Handout Bahasa Inggris S1(p Harto).docx

HANDOUT

Bahasa Inggris

Kode

: KK252132

Jurusan

: Seni Drama Tari dan Musik

Program Studi

: Pendidikan Seni Musik

Semester

: 2 (dua)

Disusun oleh : Drs. Suharto, S.Pd, M.Hum

FAKULTAS BAHASA DAN SENI UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SEMARANG 2012

1

Minggu Ke-1 STRUKTUR KALIMAT DALAM TEKS READING COMPREHENSION 1. Mengidentifikasi Struktur Kalimat Secara umum struktur kalimat sederhana bahasa Inggris adalah : (Conj.)+S+P(O)+ (adv). Unsur yang diletakkan dalam kurung bersifat pilihan.

2. Mengidentifikasi Struktur Predikat Predikat berbentuk frasa kerja finite-yaitu frasa kerja yang dapat menggunakan tenses. Polarity (positive, negative), dan modality. Contoh frasa kerja yang berfungsi sebagai predikat disajikan pada nomor (a) dan (b) di bawah ini. Perlu dicatat bahwa selain frasa kerja finite, juga terdapat frasa kerja non-finite, yang tidak berfungsi sebagai predikat, tidak menunjukkan tenses, atau modality, misalnya : to take taking taken to cook cooking cooked 3. Struktur Predikat (Finite Verb) a. 'Be' Sentence Positive (+) is, am, are, was, were

Negative (-) is, am, are, was, were

not

Has have has

been

Has have had

not

been

Can may must shall could would might

be

Can may must shall could would might

not

be

Be going to

Be

be

not

going to

be

would could might should

have

would could might should

not

have

been

b. 'Verb' Sentence Positive (+) take, takes, took

been

Negative (-) Do, does

not

take

Has have had

taken

did

not

take

not

taken

Is am are

taking

have has had is

not

taking

2

take, takes, took Was were

taking

Has have had

been

Can may must shall could would might

take

Be going to

take

Would could might should

have

Do, does

not

take

was were

not

taking

has have had can may must shall will could would might

not

been

not

take

be

not

going to

take

would could might should

not

have

taken

taken

am are taking

been

taking

4. Passive is am are

taken

has have had

been

is am are

being

has have had

been

being

taken

can may must

be

taken

taken

be going to be

taken

could would should

been

have

taken

5. Latihan Identifikasilah predikat pada kalimat di dalam teks berikut ini. Text 1 The music composition performed by song contains an attractive aspect. The attractive aspect is a language. The language which consists of a sequence of words gives new dimension in the music which can not find in the other composition, instrumental music (Sitompul, 1997: 97) . The lyric in a song is actually non musical aspect. However, besides gives a new unique dimension, its presence in music song are not only as an embedded element but also as a part of the music. Many songs are created from texts or beautiful poems which can attract listeners or readers to always enjoy it. That is why that the those songs should express the atmosphere that conform to its lyric. Even, sometimes, the beauty of words or sentences is smoothly reflected in its rhythm. The blend of both elements, lyric and its music can make new dimension.

Text 2 3

American jazz is a conglomeration of sounds borrowed from such varied sources as American and African folk music, European classical music, and Christian gospel songs. One of the recognizable characteristics of jazz is its use of improvisation: certain parts of the music are written out and played the same way by various performers, and other improvised parts are related spontaneously during a performance an vary widely from performer to performer. The earliest of jazz was ragtime, lively songs or rags performed on the piano, and the best-known of the ragtime performers and composers was Scott Joplin. Born in 1868 to former slaves, Scott Joplin earned his living from a very early age playing the piano in bars around the Mississippi. One of his regular jobs was in the Maple Leaf Club in Sedalia, Missouri. It was there that he began writing the more than 500 compositions that he was to produce, the most famous of which was “The Maple Leaf Rag”.

4

-II. Minggu ke-2 dan 3 STRUKTUR NOMINAL GROUP atau NOUN PHRASE DALAM TEKS READING COMPREHENSION

1. Struktur Nominal Group Pada struktur kalimat (Conj.) + S + P + (O)+Adv, slot S dan O biasanya diisi oleh Nominal Group. Berikut inidalah kemungkinan susunan Nominal Group Structure. Pre-modifier D Num

E

▼

▼

Article : the a Possessive : my John's

▼ Ordinal Cardinal

Adjective Present participle Past participle

Post-Modifier Q

C T ▼

▼ Noun Adjective Gerund

Noun Pronoun Infinitive phrase Gerund Noun clause

▼ Adjective clause Participle phrase Past participle Phrase Infinitive phrase Adjective phrase Cardinal number

Catatan : ^

: Diikuti oleh

T (Thing)

: T (Thing) adalah unsur yang menjadi head atau inti dalam kelompok nomina. Bentuk T dapat berupa (1) Noun (proper noun dan common noun), misalnya : “John and Boat”, (2) Pronoun, misalnya: “he atau him”, (3) Infinitive Phrase), misalnya : “to do atau to say”, (4) Gerund, misalnya : “swimming atau running”, dan (5) Noun Cl. (Noun Clause), misalnya :”that se was absent yesterday”.

C (Classifier) : C (Classifier) adalah modifier atau penjelas yang menentukan jenis Things (types atau kinds of things). Bnetuk C biasanya berupa Noun, Adjective, dan Gerund, misalnya : rubber boat C^T (Noun/Noun) gray hair C^T (Adjective/Noun) dining table C^T (Gerund/Noun) E (Epithet)

: E (Epithet) adalah modifier atau penjelas yang bersifat mendiskripsikan Thing melalui bentuk, ukuran, warna atau sifat. Epithet ini bisa berupa Adjective, Present Participle, atau Past participle, misalnya :

long hair E^T (Adjective/Noun) running water E^T (Present Participle/Noun) stolen goods E^T (Past Participle /Noun) N (Numeric) : N (Numeric) adalah modifier atau penjelas yang menunjukkan kuantitas dan urutan Thing. Bentuknya bsia berupa cardinal number (jumlah) atau ordinal number (urutan), misalnya : two books the second floor

N^T N^T

(Cardinal Participle/Noun) (Ordinal Number/Noun) 5

Numeric juga dapat berupa frasa seperti a number of, a large of amount of, one of, etc.

D (Deictic)

: D (Deictic) adalah modifier yang menunjukkan keadaan apakah Thing yang dimaksud definite atau indefinite. Bentuknya bsia berupa article atau possessive adjective, misalnya : a book D^T (Indefinite Article/Noun) the book D^T (definite Article/Noun) my book/John's book D^T (Possessive/Noun) Some dan any juga termasuk kedalam kategori ini. Contoh kombinasi Pre-modifier : The second largest     D N E The beautiful    D E



dining table.   C T

shoulder-length wavy black hair      E C CT

Q (Qualifier) : Q (Qualifier) adalah Post-Modifier yang memberikan tambahan informasi yang bersifat embedded ke dalam Thing. Bentuk qualifier bisa berupa Adjective Clause, Present Participle Phrase, Past Participle Phrase, Infinitive Phrase, Prepositional Phrase, Adjective Phrase, dan Cardinal Number, misalnya : the boat which is painted red the boat painted red women wearing jeans the boat in red boats available in the harbour the boat to sell this afternoon Gate 2

D^T^Q (Adjective Clause) D^T^Q (Past Participle Phrase) T^Q (Noun/Present Part) D^T^Q (Deictic/Noun/Prep.Phrase) T^Q (Noun/Adjective Phrase) D^T^Q (Noun/Infinitie Phrase) T^N (Noun?Cardinal Number)

Contoh kombinasi antara Pre-modifier dan Post-modifier the beautiful shoulder-length wavy black hair with red ribbon on it Penjelasan lain tentang frasa nomina menurut Thomas Sumarno (2001) adalah : Frasa nomina terbagi atas : a. Frasa Nomina berunsur Kata Sifat dan Kata Benda (Adjective + Noun), Misalnya different ideas, beautiful flowers, an important thing b. Frasa nomina yang berunsur Kata Kerja + ed2 dengan Kata Benda (kata kerja – ed2 + N), misalnya : written exercises, boiled water, stolen money. c. Frasa nomina yang berunsur Kata Benda dan Preposisi (N + Prep), misalnya : the girl in yellow, the man in front of me, the boy after her

KATA BENDA PUSAT DAN PENJELAS Perhatikan frasa di bawah ini :

6

clean water in the glass that I drink yesterday Kata penting dari frasa tersebut adalah WATER. Kata benda tersebut disebut kata benda pusat atau head, atau thing (T) seperti disebut di atas. Sedangkan kata yang lain desebut kata penjelas.

Clean WATER in the glass

that I drink yesterday

Makna keseluruhan : Air bersih yang ada di gelas yang saya minum kemarin

2. Latihan Tunjukkan S dan O pada kalimat dalam teks berikut ini. Kemudian artikanlah dengan cara menerjemahkannya. Text Several months ago, there was an interesting discussion on this list of the meaning of syncopation in music and dance that I would like to revisit. Merriam-Webster defines syncopation as "a temporary displacement of the regular metrical accent in music caused typically by stressing the weak beat." (I think most definitions would also add "or not stressing the accented beat.") It seems to me that most dancers use the word syncopation to refer to *any* subdivision of a beat by the steps of either or both dancers, and I would like to ask the list if this definition fits the dictionary definition. For example, consider walking one step per beat to a song in 4/4 time: 1, 2,3, 4, left, right, left, right, etc. Now, add a double-time step on the "and" between the third and fourth steps: 1, 2, 3-and-4 (e.g., left, right, left-together, left). At first glance, this seems to fit the definition above, since the step on the "and" falls between beats 3 and 4, which are normally accented by steps, and the "and" in normally not accented by a step. However, a musician that I posed this to said this was not a true syncopation. The argument went something like this. In nearly all 4/4 music, the odd beats 1 and the 3 are naturally accented more strongly than the even beats 2 and the 4. To be a true syncopation, the accent has to come on the weak beats, namely, 2 and/or 4. Now, the argument continues, when you subdivide a beat, the accenting of the odd beats 1 and 3 seems to get carried through to the 1st and 3rd subdivisions of the beat (perhaps for reasons rooted in the psychology of how the brain processes music). Consider breaking each beat of the measure into quarters, sometimes represented this way: 1-y-and-a-2-y-and-a-3-y-and-a-4-y-and-a Just as the 1 and 3 are normally more accented than the 2 and 4, the "and" (like 3) is normally more accented than the "y" or "a." So, a double step on the "and" is not a syncopation because it falls on a normally accented subdivision of the beat. According to this definition, the extra step would have to be on the "y" or "a" to be a true syncopation. Also according to this definition, a heavily accented step on 2 or 4 would be a syncopation, even without extra steps added. Can anyone shed some light on this? (Evan Wallace) Seattle

7

Minggu ke 4 - 5 KOHESI DALAM TEKS READING COMPREHENSIONS 1. KOHESI* Grammatikal Kohesi Leksikal

Gramatikal

Leksikal

Item referensi (John/he) Substitusi (John works, and so does she) Elipsis (is he John? Yes) Konjungsi Internal Eksternal Repetisi (rose/rose) Sinonimi (poisonous/toxic) Antonimi (happy/sad) Hiponimi (Super-sub : mammal/cow Co-hiponimi (caw/tiger/elephant) Meronimi (Part-whole :rose/root) Co-meronimi (root/leaves)

2. Konjungsi : a. Internal: - Addittion :

In addition' Moreover Furthermore, etc.

- Sequence

First, Second, Third, ... Firstly, Secondly, Thirdly, ... Finally Next Then

- Opposite/Different idea

However But Nevertheless In contrast On the other hand Meanwhile Therefore As a result Consequently As a consequence Thus, etc.

- Cause and Effect

b. Ekseternal : - Addition :

- Alternative

. . . and . . . not only ... but also ... both ... and ... not only ... but ... as well or 8

- Opposite/Different ideas

but while whereas

- Sequence :

and then then so that so (such) ...that

- Cause and Effect :

- Condition :

if unless

- Concession :

although even though though

3. Kohesi dalam Teks A passage contains a number of sentences. There are relations between the sentences in a passage. This part studies three types of relation between sentences in a passage: reference, logical connection and logical structure of paragraphs in a passage. Read this passage about deserts, and try to find the relations between the sentences in your own way. Desert are region with very little rainfall. Only a few plants and animals can adapt to the dry conditions found there. Not all deserts have the same type of surface. Some are covered in sand, which is blown by the wind of to form dunes. Others have a surface of stones or rocks. 3.1 Reference In a set of statements, some of the words in one sentence are often repeated in other sentences. In passages, we try not to repeat words very often. we can refer back to words used in other sentences. This relation is called reference. Now study this short passage and notice the use of reference. This use of reference is shown in the diagram. Deserts are very dry regions. They have very little rainfall. Few plants live there. Some specialized animals do. Some deserts have a surface of sand. The sand often forms dunes. These are created by the wind. Others have stone or rocks.

