonometrical functiones on the problems of spherical astronomy.(11) Ali b. Isa al-Usturlabi is the other member of Ma’mun’s team. He wrote one of the first booklets on astrolabe (Risala fi Ma’rifati al-ilm al-Usturlab) with sponsorship of Ma’mun and participated the scientific observations in Baghdad in 829, in Dimashq in 832, with the other scholars Yahya . Abu Mansur, Sind b. Ali, Abbas b. Said al Jawhari and Khalid b. Abd al-Malik. He also participated the measurement of one degree of longitude of meridian circle in Sinjar Plain between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers.(12) Four Abbasi caliphs sponsored the studies of Hajjaj b. Yusuf b. Matar. He was the one of Syriac translators of this period. He was from Kufa city and in the years

of caliphs Harun al-Rashid, Amin, Ma’mun and Mu’tasim (786-833 A.D) he lived in Baghdad.He was in the team of five scholars of Ma’mun that was sent to Byzantium Empire by Ma’mun to provide scientific books. He translated Euclid’s Elements first time into Arabic as Usul al-Handasa. Hajjaj translated this book first time for Harun al-Rashid, and second time for Ma’mun; that’s why ‘al-Haruni’ was named the first translation and ‘al-Ma’muni’ the second. He also was in the team of that they translated Ptolemy’s al-Majisti.(13) Philanthropist Banu Shakir (Banu Musa) family is mentioned by Ibn al-Nadim and Ibn Abu Usaybia. This three rich brothers Muhammad, Ahmad and Hasan sent Hunayn b .Ishaq and other scholars to Byzantium cities to buy books. They brought rare science books and began to translate them. Banu Shakir family was paying 500 gold coins monthly for these translators that Hunayn b. Ishaq and Habash b. Hasan were in this team. (14) Ali b. Rabban al-Tabari (d.247A.H/861 A.D) was also sponsored by two Abbasid caliphs. He began to write Firdaws al-Hikma (that this book is one of the oldest sources of Islamic medicine) in Tabaristan under the patronage of governor of Tabaristan Mazyar b. Qarin. But the governor was killed after a revolt, and Ali b. Rabban went to Samarra and first Mu’tasim Billah and then Mutawakkil ala-Allah supported him and he completed his book in 850.(15) In the 9th century, Fath b. Haqan governor of Samarkand of Abbasid dynasty, he was also a scholar himself and wrote three books and he supported the scientific studies and established a great library in Samarkand that astronomer Ali b. Yahya al-Munajjim was appointed by him to find new science books for this library. (16) 2-

10th-15th Centuries: Buwayhids, Andalusians, Marinids and Others

(The second) Bayt al-Hikma had been established in Qayrawan, in the beginning years of 10th century in Tunisia. Aglabids State in Tunisia reached important level in different disciplines but especially in medicine and philosophy from 800 to 909(A.D) Science books were provided from the cultural centers of Egypt, Dimashq, Iraq and Khorasan. Christian scholars from Sicily was invited and they translated books from Greek. A vast library was establisted. Bayt al-hikma of Qayrawan was established by Sultan Zıyadatullah III (his reign 903-909.) Bayt alHikma was on the longest street of Qayrawan near Great Mosque.There were rooms near libary for the teams of authors and translators. And there were departments of mathematics, astronomy, geometry, pharmacology, medicine and botany and residents for scholars and social centers for them. Ibrahim b. Ahmad al-Shaybani (al-Riyazi) (d.298 A.H/ 910A.D) had encouraged Sultan Ziyadatullah III to build this center and library.(17) Farabi and Saif al-Dawla. Ibn Abu Usaybia writes 113 books of (al) Farabi and 64 of them were translated into different languages and Farabi (282-350 A.H/ 895-961 A.D) wrote from chemistry (Wujubu Sinaat al-Kimya) to logic, classification of science and on every topics of philosophy. Although a lot of non-true stories were fabricated on Farabi that he had a guard in vegetable-garden in Dimashq and he used tostudy under the lantern of this garden but in reality Farabi was a very famous scholar when he came to Dimashq that his last eight years passed there and Sultan of Hamdanids Sayf al-Dawla respected Farabi, Sultan gave dinners for Farabi in his palace and wanted to give a very high salary to him but Farabi did not accept this wage and said ‘only 4 dirhams (silver coin) are sufficient’ for his daily expenses. (18) Sultan of Buwayhids Adud al-Dawla sponsored the studies of physician Ali b. Abbas al Majusi in the second half of 10th century. Al Majusi (d. 994[?]) dedicated his