Deserts Deserts

are very dry regions.

They

have very little rainfall.

Few plants

live there.

Some specialized animals do

Some deserts have a surface of sand. Form dunes Other

The sand often

These are created by the wind. have

stone or rocks.

9

Draw a similar diagram to show the use of reference in the following passage. Bedaya dance is also sacred in Puro Mangkunagaran. Bedaya Anglir Mendhung is the most sacred Bedaya dance, created by Sri Mangkoenagaran I, assisted by Kyai Gunasuta and Kyai Kidang Wulung. Anglir Mendhung means something which looks like a cloud. It is depicting his feeling when he had to fight against his own father-in-law, Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I. The dancers are 7 girls in a holy state. For the execution of this dance, a strict ritual must be performed, before and during the performance. In fact, the gamelan music of this dance is based on gamelan music of Ketawang, the creation of Queen Kencanasari, the Goddess of the South Sea, Kanjeng Ratu Kidul. All dancers have to purify themselves by fasting for several days. They have to request permission and blessing from Sri Mangkoenagoro I, in front of his grave, to be able to perform Anglir Mendhung at their best. May God the Almighty protect them during the performance. Sometimes a writer refers back not only to a single word but to a group of words or a whole sentence. This passage shows the use of reference to refer back to groups of words. Temperatures in the desert are very high during the day. At night they are very low. There can be a difference of 50oC between the two (i.e temperatures at night and during the day). This differences (i.e the differences between the two) break the stones and rocks into pieces. These (i.e the pieces of stones and rocks) are blown away by the wind. This action of the wind (i.e the action of blowing away the pieces) steps soil from forming. Without soil many plants cannot grow. Read the following passage. The underlined words refer back to certain parts of the passage. decide what parts of the passage these words refer back to. Wind is the movement of air over the earth's surface. This movement is related to air pressure. Near the earth's surface the pressure is greater at the poles than at the equator. Away from the surface it is lower at the poles. Because of these pressure differences there is a constant blow of air. This is the main cause of wind. winds are also deflected by the rotation of the earth. This deflection is called the Coriolis force. 3.2 Logical Connection There are often logical relations between statements in a passage. The logical relations are expressed by connecting words. These connecting words connect the sentences together and show the logical relations between them. One logical relation is addition. For example, A cactus does not need very much water ADDITION In addition, it is well adapted to high temperatures. Another logical relation is sequence. For example, Changes in temperature break rocks into pieces. SEQUENCE Then the wind blows the pieces away A third logical relation is contrast. For example,

Temperatures in deserts are extremely high during the day. 10

CONTRAST However at night they are often very low. A fourth logical relation is consequence. For example, There is very little rainfall in deserts. CONSEQUENCE Therefore few plants can live there. This activity practices the use of logical connection (words like in addition, then, however, and therefore). Here are four pairs of sentences : 1. Cactus plants do not need much water. They can grow in deserts. 2. There is no water on the surface of deserts. There is water underground. 3. The temperature is very high during the day. It becomes cold at night. 4. Deserts have little plant life. They have little animal life. Identify the logical relation between the two sentences in each pair. Then connect the two sentences together by using logical connector.

3.3 Logical Structure in Paragraph a passage a writer organizes information in a logical way. The paragraphs in a passage have a logical structure. Study this short paragraph : The hot deserts in the world have several characteristics in common. They all have an annual rainfall of less than ten inches. There also great differences between day and night temperatures. In addition, they are inhabited by plants and animals which have adapted to the lack water. LOGICAL STRUCTURE The hot deserts in the world Introduces and identifies a Nature of list have several characteristics in list characteristics of deserts common.

=

They all have an annual Specifies item 1 rainfall of less than ten inches

Item1 = rainfall less than 10 inches

There are also great Specifies item 2 differences between day and night temperatures. Specifies item 2

Item 2 = differences between day and night temperatures

In addition, they are inhabited Specifies item 3 by plants and animals which have adapted to the lack of water

Item 3 = presence of animals and plants which have adapted to lack of water

4. Latihan 4.1 Read the following passage and answer the reference questions that follow each one.

Text 1 11

5

10

15

George Luca's Star Wars changed the direction of American film with some of the most ingenious special effects contrived for movies of its time. Twenty-two months were spent on the special effects, including the six months needed to design the equipment and the more than 1,000 storyboards for the effects sequences. A special computerized camera, called a Dykstarflex, was designed to give the illusion of real screen movement. This system, controlled by the camera operator, enabled him or her to pan, tilt, and track around the model, always keeping it in focus. The breakthrough was the camera's ability to repeat the identical movements from the shot to shot; thus the effects sequences could be built like a music track; layer upon, layer. The illusion was complete: none of the spaceships in Star Wars ever moved-only the camera did. On the rebel blocked runner artists built a tiny cockpit, all done to scale. The miniaturized laser canons were fully motorized to swivel and tilt by remote control. The light sabers were four-sided blades coated with reflective aluminum, attached to a small motor. When rotated, they created a flashing light later enhanced by animation. 1. The word “some” in line 1 refers to (A) American film (B) Direction (C ) Movies (D) Special effects 2. In line 2, the word “contrived” could be best replaced with which of the following ? (A) Discovered (B) Created (C) Performed (D) Utilized 3. In line 7 “this system” refers to (A) the creation of an illusion (B) screen movement (C) panning and tilting around a model (D) a special computerized 4. The word “it” in line 8 refers to (A) model (B) camera (C ) focus (D) system 5. The word “they” in line 18 refers to (A) miniaturized laser cannons (B) artists (C )four-sided blades (D) seventy-five models

4.2 Read each passage and guess the logical relation of the paragraph to preceding or following paragraph Text 2 The most conservative sect of the Mennonite Church is the Old Order Amish, with 33,000 members living mainly today in the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. Their lifestyle reflects their belief in the doctrines of separation from the world and simplicity of life. The Amish have steadfastly rejected the societal changes that have occurred in the previous three hundred years, preferring instead to remain securely rooted in a seventeenthcentury lifestyle. They live without radios, televisions, telephones, electric lights, and cars; 12

they dress in plainly styled and colored old-fashioned clothes; and they farm their lands with horses and tools rather than modern farm equipment. They have a highly communal form of living, with barn raisings and quilting bees as common place activities.

6. The paragraph preceding this passage most probably discusses (A) other more liberal sects of Mennonites (B) where Mennonites (C) the communal Amish lifestyle (D)the most conservative Mennonites Text 3 The extinction of many species of bird has undoubtedly been hastened by modern man; since 1600 it has been estimated that approximately 100 bird species have become extinct over the world. In North America, the first species known to be annihilated was the great auk, a flightless bird that served as an easy source of food and bait for Atlantic fishermen through the beginning of the nineteenth century. Short after the great auk's extinction, two other North American species, the Carolina parakeet and the passenger pigeon, began dwindling noticeably in numbers. The last Carolina parakeet and the last passenger pigeon i captivity both died in September 1914. In addition to these extinct species, several others such as the bald eagle, the peregrine falcon, and the Californian condor are today recognized as endangered; steps are being taken to prevent their extinction. 7. The paragraph following this passage most probably discusses (A) what is being done to save endangered birds (B) what the bald eagle symbolizes to Americans (C) how several bird species became endangered (D)other extinct species

4.3 Garis bawahi dan sebutkan jenis penanda kohesi yang terdapat pada bacaan di bawah ini, kemudian terjemahkan bacaan tersebut ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Text 4 The jazz music sensation began to rub off on other parts of the world, which encourages the experimentation of melding their familiar sounds with the essence of Jazz. In Europe’s country in the Region of France came the Quintette Du Hot Club de France who was responsible for making of the early “Gypsy Jazz”. The Belgian guitarist Django Reinhardt created gypsy jazz by mixing the style of French Musette which was used in the dance halls, eastern European Folk known as Jazz Manouche, and American swing of the 1930’s. The sound was developed by instruments from the string familiy which are a steel string guitar, violin, and an upright bass. The atmosphere of the Jazz music is seductive with sudden unpredictable twists, and accelerating rhythms. The French artist Bireli Lagrene plays this unique music with old elements of the past. Another style of Jazz music that allowed the musicians to express themselves freely was the invention of Avant-Garde or free Jazz music. Both of these styles stemmed from the Bebop era, yet produced a relaxed form of harmonic and rhythmic music in the 1940’s and 1950’s. the musicians John Coltrane, Dewey Redman, Charles Mingus, Sun Ra, Sam Rivers, Ornette Coleman and many more were the creators of the free Jazz Music. Between the 1960’s and 1970’s the Latin musicians created the Afro-Cuban and Brazillian Jazz Music styles after Bebop musicians Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor cultivated it. 13

Gillespie and Taylor was influenced by the music of Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians Chico O’farrill, Tito Puente, Chano Pozo, Xavier Cugat, Mario Bauza and Arturo Sandoval. Jazz music expressed in a Latin interpretation was termed Bossa Nova with origins in Samba music which is a mixture of Jazz, classical and pop music from the 20th century. Bossa is a moderate sounds of music with Classical harmonic structure from Europe, Samba polyrhythm’s from Brazil and cool music. The tempo of such a work is about 120 beats per minute. The instruments used in this particular sound is nylon stringed guitar, piano, high hat tap of eighths, tapping on the rim of the drum like Sade’s “Sweetest Taboo”,and a vocalist. The sound produced is a new relaxing sound where the acoustic sound of guitar can lull one to sleep with it’s easy melodic line. Joao Gilberto and Antonio Carlos Jobim became popular in the sixties with this style of music. The influence of Jazz music returned to the place of its origins in the religious music known as Urban Cotemporary Gospel from the spirituals music. Much of spiritual music sung by southern slaves in the past has a haunting dark and mournful sound during the 1800 and 1900’s. The churches know as the sanctified or holy churches took more happier approach by encouraging member to sing speak their personal testimonies as they celebrated with song and dance. The sanctified artist Arizona Dranes who was a travelling pastor made recordings that would fit in many musical categories such as blues, and boogie-woogie with the use of Jazz instruments. At the time the Jazz instruments used with religious themed music were percussion and brass instruments.

Minggu Ke-6 READING FOR INFERENCE AND ADDITIONAL READING SKILLS 14

A. Inference Questions Inference questions are perhaps the most difficult question to answer the Reading Comprehension section. The answers to these questions are not directly stated in the passage but are understood, or implied. The following are examples of inference questions :  Which of the following can be inferred about ...?  Which of the following can be inferred from passage ?  From the passage it can be inferred that ...  The author implies that ...  The passage suggest that ...  It is most probable that ... To answer inference question, decide what logical conclusion follows from the facts stated in the passage. These ideas may be what author believes to be true but has not stated in the passage. Example : Lie detectors are properly called emotion detector, for their aim is to measure bodily changes that contradict what a person says. What can be inferred from the sentence ?  Lie detectors record a person's emotions.  Emotions can contradict what person says. What cannot be inferred from the sentence ?  People always say what they are felling. (Bodily changes can contradict what a person says).  Lie detectors cause changes in emotions. (no Lie detectors measure or record bodily changes). Example : Although “lie detectors” are being used by governments, police departments, and business that all want guaranteed ways of detecting the truth, the results are not always accurate. Lie detectors are properly called emotion detectors, for their aim is to measure bodily changes that contradict what a person says. The polygraph machine records changes in heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and electrical activity of the skin (galvanic skin response, or GSR). In the first part of polygraph test, you are electronically connected to the machine and asked a few neutral questions (“What is your name?” “Where do you live?”). our physical reactions serve as the standard (baseline) for evaluating what comes next. Then you are asked a few critical questions among the neutral ones (“When did you rob the bank?”). The assumption is that if you are guilty, your body will reveal the truth, even if you try to deny it. Your heart rate, respiration, and GSR will change abruptly as you respond to the incriminating questions. That is the theory; but psychologists have found that lie detectors are simply not reliable. Since most physical changes are the same across emotions, machines cannot tell whether you are feeling guilty, angry, nervous, thrilled or revved up from an exciting day. Innocent people may be tense and nervous about the whole procedure. They may be react physiologically to a certain word (“bank”) not because the robbed it, but because they recently bounced a check. In either case lie without flinching, and other learn to beat the machine by tensing muscles or thinking about an exciting experience during neutral questions. Question 1. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage ? (A) Lie detectors are very reliable 15

(B) Innocent people are never found guilty. (C )Psychologists never argue about anything (D) Most people cannot control their bodily reactions. Answer Answer (A) is incorrect because the second paragraph stats that psychologists find lie detectors to be unreliable. Answer (B) is also because the passage states that the lie detectors may record innocent people as lying in response to a question, not because they are guilty but because they are nervous. Therefore, innocent people may be found guilty. Answer (D) is also incorrect, because although psychologists may agree on the unreliability of lie detectors, we do not know whether they agree on other issues. Therefore, this cannot be inferred. Answer (D) is the best answer. Although we know that some practiced liars can control their bodily reactions, in general, we can infer that most people cannot control their bodily reactions such as breathing rate, hear rate, blood pressure, and the electrical activity of the skin. Question 2. From the passage it can be inferred that (A) Emotions are all the same (B) Psychologists would not want the detectors used to prove someone's guilt. (C )Neutral questions reveal the truth. (D) Psychologists are unreliable Answer Answer (A) cannot be inferred. The passage states that physical changes are the same across all emotions, but the does not mean that emotions are all the same. Answer (C ) also cannot be inferred since the passage states that some practiced liars can beat the machine. Answer (D) cannot be inferred since the passage states that psychologists find the detectors unreliable; there is no indication in the passage that psychologists are unreliable. The best answer is (B) since it can be inferred that psychologists would not to use lie detectors to prove someone's guilt, because they consider them to be unreliable. Strategies  Go beyond the information stated in the passage  Draw a conclusion or reason out what is implied-that is, what the author of the passage means or believes to be true but has not stated in the passage.  Remember that the answer to the question will not be stated in words in the passage.  Beware of answer choices that go beyond what can logically infer from the passage. wrong answer choices that go beyond what you can logically infer from the passage. Wrong answer choices will often be too exaggerated or overstated to be precisely correct.

B. Additional Reading Skill Questions  Questions on Context There are different types of context questions depending on the particular field of the reading passage. a. The questions may regard the kind of publication in which the passage may be found. Examples :  The passage would most likely be found in a textbook on which of following subjects ?  The passage would most likely be found in ... . b. The questions may regard the audience for the passage. Examples : 16

 

The passage was probably written by a specialist in ... The passage was written most likely by an expert in ...

c. The question may regard the audience for the passage. Examples :  For whom has the author probably written the passage ?  The audience the author had in mind when writing this passage was most likely a group of ...  The information in this passage would most likely be of interest to ... d. The question may be about the class for which the passage would be assigned. Examples :  For what course would the passage probably be assigned ? 

Questions on Tone and Attitude a. These question ask you about the author's feeling when he or she wrote the passage. Examples :  The tone of the passage could best be described as ...  What tone does the author take in writing this passage ? b. In this passage, the author may take a strong position for or against something. The following are examples of strong positive and negative tones. Examples :  The work, a true masterpiece, was written in a day. (positive)  In her brilliant career as architect, she was renowned not only for the quality of her work but also for the amount of work she produced. (positive)  This system is extravagant of land use and not suitable for many areas if the world. (negative)  These experiments are not only shocking but also a waste of time and money. (negative) c. Attitude question are similar to questions on tone. You must determine the author's opinion or position the subject. Examples :  The author's attitude toward ... could best be described as ...  What is the author's attitude toward ...?  The author's opinion of ... could best be described as one of ...  How would the author probably feel about ...?  How would the writer probably feel about ...? Here are some examples of tone or attitude answers : POSITIVE NEGATIVE NEUTRAL humorous disbelieving scientific supportive depressing objective favorable unfavorable impersonal d. In other attitude questions, you may be asked what you think the author's opinion of four statements would be. Examples :  The author of the passage would most likely agree with which of the following ?  Which of the following recommendations would the author most likely support ?

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Questions on Main Purpose Questions on main purpose ask why the author wrote the passage. These questions appear in place of main idea questions and are the first questions after the passage. 17

Examples :  What is the author's main purpose in the passage ?  The author's purpose in writing is to ...  Why did the author write the passage ? The answers to these questions begin with infinitives such as : to discuss to tell how to mention to distinguish to persuade to illustrate to summarize to advise to compare to criticize to describe to explain 

Question on Drawing Conclusions Question on drawing conclusions are similar to inference questions. These questions ask you to infer from the facts or ideas presented in the passage. Examples :  It can be concluded from the passage that ...  The passage supports which of the following conclusions ?  Which of the following conclusions about ... is supported by the passage ?  Which of the following conclusions about ... can be drawn from the passage?

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Questions on Organization Organization questions ask you about the general organization of the passage or of a particular paragraph. Examples :  Which of the following describes the organization of the passage ?  Which of the following statements best describes the organization of the first paragraph ? Here are some examples of the answer to such questions :  Persuasive language is used against ...  A general concept is defined, and examples are given.  The author describes ...  Several generalizations are presented, from which various conclusions are drawn.  The views of two researchers are described and contrasted.  A specific case is given to describe a general principle.

Sample Reading Passage Although “lie detectors” are being used by governments, police departments, and business that all want guaranteed way of detecting the truth, the results are not always accurate. Lie detector are properly called emotion detectors, for their aim is to measure bodily changes that contradict what a person says. Th e polygraph machine records changes in heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and the electrical activity of the skin (galvanic skin response, or GSR). In the first part of the polygraph test, you are electronically connected to the machine and asked a few neutral questions (“what is your name?” “ Where do you live?”). Your physical reactions serve as the standards (baseline) for evaluating what comes next. Then you are asked a few critical questions among the neutral ones (“when did you rob the bank?”). The assumption is that if you are guilty, your body will reveal the truth, even if you try to deny it. Your heart rate, respiration, and GSR will change abruptly as you respond to the incriminating questions. That is the theory; but the psychologists have found that lie detectors are simply not reliable.. Since most physical changes are the same across emotions, machines cannot tell whether you are feeling guilty, angry, nervous about the whole procedure. They may be react physiologically to a certain word (“bank”)not because the robbed it, but because they 18

recently bounced a check. In either case the machine will record a “lie”. The reverse mistake is also common. Some practiced liars can lie without flinching, and other learn to beat the machine by tensing muscles or thinking about an exciting experience during neutral questions. Question 1. It can be concluded from the passage that a polygraph test (A) is the best way to determine a person's guilt (B) can read a person's thoughts (C )is the only evidence needed in a court of law (D) works in principle but not in practice Answer Answer (A) is not correct because the polygraph is not reliable according to psychologists; therefore, it cannot be the best way to determine a person’s guilt. Answer (B) is also incorrect because the polygraph only record physical reactions. Answer (C ) is not correct since the passage doe not imply that this world be the only evidence needed in a court of law. The best answer is (D) since this is another way of saying that the theory of the polygraph is good but, because it is not reliable, in practice it does not work. Question 2. This passage was probably written by a specialist in (A) sociology (B) anthropology (C )mind reading (D)criminal psychology Answer Answer (A) is not correct because a sociologist studies human behavior in groups and does not study the human mind and its related bodily reactions. Answer (B) is also incorrect because an anthropologist studies different human races and their habits and beliefs. Answer (C ) is incorrect because a specialist in ind reading will use parapsychology and will not believe in what psychologists have to say. The best answer is (D) since the polygraph supports the opinion of psychologists on the subject of being found guilty or innocent of committing a crime. Question 3. The author would most probably agree with which of the following statements ? (A) Polygraphs have no place in our society (B) Physical reactions are not connected to thoughts. (C )Machines are no match for psychologists. (D) Polygraph tests should not be used as the sole evidence of guilt Answer Answer (A) is not correct; although the author does not think that polygraphs are reliable, this statement would be overwhelmingly disapproving and an exaggeration of the author's feeling. Answer (B) is also not correct since the author dose not deny this statement, but only indicates how physical reactions may not be reliably determined by the polygraph. Answer (C ) is also incorrect. Machines could be any machines, including computers. This is an exaggerated statement. The best answer is (D) since this statement supports the author's opinion that polygraph tests are unreliable, but it does not exaggerate by ruling out other evidence of guilt.

Question 4. Which of following statements best describes the organization of the last paragraph ? 19

(A) Several generalizations are made from which several conclusions are drawn. (B) A general concept is defined and examples are given. (C) Suggestion for the use of lie detectors are given. (D) Persuasive language is used to argue against a popular idea. Answer Answer (A) is not correct since no generalizations are made. Anwer (B) is not correct because no concept is given or defined. Answer (C ) is also not correct since suggestions for the use of lie detectors are not given. Answer (D) is the best answer since persuasive language is used to argue against the popular ide of suing lie detectors. Question 5. Why did the author write the passage ? (A) To illustrate how a lie detector works (B) To explain how innocent people are found guilty (C )To criticize the use of the lie detector (D) To propose ways of using a lie detector Answer Answer (A) is not correct. The author illustrates how a lie detector works only in the first paragraph, but only i order to make the main point later. Answer (B) is not correct. Although the second paragraph mention that innocent people might be mistakenly found guilty, the passage is about lie detectors. Answer (D) is also not correct. No mention is made of ways of using a lie detectors. Answer (C ) is the best answer since the author first describes how a lie detector works and then describes how it is unreliable, and in this way criticizes its use. Strategies 

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Questions on drawing a conclusion are similar to inference questions. To answer these questions, remember to draw a conclusion from the information given in the passage. Purpose questions are combination of inference questions and main idea questions asking you why the author wrote the passage. Again, to answer these questions, draw a conclusion from the whole passage to find the author's purpose i writing it. When answering tone or attitude questions, remember that tone and attitude are implied in a passage and not stated explicitly. When answering tone questions look for words that are neutral, positive, or negative. Beware of answer choices that are strong emotional words. Some questions on attitude refer to passage in which the author takes a position for or against a point. In such cases, beware of answer choices that overstate or exaggerate the author's attitude.

Minggu ke 8 TEXT STRUCTURE AND MEANING FROM CONTEXT

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1. Getting Main Ideas from Text Structure and Context Read the following text, and while you are skimming for the main ideas, try to find out the discourse markers that show the contrast between the methods of education in the East and those in the West. Methods of Education : East Versus West A

A teacher from a western country recently visited an elementary school in an Asian country. In one class , she watched sixty young children as they learned to draw a cat. The class teacher draw a big circle on the black board, and sixty young children copied it on their papers. The teacher drew a smaller circle on top of the first and then put two triangles on top of it. The children drew in the same way. The lesson continued until there were sixty-one identical cats in the classroom. Each student's cat looked exactly like the one on the board.

B

The visiting teacher watched the lesson and was surprised. The teaching methods were very different from the way of teaching in her own country. A children's art lesson in her own country produced a room full of unique pictures, each one completely different from the others. Why ? What causes this difference in educational methods ? In a classroom in any country, the instructor teaches more than at or history or language. He or she also teaches culture (the ideas and beliefs of that society). Each educational system is a mirror that reflects the culture of the society. C

In a society such as the United States or Canada, which has many national, religious, and cultural differences, people highly value individualism-the differences among people. Teachers place a lot of importance on the qualities that make each student special. The educational systems in these countries show these values. Students do not memorize information. Instead, they work individually and find answers themselves. There is often discussion in the classroom. At an early age, students learn to form their own ideas and opinions.

D

In most Asian societies, by contrast, the people have the same language, history, and culture. Perhaps for this reason, the educational system in much of the Orient reflects society belief in group goals and purposes rather than . Children in China, Japan, and Korea often work together and help one another on assignments. In the classroom, the teaching methods are often very formal. The teacher lectures, and the students listen. There is not much discussion. Instead , the students recite rules or information that they have memorized.

E

There are advantages and disadvantages to both of these systems of education. For example. One advantage to the system in Japan is that students there learn much more math and science than American students learn by the end of high school. They also study more hours each day and more day each year than North Americans do. The system is difficult, but it prepares students for a society that values discipline and self-control. There is, however, a disadvantage. Memorization is an important learning method in Japanese 21

schools, yet many students say that after an exam, they forget of the information that they have memorized. The advantage of the educational system in North America, on the other hand, is that students learn to think for themselves. The system prepares them for a society that values creative ideas. There is, however, a disadvantage. When students graduate from high school, they haven't memorized as many basic and facts as students in other countries have.

1.1 Getting the Main Ideas Answer the questions according to the reading selection. Which statements apply to which system of education? Write W (western) or A (Asian) on the lines. Don't think look back at the reading. A 1. _____ The teacher draws pictures that the children copy exactly. 2. _____ Each child draws a different picture; the teacher helps individuals. 3. _____ The society values individualism highly. W 4. _____ Students have to find information themselves, and there is a lot of discussion. 5. _____ Most of people in the country have the same language, history, and culture. 6. _____ Students listen to the teacher and memorize information and rules. 7. _____ The system prepares students for a society that values discipline.

1.2 Guessing Meaning From Context You do not need to look up the meaning of all new words in a dictionary. You can guess the meanings of many new words from the context-the other words in the sentence and the other sentences in the paragraph.

Sometimes a sentence gives a definition of a new vocabulary item or information about it. This information may be in parentheses ( ) after a dash (-), or after a comma (,). Example : There were sixty one identical cats in the classroom, each one exactly alike the one on the board. (What does identical mean? It means “exactly alike”).