books Kamil al-Sinaat al-Tibbiyya (or in short Kitab al-Malaki (Ruler’s Book) to Adud al-Dawla. Kamil al-Sinaa was followed as a classical textbook in Europe to 13th century. Its name in Westen World was Liber Regius(Ruler’s Book) and first part of this book was about theories and the second was on practical medical knowledges. Ali b. Abbas had emphasized the importance of psychotheraphy befor Ibn Sina and called attention to the relation between psychology and medicine. Ali b. Abbas’s book was translated partly to Latin language by Constantine d’African in XI th century and followed in Salerno Medicine College as a textbook; Stephan of Antioch did the completed translation to Latin in 1127, and was published first in Venice in 1492 as Liber regalis disposito nominatus ex arabico venetiis; and in Lyon in 1523 as Liber totius medicinae necessariae continents, quem Haly filius Abbas edidit regique inscripsit.(19) Sultan of Buwayhids Fakhr al-Dawla(his reign 983-997 A.D) also supported astronomy researches. After his demand, scholar Abu Mahmud Hamid al-Hujandi made a big sextant (instrument used for measuring the altitude of the sun.) to observe the entering of the sun to the longitude of (the capital city) Ra’y. (20) High buraeucracy of Buwayhid dynasty also supported scientific studies. Mathematician Karaji (d.after 410 A.H/1019 A.D) was patronized by grand vizier of Buwayhids Fakhr al-Muluk Abu Ghalib Muhammad b. Ali. Karaji wrote one of the most important studies of Islamic algebra ‘al-Fakhri’ after encouragement of this grand vizier that Karaji notes in the introduction of the book that he had planned a book on this matter but not realized and after grand vizier Fakhr al-Muluk encouraged him to write he began to write and gave his name to the book as ‘alFakhri.’ Karaji dedicated his second book al-Kafi fi al-Hisab also to Fakr alMuluk. (Al-Kafi was translated into German by Adolf Hochheim in three volumes as Kafi fi al-Hisab des Abu Bekr Muhammed Ben Ali Husain al-Karkhi, Halle in 18781880.) Karaji is also an expert on hydrology that he is the first hydrology engineer in the world. His studies on hydrology also was patronized by another Buwayhid grand vizier Abu Ghanim and Karaji dedicated his book of hydrology Kitab Inbat al-Miyah al-Khafiyya to Abu Ghanim.(21) Qabisi (d.after 380 A.H/ 990 A.D) that Europeans used to name him as Alcabitius or Alchabitius was born in Qabisiye in Northern Iraq and he used the rich library of mathematician-astronomer Ali b. Ahmad al-Imrani and learned Islamic and rational sciences and then he studied under the patronage of Sultan of Hamdanids Saif alDawla Ali(his reign 944-67.) His book al-Madkhal ila Sinaati Ahkam al-Nujum was translated into Latin language in 1144 by Johannes Hispalensis as Alcabitii liber introductorius and published in Venice in 1481-85-91 and 1521; and into French in 1362 by Pelerin de Pousse in Paris. Qabisi dedicated his books to Saif al-Dawla Ali and his studies on mathematics influnced great muslim mathematicians Karaji and Abdulqahir al-Baghdadi.(22) Although Syriac physician and philosopher Ibn al-Khammar (d.410 A.H/1019 A.D) was a christian but three muslim dynasties supported him in his long life that lasted more than one hundred years. Ibn al-Khammar was first patronized by Buwayhids and he was working as surgeon in the hospital of Bimaristan al-Adudi in Baghdad. He trained muslim physician and philosopher Abu al-Faraj Ibn Hindu and christian physician Abu al-Faraj b. Tayyib and famous scholar Ibn Miskawayh. Ibn al-Khammar went to Ra’y (city) in 1002 and dedicated one of his books to Grand Vizier of Buwayhids Abu Sa’d Muhammad al-Hamadani. Ibn al-Khammar entered the patronage of Kharzamshas when he went to central Asia and dedicated his book Maqala fi Imtihan al-Atibba to Sultan Abu al-Abbas Ma’mun. Approximately 15 years, Ibn al-Khammar lived under the support of Abu al-Abbas, Sultan Mahmud al-Gaznawid entered Harizm country and invaded and took Biruni, Abu Nasr b. Iraq and Ibn Khammar to capital city Gazna. Sultan Mahmud wanted from Ibn Khammar to become muslim but he refused. But no any pressure was on him. But after a dream Ibn al-Khammar became muslim some months later. Sultan Mahmud had given him a land that the name of this land