A. Find the meanings of the underlined words in the sentences. Write them on the lines. 1. A children's art lesson produced a room full of unique pictures, each one completely different from the others. Completely different 2. The instructor also teaches the culture (the ideas and beliefs of society). _________________________________________________________ 3. People highly value individualism-the differences among people. _________________________________________________________ 4. Most Asian societies value discipline, or self-control. 22

_________________________________________________________

Sometimes the meaning or a clue to the meaning of a new vocabulary item is in another sentence or sentence part.

Example : A teacher from Western country recently visited an elementary schools in an Asia country. In one class, she watched sixty young children. (What is an elementary school? It's a school for young children).

B. Write the meaning of the underlined words on the lines.

1. The teacher drew a big circle on the blackboard, and the children copied it. Then she drew a smaller circle, and the class drew it the same way ______________________________________________________ 2. The teaching methods were very different from the way teaching in her own country. ______________________________________________________ 3. Students memorize information; they learn and remember basic rules and facts. ______________________________________________________ 4. They work individually and find answers themselves. ______________________________________________________ 5. Each educational system is a mirror that reflects the values of the society. In the orient, it shows society's belief in group goals rather than individualism. ______________________________________________________ 6. People in Western culture value individualism highly. Teachers place a lot of importance on the qualities that make each personal special.

C. Read the selection at the beginning of the chapter again carefully. Try to guess the meanings of new words from the context. Use your dictionary only when absolutely necessary. Check your answers in the “Getting Main Ideas” section, which follows the reading selection. Correct your errors.

Minggu Ke- 9 EXAMPLE OF TOEFL READING COMPREHENSION TEST Section 3 : Reading Comprehension 23

50 QUESTIONS 55 MINUTES Directions : in this section you will read several passages. Each one is followed by a number of questions about it. For questions 1-50, you are to choose the one best answer, (A), (B), (C ), or D, to each question. Then, on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and fill in the space that corresponds to the letter of the answer you have chosen. Answer all questions about the information in a passage on the basis of what is stated or implied in that passage.

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Question 1-10 Throughout history, the search for salt has played an important role in society. Where there was no salt near, it was brought from great distances. Thus, salt became one of the most important articles of early trade. Records show that in areas of scarcity, salt was traded ounce for ounce for gold. Romeo's major highway was called Via Salaria that is, the Salt Road. Along that road, Roman soldiers transported salt crystals from the salt flats at Ostia up the Tiber River. In return, they received a salarium or salary, which was literally money paid to soldiers to buy salt. The old saying “worth their salt”, which means to be valuable, derives from the custom of payment during the Empire. The caravan trade of the Sahara was also primarily an exchange of goods for salt. Among ancient peoples there, to eat salt with another person was an act of friendship. Slaves were often purchased with salt. Salt was so important in the Middle Age that governments retained salt trade as a monopoly, or levied taxes on its purchase. By then, people's social rank was demonstrated by where they sat at the table above or below the salt. Even today, in some remote regions of the world, salt is a luxury item. In fact, in a few isolated areas of Southeas Asia and Africa, cakes made of salt are still used for money. 1. What does the passage mainly discuss ? (A) The old saying “worth their salt” (B) The Roman Empire (C )Salt (D) Ancient trade 2. The word “scarcity” in line 4 could best be replaced by (A) influence (B) deprivation (C )demand (D) progress 3. What was the rate of exchange for salt and gold in areas where salt was a scarce commodity ? (A) One to one (B) One to two (C )One to ten (D) One to sixteen 4. According to the passage, where were salt flats located ? (A) Rome (B) Tiber (C )Ostia (D) Salaria 5. What does the Latin word salarium mean ? (A) Salt (B) Salary (C )Soldiers 24

(D) The Salt road 6. If a man is “worth his salt”, he is (A) a soldier (B) a thirsty person (C )a valuable employee (D) a highly paid worker 7. The word “retained” in line 12 could best be replaced by which of the following ? (A) reserved (B) transferred (C ) denied (D) designated 8. Who enjoyed a monopoly on the sale of salt ? (A) Soldiers of the Roman Empire (B) Traders in Sahara (C )Governments in the Middle Ages (D) People of high social rank 9. The word “then” in line 13 refers to (A) ancient times (B) the Roman Empire (C ) the Middle Ages (D) early modern times 10. The word “remote” in line 15 is closest in meaning to (A) distant (B) prosperous (C )traditional (D) irresistible

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Question 11-20 Smallpox was the first widespread disease to be eliminated by human intervention. In May 1966, the world Health Organization (WHO) , an agency of the United Nations, was authorized to initiate a global campaign to eradicate smallpox. The goal was to eliminate the disease in one decade. At the time, the disease posed a serious threat to people in more than thirty nations. Because similar projects for malaria and yellow fever after the initial organization of the campaign, no cases were reported in the field. The strategy was not only to provide mass vaccination but also to isolate patients with active smallpox in order to contain the spread of the disease and to break the chain of human transmission. Rewards for reporting smallpox assisted in motivating the public to aid health workers. One by one, each smallpox victim was sought out, removed from contact with other and treated. At the same time, the entire village where the victim had lived was vaccinated. By April 1978, WHO officials announced that they had isolated the last known case of the disease, but health workers continued to search for new cases for two additional years to be completely sure. In May 1980, a formal statement was made to the global community. Today smallpox is no longer a threat to humanity. Routine vaccinations have been stopped worldwide. 11. Which of the following is the best title for the passage ? (A) The World Health Organization (B) The Eradication of Smallpox (C )Smallpox Vaccinations (D) Infectious Diseases 25

12. The word “threat” in line 5 could best be replaced by (A) debate (B) humiliation (C) risk (D) bother 13. What was the goal of the campaign against smallpox ? (A) To decrease the spread of smallpox worldwide (B) To eliminate smallpox worldwide in ten years. (C )To provide mass vaccinations against smallpox worldwide (D) To initiate worldwide projects for smallpox, malaria, and yellow fever at the same time. 14. According to the passage, what was the strategy used to eliminate the spread of smallpox ? (A) Vaccinations of entire villages (B) Treatment of individual victims (C ) isolation of victims and mass vaccinations (D) Extensive reporting of outbreaks 15. The word “isolated” in line 15 is closest in meaning to (A) restored (B) separated (C )attended (D) located 16. How was the public motivated to help the health workers ? (A) By educating them (B) By rewarding them for reporting cases (C ) By isolating them from others (D) By giving them vaccinations 17. The word “they” in line 15 refers to (A) health workers (B) officials (C ) victims (D) cases 18. Which statement does NOT refer to smallpox ? (A) Previous project had failed (B) People are no longer vaccinated for it (C )The World Health Organization mounted a worldwide campaign to eradicate the disease (D) It was a serious threat. 19. It can be inferred that (A) no new cases of smallpox have been reported this year (B) malaria and yellow fever have been eliminated (C )smallpox victims no longer die when they contract the disease (D) smallpox is not transmitted from one person to another 20. When was the formal announcement made that smallpox had been eradicated ? (A) 1966 (B) 1976 (C ) 1978 (D) 1980 26

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Question 21-30 The nuclear family, consisting of a mother, father, and their children, may be more an American ideal than American reality. Of course, the so-called traditional American family was always more varied than we had been led to believe, reflecting the very different racial, ethnic, class, and religious customs among different American groups, but today diversity is even more obvious. The most recent government statistic reveal that only about one third of all current American families fit the traditional mold of two parents and their children, and another third consists of married couples who either have no children or have none still living at home. Of the final one third, about 20 percent of the total number of American household are single people, usually women over sixty-five years of age. A small percentage, about 3 percent of the otal, consists of unmarried people who choose to live together, and the rest, about 7 percent, are single parents, with at least one child. There are several reasons for the growing number of single-parent households. First, the number of births to unmarried women has increased dramatically. In addition, a substantial number of adults become single parents as a result of divorce. Finally, a small percentage of death result in single parents families. Today, these varied family types are typical, and therefore normal. Addition, close friends have become a more important part of family life than ever before. The vast majority of Americans claims that they regard of family although they are not related. A view of family that only accepts the traditional nuclear arrangement not only ignores the reality of modern American family life, but also undervalues the familial bonds created in alternative family arrangements. Apparently, many Americans are achieving supportive relationships in family forms other than the traditional one. 21. With what topic is the passage mainly concerned ? (A) The traditional American family (B) The nuclear American family (C )The current American family (D)The ideal family 22. The author implies that (A) there have always been a wide variety of family arrangements in United States (B) racial, ethnic, and religious groups have preserved the traditional family structure (C )the ideal American family is the best structure (D) fewer married couples are having children 23. The word “current” in line 7 could best be replaced by which of the following (A) typical (B) present (C )perfect (D) traditional 24. According to the passage, married couples whose children have grown or who have no children represent (A) 33 13 percent of households (B) 20 percent of households (C )7 percent of households (D) 3 percent of households 25. The word “none” in line 9 refers to (A) parents (B) children (C )couples 27

(D) families 26. How many single people were identified in they survey ? (A) One third of the total surveyed (B) One fourth of the total surveyed (C )One fifth of the total surveyed (D) Less than one tenth of the total surveyed 27. Who generally constitutes a one-person household ? (A) A single man in his twenties (B) A elderly man (C )A single woman in her late sixties (D) A divorced woman 28. The phrase “the rest” in line 12 could best be replaced by (A) those easily forgotten (B) those remaining (C )a small number (D) a significant group 29. Where in the passage does the author refer to the value of close friends ? (A) Lines 6-8 (B) Lines 10-12 (C )Lines 15-17 (D) Lines 19-24 30. The word “undervalues” in line 23 is closest in meaning to (A) does not appreciate (B) does not know about (C )does not include (D) does not understand

Question 31-40

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Noise, commonly defined as unwanted sound, is another environmental pollutant. Particularly in congested urban areas, the noise produced a by product of our advancing technology causes physical and psychological harm, and detracts from the quality of life for those who are exposed to it. Unlike the eye, the ear had no lid; therefore noise penetrates without protection. Loud noises instinctively signal danger to any organism with a hearing mechanism, including human beings. In response, heartbeat and respiration accelerate, blood vessels constrict, the skin pales, and muscle tense. In fact, there is a general increase in functioning brought about by the flow of adrenaline release in in response to fear, and some of these responses persist even longer than the noise, occasionally as long as thirty minutes after the sound has ceased. Because noise is unavoidable in a complex, industrial society, we are constantly responding in the same ways that we would respond to danger. Recently, researches have concluded that noise and our response may be much more than an annoyance. It may be serious threat to physical and psychological health and well being, causing damage not only to the ear and brain but also to the heart and stomach. We have long know that hearing loss is America's number one nonfatal heart problem, but now we are learning that some of us with heart disease and ulcers may be victims of noise as well. In addition, the psychic effect of noise is very important. Nervousness, irritability, tension, and anxiety increase, affecting the quality of rest during sleep, and the efficiency of activities during waking hours. 28

31. What is the author's main point ? (A) Noise may pose a serious threat to our physical and psychological health (B) Loud noises signal danger (C )Hearing loss is America's number one nonfatal health problem (D) The ear is not like the eye 32. What is the author's definition of noise ? (A) Unwanted sound (B) A byproduct of technology (C )Physical and psychological harm (D) Congestion 33. What was probably the topic of the paragraph that preceded this passage ? (A) Environmental pollutants (B) Urban areas (C )Technology (D) Disease 34. The word “congested” in line 2 could best be replaced by (A) hazardous (B) polluted (C )crowded (D) rushed 35. It can be inferred this passage that the eye (A) respond to fear (B) enjoys greater protection than the ear. (C )increases functions (D) is damaged by noise 36. According to the passage, people respond toloud noises in the same way that they respond to (A) annoyance (B) danger (C )damage (D) disease 37. The word “accelerate” in line 8 is closest in meaning to (A) decline (B) interrupt (C ) increase (D )cease 38. The word “it” in line 4 refers to (A) noise (B) harm (C )life (D) technology

39. According to the author, which of the following is true ? (A) Noise not a serious problem (B) Noise is America's number one problem (C )Noise is unavoidable problem in an industrial society. (D) Noise is a complex problem 29

40. The phrase “as well” in line 19 is closest in meaning to which of the following (A) after all (B) also (C ) instead (D) regardless