was Khumaru and that’s why he was named Ibn al-Khumar and then Ibn al-Khammar.(23) Ibn Sina’s magnum opus al-Qanun fi al-Tib that it is also one of the masterpieces of World Medicine History was written with the patronage of Buwayhid Dynasty. Ibn Sina (d. 428 A:H/ 1037 A.D) wrote this book in more than ten years and began to write in Jurjan. In this term, he stayed in the palaces of Buwayhis dynasty in the cities Ra’y, Hamadan and Isfahan as a physician. (24) After Sultan Mahmud alGhazvawi invaded the country of Buwayhids, Ibn Sina went to Gurganj. Gurganj was the administrative and economic center of Khawarazm and Ma’munids Dynasty was supporting scholars. A lot of scholars from Islamic world came to Gurganj and Ma’muni family patronized them. Ibn Sina, Biruni, Abu Sahl al-Masihi, Ibn Iraq, Ibn al-Khammar, Abu Mansur al-Thaalibi are from these scholars. Gurganj went on this patronage more than a hundred years to the invasion of Mongols in 1221 (A.D/ 618A.H) and Mongols destroyed all of the libraries and schools. (25) In the same years, Caliph Abdurrahman III was giving support science in Andalusia. Mathematician and astronomer Majriti (d. 398/1007) had come Qurtuba (Cordoba) in his early ages and learned mathematical sciences from Abdulgafir b. Muhammad and was appointed astronomer of the Palace of Abdurrahman. There was a Society of Scholars Acquainted with Old Cultures that this group was doing researches under the patronage of Abdurrahman. Majriti changed some parts of Harizmi’s Zij after his studies. Majriti had been named as ‘Euclides of Andalusia’ that his studies on mathematics and astronomy influenced the studies in Andalusia and the other parts of Europe and he was accepted as a great expert in these sciences after him.(26) Majriti was also supported by Mansur (grand vizier of Hisham II, Abdurrahman III.and Hakam II (as the powerful man of Andalusia in thirty years 362-392 A.H/973-1002 A.D that Mansur also supported the education and astronomy education in Andalusia.)(27) Historian Ghars al-Ni’ma (416-480 A.D/1025-1088 A.D) he was also a rich tradesman and high bureaucrat in the administration of Qaim bi-Amrillah, he established a library in west Baghdad. He gave more than 1000 books from different disciplines to this library, and scholars and students used to come and discuss scientific matters here. Andalusian astronomer Ibn Zarqala was first supported by chief judge of Tulaytula (Toledo) Said al-Andalusi. After making original observation instruments, chief judge provided vast opportunities for Ibn Zarqala and new books were provided for him. In the year 1062 (454 A.H) ruler of Tulaytula Yahya b. Ismail organized an observation group of astronomy and Ibn Zarqala was appointed as a member of this group and then head of this group. Ibn Zarqala made clepsydras(water clocks) and the style of him were used to 17th century in Europe. After Alphonso VI invaded Tulaytula, Ibn Zarqala went to Qurtuba(Cordoba) and he was also was patronized by the ruler of this city and he went on his studies that he determined the longitude of Regulus star, and wrote six books on astronomy.(28) The Gorids was a dynasty in Afghanistan, Khorasan and Northern India in 11th-12th and first years of 13th centuries. Especially Sultan Ghiyas al-din (1163-1202 A.D) made built madrasas in all over the country and invited scholars from Khorasan and Mawara al-Nahr. Firuzghah (capital city for summers) became a scientific and cultural center. In this term scientific and cultural activities removed from Baghdad to Harat region. Madrasas of Harat became famous at the end of 12th century that religious and scientific disciplines were being taught. Fakhr al-din al-Razi and Fakhr al-din Mubarak Shah also came to Sultan Ghiyas al-din’s country. (29) Artukogullari (Artukids) was a regional dynasty in Iraq, Syria and Southern Turkey in 12th century. Artukoglu Najmuddin had conquered Qudus and had established a country of tolerance in this regions. Members of the family were governors of

different cities. Scholar Ibn al-Salah (Najmuddin Abu-l Futuh Ahmad b. Sirri) was giving philosophy courses under the patronage of this dynasty. And Ruler Artukoglu Husamuddin was even a philosopher. Famous physician and philosopher of this period Fakhruddin al-Mardini was supported by this family. Fakhruddin al-Mardini took philosophy courses from Ibn Salah and medicine from Ibn al-Tilmiz (chief physician of Baghdad Adud al-Dawla Hospital.) Ibn al-Tilmiz and Fakhruddin studied on Ibn al-Sina’s al-Qanun and Fakhruddin became an expert of al-Qanun. Fakhruddin Mardini lived in Hani city long years to his death under the patronage of Artukoglu Najmuddin Ilgazi and even he taught Najmuddin medicine. Mardini went to Damascus for a short time and a higher salary was offered to him for teaching al-Qanun but he refused and when he was returning to Mardin city, on the way, he visited Aleppo and with the insist of the ruler of Aleppo al-Malik al-Zahir Gazi he stayed two years in this city that the ruler payed a very good salary for him. After his death Artukoglu dynasty supported the studies of Ibn al-Raqiqa that he was the student of Fakhruddin al-Mardini(30) Journal of Medical Sciences in 13th Century. In the same region Ayyubids patronized medicine, botany and pharmacology in 12th and 13th centuries. Muslim and non-muslim physicians were in a prosperous life. Physicians of internal diseases, surgery and eye complaints used to together their empirical studies in the Journal of Kunnash. Ibn al-Nafis (d.687 A.H/1288) had found small circulation of the blood in this period and Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi wrote the first book on diabetes in the history of medicine under the patronage of Ayyubid dynasty. (31) Ibn al-Nafis had been sponsored by Ayyubids and then in Egypt by Baybars I Sultan of Mamluks. He was in a life of comfortable in Cairo and wrote 15 books on medicine.(32) A lot of members of Rasulid Dynasty in Yemen were famous scholars and also they supported scholars. Astronomer, mathematician and physician Muhammed Farisi (d.677AH/1278 AD) had been sponsored by Sultan of Yemen al-Malik al-Muzaffar Yusuf b. Umar and Farisi had dedicated some of his books to the Sultan.(33) Ghazan Khan, Sultan of Il-Khan Dynasty (his reign 1295-1304), after he became muslim, and Islam became the official religion of (Mongol) Il-Khan Empire; he built a knowledge-city near the capital-city of Tebriz. Construction of the campus began in 1297 and after completed it was named Abwab al-Birr and then Ghazaniyya. There were a great mosque in the center of the campus and two religious colleges for Hanafis and Shafiis, a primary school for children, an observatory and the other social buildings. Observatory, great library and religious colleges were working together under the principle of tawhid of Islamic education(unity of knowledge.) Great endowments had been assigned for the expenses of these institutions. (34) The Proceedings of the International Conference on Urbanism in Islam, Tokyo 1989, II, 283-99) Famous mathematician Ibn al-Khawwam (643-724 A.H/1245-1324 A.D) was also a jurist in Shafii school and physician that produced books on medicine. He studied under patronage of Rashid al-Din Fadlullah Grand Vizier of Il-Khan Dynasty. He had been been appointed as the President of Waqf of Dar al-Zahab in Baghdad and great funds were assigned for using of Ibn al-Khawwam. He wrote famous book on mathematics al-Fawaid al-Bahaiyya and the others Fusul ala Fahm Maqalat al-Ashira min Kitab Oklidis, al-Risalat al-Shamsiyya fi al-Qawaid al-Hisabiyya; and Muqaddima fi al-Tib on medicine and three books on Islamic subjects.(35) He also provided a lot of scholarships for the students and a lot of books for the library from the incomes of Waqf of Dar al-Zahab. In the 14th century, a medicine book Kitab Tuhfa-i Mubarizi was translated with the support of a local ruler Mehmed Bey in Aydinogullari principality, in western

Turkey.(36) In the second half of 14th century, a another local ruler in western Turkey, Aydinoglu Isa Bey (that in that time there were approximately ten small states in Turkey’s land) had given a scholarship to Haji Pasha (Haci Pasa, 740-827 A.H/ 1339-1424 A.D) when he was a student in Cairo. Haci Pasa completed his education in Islamic subjects and medicine and worked as a physician in Cairo hospital(Bimaristan-i Cairo). He returned to Turkey and was appointed as judge of Ayasuluk (Selcuk) city. He also was giving Islamic courses in the madrasas of Aydinogullari principality and was working as a physician in the Palace and for people. In this period, he wrote more than ten books that majority of them are on medicine and some on Islamic theology and logic. He mentiones the patronage of Isa Bey in the introduction parts of his two books Shifa al-Asqam and Sarh al-Tawail al-Anwar saying: “After completed my education with great aids and patronage of Isa Bey, I also found respect and honour in his State” (37) In the same period, another principality in western Turkey, Mentese Ogullari also supported scientific studies. Muhammad b. Mahmud al-Shirwani dedicated his book on medicine Ilyasiya fi al-Tib to the local ruler Sultan Ilyas (d. 824 A.H/1421 A.D)(38) In the Northern Africa, Banu Marin (Marinides) Dynasty patronized science studies from 13th century to second half of 15th century. Sultan of Marinides Abu Inan alMarini established a great library in the campus of Qarawiyyin Madrasas. It was opened in 1349(A.D/750 A.H) that this library is one of the richest manuscript libraries of Islamic world. Abu Inan put a lot of valuable books include translations done in Abbasid period in this library. There were/are a lot of valuable books on mathematics, philosophy and medicine. Great mathematicians and astronomers of Morocco Ibn Marzuq al-Khatib, Ibn al-Ahmar, Ibn al-Banna alMarraqushi, Ibn al-Sabil al-Taalimi, Abdurrahman .b. Muhammad al-Jadiri, Ali alMarraqushi and famous physicians Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Jaznai, Muhammad b. Yahya al-Azafi and Qasim al-Qurashi used this library and produced a lot of studies under the patronage of Banu Marin Sultans. Ibn al-Sabil al-Taalimi made an astrolobe and presented to Sultan Abu al-Hasan and Sultan gave him gold coins as much as the weight of his astrolobe. (39) Thousands miles away from Northern Africa, in India, Sultan of Delhi (Sultan of Tughluqs) Firuz Shah Tughluq (his reign 1351-1388 A.D) also was patronizing scientific studies. He made built thirty madrasas in different parts of India for progress of Islamic subjects but also made translated a lot of books that they were found in a Budist temple in Sanskrit language. They were translated into Persian language with the fund of Sultan Firuz.(40) Jamshid al-Kashi (d.832A.H/ 1429A.D) was born in a Persian family. He was busy with medicine but after a period he began to study astronomy and mathematics. He lived in Kashan some period and visited Western Iraq cities and then Sultan Ulug Bey invited him to Samarkand.He met a sufficient financial and scientific milieu in Samarkand. He wrote his famous astronomy books Sullam al-Sama, Mukhtasar dar Ilm al-Hay’a, Risala dar Sharh al-Alat al- Rasad and Nuzhat al-Hadaiq in this period and Observatory of Ulug Bey was built on the advises and projects of Kashi. His book on mathematics Miftah al-Hisab that was the peak of the books of mathematicians in the world in long centuries that he applied Rufini-Horner method centuries ago. He dedicated some of his books to grand vizier Kamal al-din Mahmud and Sultan Iskender of Governor of Shiraz; it is understood that a lot of muslim statesmen had given support for the studies of Kashi.(41) In the first years of 15th century, science education in Ottoman lands was not sufficient. One of famous scholar of this period, Qadizade completed his Islamic