Question 41-50 Very few in modern world obtain their food supply by hunting and gathering in the natural environment surrounding their homes. This method of harvesting from nature's provision is the oldest known subsistence strategy, and has been practiced for at least the last 2 million years. It was, indeed, the only way to obtain food until rudimentary farming and the domestication of animals was introduced about 10,000 years ago. Because hunter-gatherers have fared poorly in comparison with their agricultural cousins, their numbers have dwindled, and they have been forced to live in marginal environment such as deserts, forests, or artic wastelands. In higher latitudes, the shorter growing season has restricted the availability of plant life. Such conditions have caused a greater dependence o hunting and, along the coasts and waterways, on fishing. The abundance of vegetation in the lower latitudes of the tropics, on the other hands, has provided a greater opportunity for gathering a variety of plants. In short, the environmental differences have restricted the diet and have limited possibilities for the development of subsistence societies. Contemporary hunter-gatherers may help us understand our prehistoric ancestors. we know observation of modern hunter-gatherers in both Africa and Alaska that a society based on hunting and gathering must be very mobile. While the entire community camps in a central location, a smaller party harvests the food within a reasonable distance from the camp. When the food in the area is exhausted, the community moves on to exploit another site. We also notice a seasonal migration pattern evolving for most hunter-gatherers, along with a strict division of labor between the sexes. This pattern of behavior may be similar to those practiced by mankind during the Paleolithic Period. 41. Whit which of the following topics is the passage primarily concerned ? (A) The Paleolithic period (B) Subsistence farming (C )Hunter-gatherers (D) Marginal environments 42. Which is the oldest subsistence strategy ? (A) Migrating (B) Domesticating animals (C )Farming (D) Hunting and gathering 43. The word “rudimentary” in line 5 could best be replaced by (A) crude (B) inconsistent (C )neglectful (D) careless 44. When was hunting and gathering introduced ? (A) Ten million years ago (B) Two million years ago (C )Ten thousand years ago 30

(D) Two thousand years ago 45. The word “dwindled” in line 8 is closest in meaning to ? (A) disagreed (B) decreased (C )disappeared (D) died 46. The phrase “such conditions” in lines 10-11 refers to ? (A) greater dependence (B) higher altitudes (C )plant life (D) shorter growing season

47. What conditions exist in lower latitudes ? (A) Greater dependence on hunting (B) More coasts and waterways for fishing (C )A shorter growing season (D) A large variety of plant life 48. How can we learn more about the hunter-gatherers pf prehistoric times ? (A) By standing the remains of their camp sites (B) By studying similar contemporary societies (C )By studying the prehistoric environment (D) By practicing hunting and gathering 49. The word “exploit” in line 21 is closest in meaning to ? (A) use (B) find (C )take (D) prepare 50. What are some characteristics of hunter-gatherers ? (A) They are mobile, tending to migrate seasonally (B) They share the same responsibilities equally between the sexes. (C ) They camp in a central location when they are tired (D) They have many social celebrations.

Minggu Ke-10

English For Specific Purposes

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General Objective : Students will be able to comprehend a text on ancient culture and to improve their mastery of passive voice. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES Students will be able to : 1. comprehend the text relating to Ancient Culture 2. find the correct form of the word o different parts of speech 3. complete sentences by using appropriate words. 4. Identify the form and meaning of passive sentences in the passage 5. change active sentence into passive ones 6. arrange words and phrases into good sentences 7. combine sentences by using the relative pronoun “which”. A. Reading Passage BEDAYA AND SRIMPI

Bedaya and Srimpi, the Javanese dances, which are usually performed by girls, are feudal in spirit. Both had existed before Surakarta and Yogyakarta styles came into existence. They probably dated back to the 16th century. In official ceremonies the bedaya dances usually carry the articles of the royal ceremony. These two dances have been preserved both in the courts of Surakarta including Mangkunegaran, and Yogyakarta including Pakualaman and have become the pride of both courts. It is noteworthy, however, that there is an essential difference in style between the two dances. The bedaya is a women's dances without a dialogue performed by nine female dances. The background of the non-dialogue dance is a legendary event performed with such symbolic movements that the laymen can not easily understand. Examples of famous bedayas are the Bedaya Ketawang, Bedaya Semang, Bedaya Bedah Mediun, and Bedaya Arjunawiwaha. The Bedaya Ketawang was created by Sultan Agung, king of Mataram in the first of the 17th century. The Bedaya Ketawang describes the myth of the meeting beween Sultan Agung and Ratu Rara Kidul or the Queen of the South Sea. According to a Javanese legend, Sultan Agung, the greatest king of Mataram, united himself in a holy union with the mythical Ratu Rara Kidul, the ruler of the South Sea. This meetinig resulted in a close family bond between all the succeeding kings of Mataram and Ratu Rara Kidul. On special ocasions, such as in wars, the king of Mataram might ask for the help of the invisible army of Ratu Rara Kidul. After Mataram kingdom was divided into Surakarta and Yogyakarta, King Hamengku Buwana II created another bedaya dance resembling the Bedaya Ketawang called Bedaya Semang at the end of the 18th century. Since then, however the Yogyakarta court has no longer performed the Bedaya Ketawang. In addition to these bedayas, there is another bedaya dance called Bedaya Bedah Mediun, which depicts the suppression of the rebellion launched by the regent of Madiun against the king of Mataram. Still another bedaya dance is Bedaya Arjunawiwaha picturing the marriage between Arjuna and the nymph Supraba. Another womens' dance of the court is the srimpi dance performed by four girls. This dance describes a battle between two important female warriors, as the protagonists and two others being the antagonists. There is no dialogue in this srimpi dance and the story is drawn from the Islamic period. There is a srimpi dance which depicts a battle between two princesses in the Menak story, i.e Princess Sirtufilaeli and Princess Sudarawerti. There is also another srimpi dance which is performed not by four but by five girls, and describes not a fight, but a love scene. Another Srimpi dance called Renggawati dance describes the way 32

in which Princess Renggawati catches a Meliwis Putih bird, the personification of her lover, King Anglingdarma. The srimpi dances are named after the gending or melody accompanying them. For instance, Srimpi Pandelori is a dance which is accompanied by gending Pandelori. Like in the bedaya dance, the movements in the srimpi dance are so symbolic and refined that it is difficult for the common people to understand. The number of srimpi dancers symbolizes are four points of compass-north, south, east, and west. At present, neither the bedaya nor the srimpi dance is popular among the public. But, they are still maintained especially by Surakarta and Yogyakarta choreographers. (adapted from “Dances in Indonesia”, by Soedarsono, 1968:42-44). Notes : court : keraton to depict : menggambarkan to preserve : melestarikan choreographers : pencipta tari

B. Comprehension Questions Exercise 1. Answer the following questions. 1. How many female dancers are there in the bedaya dance ? 2. Who created the Bedaya Ketawang ? 3. What does the Bedaya Ketwang describe ? 4. When was the Bdaya Semang created ? 5. In what ways are bedaya and srimpi different ? 6. What is the similarity between bedaya and srimpi ?

Exercise 2. Circle T if the following statement is true, and F if it is false. T/F 1. Bedaya and Srimpi dances existed after Surakarta and Yogyakarta styles had come into existence. T/F 2. The Bedaya Ketawang dance was created in the 17th century. T/F 3. The Bedaya and srimpi dances were preserved both in the courts of Surakarta and Yogyakarta. T/F 4. The srimpi dance is named after the number of dancers. T/F 5. The Yogyakarta court has performed the Bedaya Semang since the 18th century.

C. Word Study Exercise 1. Fill in the existing corresponding words in the following box. Number one is done for you.

33

NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

VERB

NOUN

Differ describe ................ move ................ create decide ...............

ADJECTIVE

Difference .................. .................. .................. .................. .................. .................. ..................

Different .................. symbolic .................. personal .................. .................. present

ADVERB Differently .................. .................. .................. .................. .................. .................. ..................

Exercise 2. Find the words in the following list, which are synonymous to the italicized words in the sentences below. Types

choreographed

describes

taken

fight

carried out

1. King Hamengku Buwana II created the Bedaya Semarang. 2. Bedaya and srimpi are two Javanese dances performed by girls. 3. He Bedaya Arjunawiwaha depicts the marriage between Arjuna and the nymph Suprabha. 4. The story is drawn from the Islamic period. 5. This dance describes a battle between two important female warriors.

Exercise 3. Circle the word that does not belong to the category. The first has been done for you 1. Javanese English

Dutch

Indonesia

New Zealand

2. dancer

singer

pointer

manager

musician

3. anger

jealousy

table

love

hatred

4. cello

pianist

guitar

violin

drum

5. drama

poetry

novel

catalogue

short-story

6. truck

lorry

cab

cap

van

Pertemuan 11 :

Understanding Scientific articles

34

General Objective : Students will be able to comprehend a text of scientific article and to improve their mastery of structure of complex sentences Specific objective : 1. comprehend the text relating to stress analysis of English song lyrics 2. find out subject, predicator of sentences 3. identify complex sentences : main clause, and sub clause 4. identify noun phrases and translate 5. translate complex sentences on the passage and parts of the passage 6. understand procedure of the scientific article, part of scientific articles 7. draw reference, text structure of the passage

Title :

MUSIC AND LANGUAGE: A STRESS ANALYSIS ON ENGLISH SONG LYRICS by Suharto, a Lecturer of Music Department, UNNES

Introduction Musical works fall into two categories based on their performance, namely instrumental music and music accompanied by lyrics or sometimes called a song. A musical work is called a song if only the existing sequence of melody is completed with song texts (lyrics). It is in the form of a musical notation which is completed with song texts. The song texts are arranged into a song. An instrumental music, on the other hand, is a song without song texts. The song text is an extremely important part of song. A good song text should be harmonious with the melody of the song that will bring the listener to delightful and pleasant mood. On the contrary, song texts which is not exquisite, and do not go well with the melody flow nor with the song theme, will produce an unappealing song to hear, and sometime potential to make the listener get bored, irritated, or even angry. Many of this kind of song we see and hear in the radio or TV. Musical works which is a language expression of the writer, actually have symbols. The symbols are music notations which have principle like a language. In music, motif is known as melodic or rhythmical idea which can be developed to a good composition. The song motif is usually appear in parts of song. The parts may be in the beginning, middle, or in the end of the song. Motif is sometimes called theme of the song which can be used as a base of the composition. Making a good motif will make the development of the melody in the composition process become a good one. Thus, like a language, the musical works are the compositions which have meaning. A complete song is a combination of some elements namely melody, harmony, and song text or lyric. The sequence of melody is actually a language, music language. Because the song text consist of words, phrases, or even sentences that have meaning. Both language, music language and lyric language are one united meaning. That is why in every composition process the writer should consider the two elements (music and language). The two elements must be suitable in rhythm, melody, and harmony. If one element moves without other one, then it can not be harmonious. Usually, the text in a song is a beautiful language or literary language. However, the beauty of the language can be meaningless if the melody is not suitable among theme, melody, rhythm, and harmony. We can be sure that in music the first beat of the measure must be strong accent or stressed. We can also see the character of the song by seeing and feeling the measure type. 35

Every type has different character. Based on the two character between language, especially English and music song, some problems are appear. Do the patterns of language especially in song texts (lyrics) follow the beat patterns of music and vice versa? Can the stress patterns (the measure type) influence the song texts? To what extent is the English stress pattern applied in English song lyrics viewed from the stress pattern of musical rhythm and soon.. The questions stimulate me to research it. The objectives of the study is to know the tendency of English stress pattern applied in English song lyrics viewed from the stress pattern of musical rhythm. Function of the Lyric in the Music Actually, a music composition is not always a sequence of melody with a lyric. The composition without a lyric on its melody is called instrumental music. On the contrary, the one with a lyrics is called song. The music composition performed by song contains an attractive aspect. The attractive aspect is a language. The language which consists of a sequence of words gives new dimension in the music which can not find in the other composition, instrumental music (Sitompul, 1997: 97) . The lyric in a song is actually non musical aspect. However, besides gives a new unique dimension, its presence in music song are not only as an embedded element but also as a part of the music. Many songs are created from texts or beautiful poems which can attract listeners or readers to always enjoy it. That is why that the those songs should express the atmosphere that conform to its lyric. Even, sometimes, the beauty of words or sentences is smoothly reflected in its rhythm. The blend of both elements, lyric and its music can make new dimension. One example song to showing the blend is “O Angin’ by Cornel Simanjuntak, which its lyric is taken from Sanusi Pane’s poem. In the song composition the writer blends the two subtle elements, between lyric and melody. A deep sense of longing is expressed by composer with subtle melody and good arrangement. A piano accompaniment which pictures the sound of smooth wind is reflected in this composition. The important sentence is expressively focused in its melody. The Basic Musical Elements in Music Song Rhythm in music, according to Kennedy and Bourne (1996) in Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music covers everything pertaining to the time aspect of music as distinct from the aspect of pitch, i.e. it include the effects of beats, accents, measures, grouping of notes into beats, grouping of beats into measures, grouping of measure into phrase, etc. It is the measured or accented movement of similar tones-groups; that is, the effect produced by the regulated and systematic grouping of tones both in their accentuation and in their succession as equal or unequal in time value. A rhythm is, therefore a tone-group serving as a pattern for succeeding identical groups. Rhythm is an important element in melody, whether it be the prose rhythm of primitive music, plainsong, and compositions of some modern composers, or the metrical rhythm of most other music. Indeed this element is so much a governing factors in the effect of a melody that if, while the notes of popular melody are left intact, the rhythm is drastically altered, it becomes difficult to recognize the melody. As defined above harmony is the simultaneous sounding (i.e. combination) of notes, giving what is known as vertical music, contrasted with horizontal music. The combination heard vertical in this notion is called as a vertical music by Kennedy and Bourne (1996). Lyric is simply a words of a song. The lyric roles not only as complement of the song but also as an important part of the musical element which determents the theme, character, and mission of the song. It can also make sense be stable. To know the sense of the song we can feel the rhythm and melody, harmony and voices of the singer by singing the song. Lyric, actually, denotes non musical element of a music song. However, it makes the song a new unique dimension and enriches its music performance (Sitompul, 1986: 96). It is a part of the song which has important role to express composer’s feeling. The next element of the song is form. Form is a structure and design of composition. Musicians are committed to explore sounds of varying pitch, duration, loudness and timbre 36