education and although took some courses of astronomy from Munajjim Faydullah in Konya (city in Central Turkey) but his teacher (and famous scholar) Molla Fanari advised him to go to Central Asia saying: “Legacy of Maraga mathematics-astronomy school is still very alive, and you should go Mawara al-Nahr and Khorasan.” Qadizade went to Samarkand and participated some courses of Sayyid Sharif Jurjani on mathematics and Islamic theology. But after a short time he met the ruler Ulug Bey and he became a tutor for him. After that, he was appointed chief professor of Madrasa of Ulug Bey (Academy of Ulug Bey) and after death of Jamshid al-Kashi, Qadizade also was appointed as the head of Observatory of Samarkand. Qadizade used to give importance to autonomy of schools. That’s why he resigned from his posts when Ulug Bey dismissed a professor from the Madrasa. But Ulug Bey returning that professor to his post appointed again and promised to Qadizade that not to interfere the Madrasa’s administration. Qadizade taught mathematics and astronomy more than 30 years in Samarkand to his death and wrote three famous books on mathematics and the other three on astronomy. He dedicated his famous mathematics textbook Tuhfat al-Rais fi Sarh al-Ashkal al-Ta’sis to Ulug Bey.(42) 3-

Ottomans: Last Patrons of Islamic Sciences

Ottoman Sultan Yildirim Bayezid (his reign 1389-1402 A.D) patronized scientific studies and Ali b. Hibatullah dedicated his book Khulasat al-Minhaj fi ahlalHisab to the Sultan (43) and Bayezid had brought physician from Cairo for Dar al-Sifa(hospital.) (44) Bayezid’s son Celebi Sultan Mehmed (his reign 1411-1421) patronized for writing a book scholar Abdulwahhab b. Yusuf al-Mardini on medicine Kitab al-Muntakhab fi al-Tib. (45) Sultan Murad II (his reign 1421-1451) supported the translation of Mufradati Ibn Baytar on medicine and Tuhfa-i Muradi fi asnaf al-jawahir written by Mehmed b. Muhmud Shirwani, and partly translation another book on medicine Kamil al-Sinaa.(46) Mercimek Ahmed translated a geometry book Ka’busname in this period (in 835 A.H/1431 A.D) and dedicated to Sultan Murad II. Ali Kushci and Fathullah al-Shirwani begun the education of mathematics, astronomy and geography in Ottoman Empire. Although science education was being taught before and geometry and cosmography were the most important of them but Ali Kushji, first time, opened a private and intensive course on mathematics. Fathullah al-Shirwani (820-891 A.H/ 1417-1486 A.D) first was supported by ruler Ulug Bey in Samarkand five years (1435-40) and then a local ruler Candaroglu Ismail Bey (in Kastamonu city in the central Turkey.) Ismail Bey patronized Shirwani more than 15 years (1450-65); and a short time in 1453 Ottoman Grand Vizier Candarli Khalil Pasha also supported Fathullah al-Shirwani. With the patronage of the local ruler Candaroglu Ismail Bey, Kastamonu city became a scientific and cultural center of the region. Khalil b. Mu’min wrote a book on eye-diseases Miftah al-Nur that dedicated also to Ismail Bey.(47) Shirwani trained a lot of students in Ottoman madrasas and wrote books on astronomy (alFaraid wa-l Fawaid fi tawdih al-Sharh al-Mulakhkhas, Shar al-Tazkira fi ilm alHay’a) and geometry (Hashiya ala Sharhu Ashkal al-Ta’sis) and the books on Arabic grammar and on Islamic religious subjects. (48) Ali Kusjhi’s coming to Ottoman Empire is a milestone for the Ottoman madrasas. He also brought his students and assistants to Istanbul. His book al-Muhammadiyya was a textbook approximately two centuries to the second part of 17th century.(49) Ali Kushji’s first teacher was Sultan Ulug Bey in Samarkand. Ulug Bey as a great scholar in mathematics and astronomy educated Ali Kushji and gave financial support to him. Qadizade and Jamshid al-Kashi were also the teachers of Ali Kushji. Ali Kushji went to Kirman and completed some courses in this city and after returning to Samarkand he