that will relate to the listener. The composer, in simplest terms, has four compositional techniques he can utilize in the creation of his music he may state a musical unit, and then repeat it, vary it, or introduce a new one; that is, he may follow an idea with one that is the same, varied, or entirely different (Crist and Delone, 1975: 7). To get the form of expression above the composers create many forms of music composition. Actually, the form always develop following the time, style of the composer or even tend of the century. In the 16th and 17th centuries instrument compositions were usually very brief whereas in the 19th century they were frequently long, e.g. a sonata or symphony movement of the later Beethoven, Bruckner, and Mahler. This implies an enormous growth in the understanding of the principles of form and in mastery of the application of those principles (www.jp. classicalarchives.com./dict/form.html The last element is texture. Texture, in music, describes two areas of musical phenomena, (1) melodic and harmonic relationships, and (2) the density of the simultaneous layering of different musical components. The simplest and most traditional use of the term texture in music deals with describing the construction of music. The typical constructions are: (1) a single melodic line (monophony or monophonic texture), (2) two or more melodic lines of equal complexity, and sounding simultaneously (polyphony or polyphonic texture), and (3) a single melodic line with an accompaniment of harmony (homophony or homophonic texture). Thus, texture in music is the way in which a piece of music is constructed with regard to the way in which its part or lines are combine which produces quality of certain sound of music. Stress and Accent in English language The term stress has been used in different and confusing ways. Many linguist uses the word stress the same as accent. Sometimes, it has been used simply to refer to syllables (or vowels0 made prominent for linguistic purposes either in words or in sentences. But, stress has also often been used to mean ‘breath-force or loudness’ the implication being that this is the principal means whereby syllables are made prominent. This second type of usage is misguided since, as indicated in the last paragraph, loudness generally plays a minor role in producing prominence (Cruttenden: (1986:16). Further, he states that commonly implies that such prominence is principally associated with pitch. However, he discriminate the term that stress is being used in the more general, less specified, way. He, in particular, uses of the word stress in three areas. Firstly, the term word- stress is used to refer to those syllables which would be marked as stressed if stress were marked in a lexicon or dictionary and which therefore have a potential for accent in utterances. Secondly, studies within the tradition of generative phonology have preferred the term stress even for sentences. Thirdly, it has been suggested that the rhythm of certain language (the so called ‘stress-timed’ ones) is depend upon the regular occurrence of stressed syllable in connected speech. That is true that the stress word may has high pitch means that the word has also high frequency. According to Gilbert (wy : 12) in English stress system has three ways to signal stress. All three signals are used at the same time, in order to make absolutely clear which syllables are stressed. The three signals of stress are: (1) pitch change, (2) length of vowel, and (3) vowel clarity. Unstressed syllables usually have unclear vowels. The word ‘semester’ is written with three letter ‘e’ vowels. But only one ‘e’ is said with a full, clear sound. The other two letter ‘e’ are said with a reduced, unclear sound. This means that all stressed vowels are clear. Besides, it can be concluded that the clear vowels are always full or long, can be stressed, but, on the contrary the unclear vowels are always reduced or short and cannot be stressed. Stress and Accent in Music or Song According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995: 1180) stress is an extra force used when making a particular sound in music. The term extra force in music or song actually is occurred in the first beat of a measure or bar. A beat is a unit of musical time. A beat may be represented on staff by any note value. The first beat or pulse in each bar always has extra force or emphasis or strong accent. Some times it is called accent. Christ 37

and DeLone ( 1974: 54) point out that emphasis on particular note or beat louder than others through the use of dynamic accent. Method of Study Type and Strategy of the Study This type of this study is quantitative which uses percentage as its analysis. That is why this study is called percentage descriptive. Quantitative analysis is used to analyse data that can be observed and measured directly by counting (Hadi, 1983:60). In this study quantitative analysis will be used for calculating the frequency of the stress. Besides to know the tendency of stress whether it follow to music (melody of the song) or follow the lyrics, it also to know the percentage degree of the tendency of the stress. Type of this study is quantitative research which uses quantitative data, therefore the technique of data gathering is content analysis. The use of the content analysis because the sources of data are documents. The documents used in this research are the English songs. To identify the tendency of the stress and types of words which mostly get the stress based on metrical units system of music, lyrics of English song and metrical unit system of musical as units of analysis. To be able to identify the tendency of the stress, and classify the words of English song lyrics which mostly get the stress, steps which are taken are 1) making matrixes, 2) writing notation, 3) identification the stresses, 4) calculating, and 5) classification.

Finding and Discussion (Accuracy of all English Stress Pattern toward Stress Pattern of Musical Rhythm in Song “Morning Has Broken” and “In the Morning”) Based on descriptive data, show that most of syllables in lyrics of the two songs are matched. In Song 1 (Morning Has Broken), there are 78.15 % syllables, both stressed and unstressed syllables are suitable with the stress pattern of the musical rhythm. Even, in Song 2 (In the Morning) almost syllables (97.31 %) are suitable. It can be said that the songs have good lyrics. In measure 3, the syllable -ken is putted on the first beat which gets strong beat or accent. We can fell that the beat is not comfortable, especially the one who can fell the stress of the word. It is also in noun phrase. According to word-stress rule, stress is always on the head of the phrase (Cruttenden, 1986:19). It is true that to apply and match the English stress pattern to stress pattern of musical rhythm is very difficult. Moreover, if the composer must match the lyric after finishing the melody. However, it can be concluded that the two songs have good lyric especially if it viewed from the accuracy of English stress pattern and stress pattern of musical rhythm although, actually in music it is subjective. There is no absolute rule in music, for instance in harmony rule. Moreover in composing the melody or lyric, creativity can change the rule. Although there is no especially the rule how to put the lyric on the song melody. The length of percentage of the two songs are very wide. In the Song 2, the composer may be more careful than the composer of the Song 1 to match the two elements, song and lyric, that is actually very related each other. Considering the accuracy of English matched syllables toward stress pattern of musical rhythm of the Song 1, it shows that most syllables put on strong beats are matched (68.18 % As explained above, the function of the lyric in a composition is not only as a complement but it has an important role because the strength of the song can be also seen through the lyric such as theme, mission, message of the song writer. Song sometimes is created to certain mission and it has a certain message. The strength of the song can be felt through its rhythm, melody, harmony, and even the lyric. They are unit of composition which cannot be separated. Even, in Song 2 the number is bigger than the Song 2, because there are 50 (90.91 %) syllables of stressed syllables (55) which are matched. It shows that the composer applies and blends seriously the two elements, lyrics and musical stress. It is difficult to say that the rhythm of song is not harmonious. The one who can fells the music, moreover understand the stress of language, will say that the song is good to listen. 38

Kinds of Word the Stresses are matched and not Matched Viewed from the Stress Pattern of Musical Rhythm in Song “Morning Has Broken” and “In The Morning” In this study I classify the words in two category namely the words belonged content words such as nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. This is why that the words located on the accented beats and the words stress are on the strong beats they are called matched syllables. On the contrary the syllables will be come unmatched if they are put on the strong beats if the syllables belong to functions words such as prepositions, pronouns, conjunction, etc. There are some kinds of word which are the stresses are matched namely nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. Meanwhile the types of “mistake” that the stresses are not matched are wrong stresses of two-words nouns, affix - tion, wrong stresses of verbs, preposition, and wrong stresses of noun phrases. Based on the data analysis in Song 1 and Song 2, the stressed syllables of nouns which are the most one get matched accent. In Song 1, there are 46 Syllables (52.27%) of nouns. Meanwhile in Song 2 the nouns which are matched are 37 syllables (67.27 %). It is important to analyze why the word class, nouns, are bigger number than the other content words. It can be conclude that most of the word class in the songs are nouns. According to the language theory (Leech, 1986: 41) noun is one of the open words (content word). It known as open word because we can readily coin new words to add to them. The more important thing that the function of the noun in a sentence. In the close or sentence the word may be a word or noun phrase. The phrase can be a subject, object, complement, and adverbial. Thus, it is true most of word class in a song are nouns because of the function of the word. Conclusion Based on the data analysis conclusion of this study are : 1. Most of the syllables of English stress pattern are matched to the stress pattern of the musical rhythm in the lyrics of song “Morning Has Broken” and “In the Morning”. Most of syllables in lyrics of the two songs are matched. In Song 1, there are 78.15 % syllables, both stressed and unstressed syllables are suitable with the stress pattern of the musical rhythm. Even, in Song 2 almost syllables (97.31 %) are suitable. It can be said that the songs have good lyrics. 2. Most of word class which the its syllables of word stresses are matched to the stress pattern of musical rhythm are nouns, 52,27 % in Song 1 and 67.27 % in Song 2. Suggestions Suggestions in this study based on the finding are : 1. It is important for composers to consider to the two important elements of the English song, lyric and beats or meter signature, to get good song. 2. It is needed other studies related to this study in order to this findings can be generalized to all of English songs for instance study about other stress songs which have various meter signatures, and different types of tempo, and types of music such as reggae, rock, slow rock, etc.

Minggu ke 12 -13 TUGAS -TUGAS TERSTRUKTUR MENGANALISIS KALIMAT DAN READING COMPREHENSION

39

1.

Mencari teks bacaan asli dari penulis native speaker yang terdapat dalam web site-web site asing maupun majalah asing. Analisis kalimat mulai dari predikat, prasa-frasa, main clause, subclaus, struktur kalimat, reference, inference, pesan teks, terjemahan alinea yang dipilih, dan kohesi. Membuat pertanyaan dan jawaban sehubungan dengan isi bacaan, inference, reference, dan kohesi.

2.

3.

CONTOH HASIL TUGAS 1: (Diambil dari salah satu tugas mahasiswa a.n. Rustarmaji Mahasiswa Unesa Surabaya) Catatan : Teks dan hasil analisisnya berikut adalah hasil karya/analisis mahasiswa yang hanya digunkan untuksontoh dan bahan diskusi dalam perkuliahan mata kuliah ini yang masih asli dan belum dikoreksi oleh dosen pengampu.

Very young children learn their culture’s social definitions of gender and gender identity at the same time that they learn what gender behaviors are appropriate for them. But they only gradually come to understand the meaning of gender in the same way as the adults of their society do. Very young children may learn the words which describe their gender and be able to apply them to themselves appropriately, but their comprehension of meaning is often different from that used by adults. Five-years-old, for example, may be able to accurately recognize their own gender and the genders of the people around them, but they will often make such ascriptions on the basis of information, such as hair style, rather than physical attributes, such as genitals, even when physical cues are clearly known to them. One result of this level of understanding of gender is that children in this age group often believe that people may change their gender with a change in clothing, hair style, or activity.1

1. Reference / cohesion

Very young children learn their culture’s social definitions of gender and 1

Maccoby, p.255.

40

gender identity at the same time that they learn what gender behaviors are

appropriate for them.

But they only gradually come to understand the meaning of gender in the same way as the adults of their society do.

Very young children may learn the words which describe their gender and be able

to apply them to themselves appropriately, but their comprehension of meaning is often different from that used by adults.

Five-years-old, for example, may be able to accurately recognize their own gender and the genders of the people around them, but they will often make such ascriptions on the basis of information, such as hair style, rather than physical attributes, such as genitals, even when physical cues are clearly known to them.

One result

of this level of understanding of gender

is that

children in this age group often believe that people may change their gender with a change in clothing, hair style, or activity.

2. Logical Connection

41

Very young children learn their culture’s social definitions of gender and gender identity at the same time that they learn whey that gender behaviors are appropriate for them.

CONTRAST

But they only gradually come to understand the meaning of gender in the same way as the adults of their society do.

Very young children may learn the words which describe their gender and be able to apply them to themselves appropriately, CONRAST

but their comprehension of meaning is often different from that used by adults.

Detailed Explanation described by example

Five-years-old, for example, may be able to accurately recognize their own gender and the genders of the people around them, but they will often make such ascriptions on the basis of information, such as hair style, rather than physical attributes, such as genitals, even when physical cues are clearly known to them.

One result of this level of understanding of gender is that children in this age group often believe that people may change their gender with a change in clothing, hair style, or activity.

The Sample Questions (Reference) 1. “But they will often make such ascriptions on the basis of information…”(line 8). The words “They” refer to…. a. Very young children b. Adults c. People d. Five-years-old The Answer: D 2. ” but they will often make such ascriptions on the basis of information,”(line 8). The word “Ascription” has a synonym with… a. Attribution b. Affection c. Perception d. Mistaken view

The answer: A 3. Which one of the following sentences is correct? a. Very young children usually learn their culture’s social definitions of gender and gender identity separately. 42

b. Most very young children are able to understand their culture’s social definitions of gender correctly as same as adults are able to do. c. Very young children have no idea about the words which describe their gender at all. d. Very young children often believe that people possibly change their gender with a change in activity. The answer: D 4. Which one of the following sentence is incorrect? a. Children’s comprehension meaning of gender definition is often different from that used by adults. b. Children will rarely make such ascriptions on the basis of information. c. Children in the age of five may be able to accurately recognize their own gender and the genders of the people around them. d. Very young children learn their culture’s social definitions of gender and gender identity at the same time. The answer: B 5. Children learn their culture’s social definitions of gender and gender identity at the same time that they learn what gender behaviors are…. for them. a. Suitable b. Interesting c. Identical d. Synchronous The answer: A Pattern Identification 1. Very young children learn their culture’s social definitions of gender and gender identity at the same time that they learn what gender behaviors are appropriate for them. Main Clause : Very young children learn their culture’s social definitions of S

V

Compound Object

gender and gender identity at the same time Adverb Sub-clause

: that they learn what gender behaviors are appropriate for them. Conj.

Predicate

S

V

O (Noun phrase)

: learn their culture’s social definitions of gender and gender identity

2. But they only gradually come to understand the meaning of gender in the same way as the adults of their society do. Main clause

: But they only gradually come to understand S

Adv.

the meaning of gender

V

O

in the same way as the adults of their society do. Adv.of manner Predicate

: Only gradually come to understand the meaning of gender

43

3. Very young children may learn the words which describe their gender and be able to apply them to themselves appropriately, but their comprehension of meaning is often different from that used by adults. Main clause

: Very young children

may learn

S gender

P

O

and be able to apply them P

Notes

the words which describe their to themselves

appropriately

Oi

Adv.

Od

: The pattern of sentence above consists of compound predicate and compound object.

Sub-clause

: but their comprehension of meaning is

often

Conj.

Adv.

S

V

different C

from that used by adults. O (non-finite clause) Notes: S

= Subject

Oi

= Indirect object

V

= Verb

C

= Complement

P

= Predicate

Adv.

= Adverb

O

= Object

Od

=Direct Object

TRANSLATION Very young children learn their culture’s social definitions of gender and gender identity at the same time that they learn what gender behaviors are appropriate for them. But they only gradually come to understand the meaning of gender in the same way as the adults of their society do. Very young children may learn the words which describe their gender and be able to apply them to themselves appropriately, but their comprehension of meaning is often different from that used by adults. Five-years-old, for example, may be able to accurately recognize their own gender and the genders of the people around them, but they will often make such ascriptions on the basis of information, such as hair style, rather than physical attributes, such as genitals, even when physical cues are clearly known to them. One result of this level of understanding of gender is that children in this age group often believe that people may change their gender with a change in clothing, hair style, or activity. Anak-anak pada usia sangat dini belajar mengenai pengertian dan identitas gender mereka secara budaya dan sosial dalam waktu yang bersamaan, yang di dalamnya mereka belajar tentang perilaku seperti apa yang cocok untuk diri mereka. Namun, butuh waktu panjang bagi mereka untuk dapat memahami pengertian gendei layaknya orang dewasa. Anak-anak di usia yang sangat muda mungkin dapat mempelajari istilah-istilah yang menggambarkan gender mereka masing-masing dan mempraktekkannya pada diri mereka sendiri dengan benar, tetapi pengertian gender dalam pikiran mereka seringkali berbeda dengan pengertian dalam pikiran orang dewasa. Anak-anak usia lima tahun contohnya, mungkin dapat mengetahui gender mereka sendiri dan gender orang lain di sekitarnya dengan tepat, tetapi mereka juga sering membuat atribut-atribut tertentu pada informasi awal yang mereka dapatkan, seperti lebih menilai gaya rambut ketimbang penampilan fisik ataupun jenis kelamin, sekalipun mereka telah mengetahui tanda-tanda fisiknya dengan jelas. Salah satu dampak dari pengertian gender pada tahap ini adalah anak-anak pada 44

kelompok usia ini seringkali percaya bahwa orang-orang dapat mengganti gender mereka hanya dengan melakukan perubahan dalam cara berpakaian, gaya rambut, ataupun aktivitas. The Sample Questions (Inference) 1. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage…. a. Most young children do not have enough sufficient ability to understand about their culture’s social definitions of gender and gender identity. b. Only smart adults that are able to understand correctly about distinction of gender. c. Children need to learn intensively to understand about gender completely. d. The understanding of gender between young children and adults has some significant differences. The answer: A 2. The following can be implied from the passage…. a. Lack of ability in understanding meaning of gender shows children’s immaturity. b. Most young children make helpful ascriptions in their meaning of gender. c. Children must enter into age of seventeenth, or they will never understand completely about gender. d. Comprehension in meaning is one problem that makes differentiation in understanding of gender between young children and adults. The answer: D 3. It is most probable that…. a. The ability to understand about gender definition correctly is possibly influenced by age. b. Young children may have an ability to understand about gender better than adults. c. The differentiation of view about gender between young children and adults is always a matter of meaning comprehension. d. The main factors influencing people’s understanding about gender are found mostly in environment. The answer: A 4. The passage suggests that…. a. The meaning of gender in most children’s mind comes in various and different shapes. b. People not only can understand gender definition correctly, but also change it whenever they want. c. Most young children often believe that people can change their own gender with changes in hair style. d. It is obscure to predict whether children understand correctly about gender or not. The answer: C

Pertemnuan ke 14-15 :

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CONTOH HASIL TUGAS 2: Berikut adalah salah satu contoh tugas yang dikerjakan mahasiswa. Isi tugas ini meliputi analisis kalimat, kohesi, pemahaman teks, isi teks, sampai pada struktur teks dan kesimpulan. Tunjukkan bagian- bagian mana yang masih salah dan yang sudah benar menurut bagian bagian tugasnya. Judul Teks :

Classical Court Dance Puro Mangkunagaran The pendopo (front hall) of Puro Mangkunagaran are full with dancers male and female, who are dancing enthusiastically following the rhythm of live gamelan music accompaniment. Every Wednesday, from 9.00 am – 12.00 am all the Mangkunagaran court employees (abdi dalem) from Langenprojo department who take care of court dance, gamelan music and singing, they themselves have to train to dance and to pay on the gamelan. Some dancers from STSI (Higer School of Arts) and SMKI (School of Performing Arts) sometimes are joining this art court exercises. The gamelan sounds are perfect and the dance movements are exellent. This compulsory art activity is supervised directly by the Gurus of Mangkunagaran dance i.e. Mr. R. M.T. Ronosuripto and Ibu Umi Hartono. There is no day without art and cultural activity in Mangkunagaran Palace, as seen in program of Art, Culture and Tourist Promotion of Mangkunagaran Palace. The Puro Mangkunagaran is quite aware that Javanes Court Dance of Mangkunagaran style must be well preserved, maintained and developed accordingly by withholding firmly the principles of Joged Mataram ( Mataram Palace). The differences of some dance movement and/or of clothes/accessories/ornaments among the four palaces are of normal development, which have positive competitive value. Bedaya Anglir Mendhung Bedaya dance is also sacred in Puro Mangkunagaran. Bedaya Anglir Mendhung is the most sacred Bedaya dance, created by Sri Mangkoenagaran I, assisted by Kyai Gunasuta and Kyai Kidang Wulung. Anglir Mendhung means something which looks like a cloud. It is depicting his feeling when he had to fight against his own father-in-law, Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I. The dancers are 7 girls in a holy state. For the execution of this dance, a strict ritual must be performed, before and during the performance. In fact, the gamelan music of this dance is based on gamelan music of Ketawang, the creation of Queen Kencanasari, the Goddess of the South Sea, Kanjeng Ratu Kidul. All dancers have to purify themselves by fasting for several days. They have to request permission and blessing from Sri Mangkoenagoro I, in front of his grave, to be able to perform Anglir Mendhung at their best. May God the Almighty protect them during the performance. Ritual Uluk-Uluk requesting safety and blessing from God and Ratu Kencanasari is performed in the palace. Acertain offering must be also conducted. The make-up and the dress of these dancers are like a bride of Surakarta palace. It’s color is dark blue, in accordance with the color of Prince Sambernjawa’s flag. The dodod (a 9m long batik-cloth) of Cinde design Bangun Tulak (against evil) calligraphy “ALLAHHU” and other accessories and ornaments with Bangun Tulak design, showing this 46

danceis really a sacred ane. During the dance performance, incense must be burned continuously, so everything and everybody are safe. By performing Bedoyo Anglir Mendhung. III. It’s a part of ritual requesting safety, happiness and prosperity for the Mangkunagara family, territory and its subordinates. IV. Showing the greatness of Sri mangkoenagara I and Mangkunagara elite. It is hoped by performing and watching this dance, all the Mangkunagara descendants and lineage should remember the big name of there ancestor and should behave accordingly V. Showing and entertainment with positive value. There where another Bedaya dances in Puro mangkunagaran, which had never been performed againt for more than 200 years. There were Bedoyo Dirodometo (fighting elephant) and Bedoyo Sukopratomo (Happy Warriors). Both were performed by male dancers. The gamelan players and singers were also male. The dances/fragments such us : Klono Jayengsari, Karno Tinanding, Bondo Yudho, Bondo Boyo, Bondo Wala, Arjuna Sasrabahu-Sumantri were frequently performed.

Jawaban : Kohesi The pendopo (front hall) of Puro Mangkunagaran are full with dancers male and female, who are dancing enthusiastically following the rhythm of live gamelan music accompaniment. Every Wednesday, from 9.00 am – 12.00 am all the Mangkunagaran court employees (abdi dalem) from Langenprojo department who take care of court dance, gamelan music and singing, they themselves have to train to dance and to pay on the gamelan. Some dancers from STSI (Higer School of Arts) and SMKI (School of Performing Arts) sometimes are joining this art court exercises. The gamelan sounds are perfect and the dance movements are exellent. This compulsory art activity is supervised directly by the Gurus of Mangkunagaran dance i.e. Mr. R. M.T. Ronosuripto and Ibu Umi Hartono. There is no day without art and cultural activity in Mangkunagaran Palace, as seen in program of Art, Culture and Tourist Promotion of Mangkunagaran Palace. The Puro Mangkunagaran is quite aware that Javanes Court Dance of Mangkunagaran style must be well preserved, maintained and developed accordingly by withholding firmly the principles of Joged Mataram ( Mataram Palace). The differences of some dance movement and/or of clothes/accessories/ornaments among the four palaces are of normal development, which have positive competitive value.

Bedaya Anglir Mendhung 47

Bedaya dance is also sacred in Puro Mangkunagaran. Bedaya Anglir Mendhung is the most sacred Bedaya dance, created by Sri Mangkoenagaran I, assisted by Kyai Gunasuta and Kyai Kidang Wulung. Anglir Mendhung means something which looks like a cloud. It is depicting his feeling when he had to fight against his own father-in-law, Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I. The dancers are 7 girls in a holy state. For the execution of this dance, a strict ritual must be performed, before and during the performance. In fact, the gamelan music of this dance is based on gamelan music of Ketawang, the creation of Queen Kencanasari, the Goddess of the South Sea, Kanjeng Ratu Kidul. All dancers have it purify themselves by fasting for several day.

They have to request

permission and blessing from Sri Mangkoenagoro I, in front of his grave, to be able to perform Anglir Mendhung attheir best. May God the Almighty protect them during the performance.

Ritual Uluk-Uluk requesting safety and blessing from God and Ratu Kencanasari is performed in the palace. Acertain offering must be also conducted. The make-up and the dress of these dancers are like a bride of Surakarta palace. It’s color is dark blue, in accordance with the color of Prince Sambernjawa’s flag. The dodod (a 9m long batik-cloth) of Cinde design Bangun Tulak (against evil) calligraphy “ALLAH,HU” and other accessories and ornaments with Bangun Tulak design, showing this dance is really a sacred ane. During the dance performance, incense must be burned continuously, so everything and everybody are safe. By performing Bedoyo Anglir Mendhung. 5. It’s a part of ritual requesting safety, happiness and prosperity for the Mangkunagara family, territory and its subordinates. 6. Showing the greatness of Sri mangkoenagara I and Mangkunagara elite. It is hoped by performing and watching this dance, all the Mangkunagara descendants and lineage should remember the big name of there ancestor and should behave accordingly 7. Showing and entertainment with positive value. There where another Bedaya dances in Puro mangkunagaran, which had never been performed againt for more than 200 years. There were Bedoyo Dirodometo (fighting elephant) and Bedoyo Sukopratomo (Happy Warriors). Both were performed by male dancers. The gamelan players and singers were also male.

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The dances/fragments such us : Klono Jayengsari, Karno Tinanding, Bondo Yudho, Bondo Boyo, Bondo Wala, Arjuna Sasrabahu-Sumantri were frequently performed.

Menentukan kalimat kompleks : 1. The Pendopo ( front hall ) of Puro Mangkunagaran are full with dancers male and female, who are dancing enthusiastically following the rhythm of live gamelan music accompaniment. MC : The Pendopo ( front hall ) of Puro Mangkunagaran are full with dancers male and female SC :who are dancing enthusiastically following the rhythm of live gamelan music accompaniment. Terjemahan : Pendopo (ruang depan) pada Puro Mangkunagaran penuh dengan penaripenari laki-laki dan perempuan, menari dengan antusiasnya mengikuti irama dari iringan musik gamelan secara langsung. 2. There is no day without art and cultural activity in Mangkunagaran Palace, as seen in the program of Art, Culture and Tourist Promossion of Mangkunagaran Palace. MC : There is no day without art and cultural activity in Mangkunagaran Palace SC :as seen in the program of Art, Culture and Tourist Promossion of Mankunagaran Palace. Terjamahan : Tiada hari tanpa aktivitas seni dan kebudayaan di istana/kraton Mangkunagaran, seperti melihat di dalam program Seni, Kebudayaan dan Promosi Pariwisatawan dari istana/keraton Mangkunagaran. 3. The differences of some dance movements and/or of clothes/accessories/ornaments among the four palace are of normal development, which have positive competitive value. MC : The differences of some dance movements and/or of clothes/accessories/ornaments among the four palace are of normal development SC :which have positive competitive value Terjamahan : Perbedaan dari beberapa gerak-gerik tari dan/atau dari pakaian/assesoris/perhiasan di antara empat istana/keraton dalam perkembangan yang normal, yang mana mempunyai nilai persaingan yang positif. 4. Bedaya Anglir Mendhung is the most sacred Bedaya dance, created by Sri Mangkoenagaran I, assisted by Kyai Gunasuta and Kyai Kidang Wulung. MC : Bedaya Anglir Mandhung is the most sacred Bedaya dance SC :created by Sri Mangkoenagaran I, assisted by Kyai Gunasuta and Kyai Kidang Wulung. Terjamahan : Bedaya Anglir Mendhung adalah tari bedaya paling keramat, diciptalan oleh Sri Mangkoenagaran I, dengan dibantu oleh Kyai Gunasuta dan Kyai Kidang Wulung. 5. In fact, the gamelan music of this dance is based on gamelan music of Ketawang, the creation of Queen Kencanasari the Goddess of the South Sea, Kanjeng Ratu Kidul. MC : In fact, the gamelan music of this dance is based on gamelan music of Ketawang SC :the creation of Queen Kencanasari the Goddess of the South Sea, Kanjeng Rtu Kidul. Terjamahan : Kenyataannya, musik gamelan dari tarian ini merupakan dasar musik gamelan dari Ketawang, ciptaan dari Ratu Kencanasari seorang dewi dari pantai selatan, Kanjeng Ratu Kidul. 6. They have to request permission and blessing from Sri Mangkoenagoro I, in front of his grave, to be able to perform Anglir Mendhung at their best. 49

MC : They have to request permission and blessing from Sri Mangkoenagoro I SC : in front of his grave, to be able to perform Anglir Mendhung at their best. Terjamahan : Mereka harus minta izin dan berkah dari Sri Mangkoenagoro I, di depan makamnya, untuk dapat menyelenggarakan Anglir Mendhumg dengan baik. 7. Ritual Uluk-Uluk requesting safety and bleesing from God and Ratu Kancanasari is performed in the palace. MC : Ritual Uluk-Uluk is performed in the Palace SC : requesting safety and blessing from God and Ratu Kencanasari. Terjamahan : Ritual Uluk-Uluk merupakan permintaan keselamatan dan berkah dari Tuhan dan Ratu Kencanasari yang dilakukan di istana/keraton. 8. It’s color is dark blue, in accordance with the color of prince Sambernjawa’s flag MC : It’s color is dark blue SC : in accordance with the color of prince Sambernjawa’s flag. Terjemahan : Warnanya adalah biru tua, yang disesuaikan dengan warna bendera dari Pengeran Sambernjawa’s. 9. During the dance performance, incense must be burned continuously, so everything and everybody are safe. MC : During the dance performance, l incense must be burned continuously SC : so everything and everybody are safe. Terjamahan : Selama pertunjukan tari, kemenyan/dupa harus dibakar dengan terusmenerus, sehingga semua hal dan semua orang selamat. Contoh Soal berdasarkan teks : 1. The word “ they “ in line 2 refrers to…. (A) All the Mangkunagaran court employees (B) Dancers (C) Singers (D) Gamelan players Answer : (A) 2. The word “ it “ in peregraph 2, line 4 refers to…. (A) Bedaya Dance (B) Puro Mangkunagaran (C) Anglir Mendhung (D) Strict ritual Answer : (C) 3. The word “his” in paragraph 2, line 4 refers to ….. (A) Kyai Gunasuto (B) Sri Mangkoenagaran (C) Kyai Kidang Wulung (D) Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I Answer : (B) 4. The word “It’s” in paragraph 2, line 14 refers to … (A) Ritual Uluk-Uluk (B) The Palace (C) Bride (D) The make-up and the dress Answer : (D) 5. According to the text, which of following is true ? (A) All dansers have to request permission and blessing from Sri Mangkoenagoro, in front of his grave, to be able to perform Anglir Mendhung. 50

(B) All dancers have not to request permission and blessing from Sri Mangkunagoro, in front of his grave. (C) All dancers have to request permission and blessing from Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I. (D) All dancers have to request permission and blessing from Kyai Gunasuta. Answer : (A) Isi Artikel : In this article, describe about Puro Mangkunagaran. In Puro mangkunagaran Palace, there is no day without art and cultural activity. The Pendopo (front hall) of Puro Mangkunagaran are full with dancers male and female, who are dancing enthusiastically following the rhythm of live gamelan music accompaniment. In Puro mangkunagaran, there are three Bedaya dances, such us : Bedaya Anglir mendhung, Bedaya Dirodometo, and Bedaya Sukopratomo.Bedaya Anglir Mendhung is the most sacred bedaya dance, created by Sri Mangkunagaran I, aseested by Kyai Gunasuta and Kyai Kidang Wulung. The dancers are 7 girls in a hold state. The gamelan music if this dance is based on Gamelan Music of Ketawang, the creation of Queen Kencanasari, The Goddess of the south sea, Kanjeng Ratu Kidul. All dancers have to purity themselves by fasting for several days. They have to request permission and blessing from Sri Mangkunagaran I, in front of his grave, to be ableto perform Anglir Mendhung at their best. The ritual used is Ritual UlukUluk and the costume is the dodod. There were another Bedaya Dance is Bedaya Dirodometo (fighting elephant) and Bedaya Sukopratomo (happy warriors), both were performed by male dancers. The gamelan players and singers were also male. But, Bedaya Dirodometo and Bedaya Sukopratomo never been performed againt for more than 200 years.

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Puro Mangkunagaran Struktur Teks :

Bedaya Anglir Mendhung

Bedaya Dirodometo

Bedaya Sukopratomo

Is the most sacred Bedaya Dance, the dancers are 7 girls in a hold state. This dance created by Sri Mangkunagaran I, assested by Kyai Gunasuta and Kyai Kidang Wulung. The gamelan music of this dance is based on gamelan music of ketawang. The costume is the dodod (a 9m long batik-cloth)of cinde with design Bangun Tulak Calligraphi “ALAHHU” andother accessories and ornaments with Bangun Tulak Design.

Is Bedaya dances in Puro Mangkunagaran, which had never been performed again for more than 200 years. This dance describe fighting elephant. Both were performed by male dancers. The gamelan players and singers were also male.

Is Bedaya Dances in Puro Mangkunagaran, which had never been performed again for more than 200 years. This dance describe happy warriors. Both were performed by male dancers. The gamelan players and singers were also male

Ritual Uluk-Uluk Is performed in the palace to requesting safety and blessing from God and Ratu Kencanasari

The dances/fragments such us : Klono Jayengsari, Karno Tinanding, Bondo Yudho, Bondo Boyo, Bondo Wala, Arjuna sasrabahu-Sumantri were frequently performed

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ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP) 2

Music Definition Accidental: a sign -- a sharp, flat, or natural -- indicating

the raising or lowering of a note.

BeBop: jazz form of the 1940's and 50's, characterized by fast tempo and complex chord patterns, played by small ensembles with often dizzying instrumental virtuosity.

Blues: melancholic, usually guitar-based, modern folk music, originating in the work songs of the black American plantation workers. Typically constructed around a simple twelvebar, three chord pattern on which a vast amount of popular music has been based ever since. Bossanova: Brazilian dance of the 1950's, closely related to the samba. Cadence: a sequence of two chords that brings a phrase to an end, with an air of wither finality or partial completion. Cadenza: originally an improvised decoration of a cadence by a soloist; later a more or less elaborate and written-out passage in a aria or concerto to display performance skills by a singer or an instrumentalist. Canon: a musical form in which a tune in imitated by individual parts at regular intervals; known as a round when each part is continuously repeated. In simple examples, such as "London Bridge is Falling Down," the successive voices enter at a same pitch and at the same speed. In more elaborate examples, such as the canons in J.S. Bach's keyboard work known as the Goldberg Variation, the voices may enter at different pitches and present the tune at different speeds or even backwards or upside down (in inversion). Cantabile: in a singing style. Cantata: a vocal work, wither sacred or secular. Some early examples approach operatic style and may have narratives; others, such as Bach's church cantatas, are inventions on chorales. Twentieth-century revivals of the form, most notably by travinsky and Webern, have been meditative rather than storytelling. Cantus firmus: a preexisting tune, often familiar, used by medieval and Renaissance composers as the basis of a polyphonic position in which the other parts are invented. Carol: originally a round dance with singing, later a popular song or hymn celebrating Christmas. Castrato: male singers whose voices were preserved in the soprano or alto range by early castration. The virtuosity attained by certain castrati can be gauged by parts of Handel's operas that modern sopranos often find nearly unsinkable. The last castrati lived into the 20th century and were recorded. Cavatina: a short, usually simple operatic aria, in one or two sections without repetition; occasionally, an instrumental piece in a songlike style. Chamber music: music of an intimate character in which there is usually one player to a part, each of which is equal in importance to the others, written for from two to ten players, although "chamber symphonies" have been written for small orchestras. Charleston: popular 1920's syncopated dance. Chest voice: the lower part of the singing voice, as opposed to head voice. Choir: a group of singer, usually more than one to a part. Chorale: a hymn, especially a :Lutheran setting of sacred text. Chord: three or more note sounded simultaneously.

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Chromatic: in tonal music, notes that do not belong to the key in which a piece is written. the chromatic scale includes all twelve notes in the octave. Classicism: a period in music that extended from the middle of the 18th century to the first decade of the 19th. Its major figures were Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven. although it characteristics are a concern for order and balance, its most important productions are notable as much for passion and feeling within considered forms. Clavier: the keyboard of an instrument, or any keyboard instrument with strings. Clef: a symbol at the beginning of a line of music that denotes the pitch of a particular note and thus also the pitches of the notes on all the other lines and spaces. the most common clefs are treble, bass, alto and tenor; some instruments commonly use two or ven three in succession to accommodate their wide range. Coda: the closing section of a movement. Col legno: (of stringed instruments) tapping against or drawing across the strings with the wooden back of the bow rather than the hair. Compound time: a time signature that indicates two, three, or four groups of three notes (or the equivalent) in each measure-for instance, 6/4 constitutes two groups of three quarter notes, and 9/8 three groups of three eighth notes. Concert: a musical performance for an audience. Concertmaster: first violin in an orchestra, called the leader in Britain. Concerto: a work for solo instrument (or occasionally, struments) and orchestra