presented his book Hall al-Ashkal al-Qamar to Ulug Bey. Ulug Bey was pleased with this book and he sent Ali Kushji to China for advanced education. After killed Ulug Bey, Ali Kushji came to Tabriz and met Sultan Hasan of Akkoyunlu dynasty. Sultan Hasan also respected him and Ali Kushji was sent as an extraordinary ambassador to Istanbul that there were some problems between Ottomans and Akkoyunlu Sultanate. (Fatih) Sultan Mehmet II of Ottoman Empire admired Ali Kushji’s knowledge and invited him to Istanbul and insisted. After completed the duty of ambassadorship, Ali Kushji went to Istanbul. Ali Kushji brought synergy to the studies of mathematics and astronomy in Istanbul and not only students but also scholars followed his courses. He was also a scholar of ‘unity of knowledge’ and wrote six books on astronomy and mathematics; one on Islamic theology; one on methodology of Islamic law; and seven on Arabic grammar.(50) (Fatih) Sultan Mehmed’s son Sultan Bayezid II had been trained in geometry and astronomy by his tutor Salahuddin. And Mirim Celebi that is the greatest scholar after Ali Kushji in mathematics in Ottoman academic milieu, he dedicated his booklets to Bayezid II.(51) Bayezid II (his reign 1481-1512) also supported medical education and famous physician of Timurids Qutbuddin Ahmad (d.903A.H/ 1497 A.D) was invited to Istanbul, and a great salary: 500 aqce(silver coins) daily pay and in addition to a 20,000 monthly salary was assigned for him. When this news was heard in the world, physician Shukrullah from Shirwan, Hojah Ataullah, physician Lari, and physician Kamal al-Tabrizi and others came to Istanbul.(52) Gelenbevi Ismail Efendi (1143-1203 A.H/ 1730-91 A.D) is one of the last great Ottoman matmematicians (he was an expert in Islamic subjects and sciences.) A French engineer had come to Istanbul and after some of his claims, Gelenbevi Ismail Efendi wrote Sharh al-Luguritma (Sharhu Jadawil al-Ansab, on logorithm) as a response against him and Rais al-Kuttab (Secretary of State of Ottoman Empire) gave sable-skin coat as a gift to Ismail Efendi in a ceremony that the Frech engineer also had participated this meeting. After that, Gelenbevi was invited by Sultan Selim III to correct the unsuccessful artillery fires in a religious festival in Istanbul; Gelenbevi corrected angle faults with mathematical calculations and artilleries hit the marks. Sultan gave Gelenbevi a lot of gifts and appointed as a judge (of Larissa city, now in Greece.) (53) Qasirizade Muhammad Emin al-Uskudari dedicated his book Sharhu Khulasat al-Hisab to Kaptan Mustafa Pasa the chief general of Ottoman Navy in 1140 A.H/1727 A.D and took a sufficient patronage.(54) In the last years of 18th century with the decree of Sultan Selim III, hendesehane (college of geometry) was opened in Sutluce district of Istanbul and the students expressed the kindly interests of Sultan to them.(55) One of these students was Seyyid Mustafa that after religious education he had begun to search the (old style) geometry books translated to Arabic and Turkish. And then he learned logarithm from Gelenbevi Ismail Efendi. After that Seyyid Mustafa studied French and followed the texts of Johann Christian Wolf(1679-1754), Jacques Ozanam(1640-1717), Bellidor etc. And noticed that his knowledge on geometry was not less the authors of 18th century western science scholars. He gave up to go to France and at that time, when Sultan Selim III ordered to open a college of geometry in Istanbul, he was one of the very joyful students of that time.(56)

Conclusion. Brilliant examples are seen for patronization of Islamic sciences in Islamic history. Some rulers did not only give financial support but some of them also had got a vast horizon and powerful vision for development of sciences in Islamic lands.Discrimination was not known by muslim rulers that they gave financial support muslim and non-muslim scholars. Patronage of muslim rulers

caused development of sciences in Europe and made begun reformation and renaissance periods in Europe, and then Industrial Revolution came. That is, patronage of muslim rulers for sciences changed the flowing of the history.

1-Ibn al-Nadim, al-Fihrist, p, 340 2-Cevat İzgi, Osmanli Medreselerinde İlim, v, I, p, 285 3-Cevat İzgi, “Fezari”, Diyanet Islam Ansiklopedisi, v, XII, p, 540 (from: Ibn alNadim, p, 332.) DIA will be used below for Diyanet Islam Ansiklopedisi 4-Sadettin Okten, “Ahmed b. Muhammed en-Nihavendi”, DIA, v, II, p, 103(from Ibn al-Nadim, al-Fihrist, p, 393; D. Pingree, “Ahmad Nehavendi”, Encyclopaedia Iranica, I, 653) 5-Mahmut Kaya, “Beytulhikme”, DIA, v, VI, p, 88-90 (from Said Diveci, Beytu’lhikma, Musul 1392/1972, p, 10-41) 6-Mahmut Kaya, “Felsefe”, DIA, XII, p, 311-19(from Ibn Nadim, 340-42) 7-Zulfikar Tuccar, “Ferra, Yahya b. Ziyad”, DIA, XII, 406-408 8-Ibn al-Nadim, p, 340-42 9-Mahmut Kaya, “Beytulhikme”, DIA, v, VI, p, 88-90(from Tirazi, Khazain al-kutub al-Arabiyya fi-al-Khafiqayn, Cairo, v, 1, p, 101) 10-Rushdi Rashid, “Ibrahim b. Sinan b. Sabit”, DIA, XXI, 349-51; (Rushdi Rashid produced a lot of studies on Thabit’s family.) 11-Ihsan Fazlioglu, “Habes el-Hasib”, DIA, XIV, 367-69(Aydin Sayili, The Observatory in Islam, Ankara 1988, p, 57-60, 65-69, 75-81 12-Nuri Yuce, “Ali b. Isa el-Usturlabi”, DIA, II, 401-402 (from Ibn al-Nadim, 34243) 13-Mahmut Kaya, “Haccac b. Yusuf b. Matar”, DIA, XIV, 427(from Ibn al-Qifti, Ikhbar al-Ulama, p, 46; Ibn al-Nadim, 243, 265; George Sarton, Introduction, I, 562) 14-Nihat Keklik, Felsefe, p, 277 (Ibn al-Nadim, 243; Ibn Abu Usaybia, Uyun alAnba, I, 186-87) 15-Mahmut Kaya, “Firdevsul-Hikme”, DIA, XIII, 131-32 (Ali b. Rabban al-Tabari, Firdaws al-Hikma(publication: Muhammad Zubayr al-Siddiqi), Berlin 1928, preface of publisher, p, 4) 16-Hakki Dursun Yildiz, “Feth b. Hakan el-Farisi”, DIA, XII, 452-53 17-Mahmut Kaya, “Beytulhikme”, DIA, VI, 88-90 18-Necip Taylan, Anahatlariyla Islam Felsefesi, p, 166; Mahmut Kaya, “Farabi”,DIA, XII, 145-62 19-Aysegul Demirhan Erdemir, “Ali b. Abbas el-Mecusi”, DIA, II, 379-80(Ibn alQifti, Ikhbar al-Ulama, Cairo 1326, p, 155-56; Ibn Abu Usaybia, Uyun al-Anba, Cairo 1884, I, 236-37); C. Elgood, “Ali b. Al-Abbas”, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, I, 381 20-Abdulkerim Ozaydin, “Fahruddevle”, DIA, XII, 98-99(Hasan Munaymina,Tarikh alDawlat al-Buwayhiyya, Beirut 1407/1987, p, 138) 21-Cevat İzgi, Osmanli Medreselerinde İlim, I, 243; Melek Dosay Gokdogan, “Kereci”, DIA, XXV, 277-78 22-Cemil Akpinar, “Kabisi”, DIA, XXIV, 39-41(Rushdi Rashid, Tarikh al-Riyaziyyat al-Arabiyya beyn al-jabra wa al-hisab, Beirut 1989,p, 307-8; Suter, Die Mathematiker, p, 57, 60-61) 23-Sahban Halifat, “Ibnu’l-Hammar”, DIA, XXI, p, 65-66; (Bayhaqi, Tarikh al-Hukama al-Islam(publication:Mamduh Hasan Muhammad) Cairo 1417/1996, p, 36-38) 24-Esin Kahya, “el-Kanun fi’t-Tib”, DIA, XXIV, 331-32 25-Aydin Taneri,”Gurgenc”, DIA, XIV, 321-23(Ibn al-Athir, al-Kamil, XII, 394-95; B.Spuler, “Gurgandj”, Encyclpaedia of Islam, II, 1141-42) 26-Omer Mahir Alper, “Mecriti”, DIA, XXVIII, 278-79; Sarton, Introduction, I, 66869

27-Mehmet Ozdemir, “Mansur, Ibn Ebu Amir”, DIA, XXVIII, 6-8 28-Muammer Dizer, “Ibnu’z-Zerkale”, DIA,XXI, 243-45(Ibn al-Qifti, Ikhbar al-Ulama, p, 57); Ali Sevim, “Garsunni’me”, DIA, XIII, 386-87(from Ibn al-Qifti, Ikhbar alUlama, p, 110,156, 211, 398) 29-Iqtidar Husain Siddiqoui, “Gurlular”, DIA, XIV, 207-11; 30-Ali Durusoy, “Fahreddin el-Mardini”, DIA, XII, 86-7; (Ibn al-Qifti, p, 189) 31-Ramazan Sesen, “Eyyubiler”, DIA, XII, 20-31 32-Esin Kahya, “Ibnu’n-Nefis”, DIA, XXI, 173-76 33-Sami Shelhub, “Farisi, Muhammed b. Ebu Bekir”, DIA, XII, 170-71(Suter, Die Mathematiker, p, 139; Sarton, Introduction, II, 1000) 34-Abdulkadir Yuvali, “Gazan Han”, DIA, XIII, 429-31(Haneda Masashi, “Gazaniyya in Tabriz”, 35-Ihsan Fazlioglu, Ibn el-Havvam ve Eseri:el-Fevaid el-Behaiyye fi el-Kavaid elHisabiyye(master thesis, 1993), Istanbul University, Institute of Social Sciences, p, 97-207 36-Ismail Hakki Uzuncarsili, Buyuk Osmanli Tarihi, v, I, p, 67 37-ibid, p, 70; Cemil Akpinar, “Haci Pasa”, DIA, XIV, 492-96 38-Uzuncarsili, I, 58 39-Ismail Ceran, “Meriniler”, DIA, XXIX, 192-99 40-Orhan F. Koprulu, “Firuz Sah Tugluk”, DIA, XIII, 141-42(B.P. Saksena, “Firuz Shah Tughluq”, A Comprehensive History of India, I-XII, New Delhi 1970-85, v, V, p, 566-621; Riaz al-Islam, A History of Firoz Shah Tughluq, Aligarh 1946) 41-Sadettin Okten, “Kasi”, DIA, XXV, 15-16 42-Ihsan Fazlioglu, “Kadizade-i Rumi”, DIA, XXIV, 98-100 43-Uzuncarsili, II, 595; I, 536 44-ibid, I, 323 45-ibid, I, 537 46-ibid, I, 540-41; Cevat İzgi, Osmanli Medreselerinde İlim, I, 131 47-Uzuncarsili, I, 89 48-Cevat Izgi, I, 282; Cemil Akpinar, “Fethullah es-Sirvani”, DIA, XII, 464-66 49-Cevat Izgi, I, 224 50-Cengiz Aydin, “Ali Kuscu”, DIA, II, 408-10 51-Uzuncarsili, II, 597 52-ibid, II, 599 53-Serafettin Golcuk-Metin Yurdagur, “Gelenbevi”, DIA, XIII, 552-55 54-Cevat Izgi, I, 221 55-ibid, I, 265 56-ibid, I, 270-72 (from Kemal Beydilli’s article: “Ilk Muhendislerimizden Seyyid Mustafa ve Nizam-i Cedide Dair Risalesi”, Istanbul Universitesi Edebiyat Fakultesi Tarih Dergisi, XIII (Istanbul 1987), p, 387-479 Bibliography Izgi Cevat, Osmanli Medreselerinde Ilim, I-II, Istanbul 1997, Iz Yayincilik(Publications) Keklik Nihat, Felsefe, Istanbul 1978, Cagri yayinlari Taylan Necip, Anahatlariyla Islam Felsefesi, Istanbul 1985, Ensar Nesriyat Turkiye Diyanet Vakfi Islam Ansiklopedisi, I-XXXI, Istanbul 1988 Uzuncarsili Ismail Hakki, Buyuk Osmanli Tarihi, I-VI, Ankara 7th edition (no date), Turk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlari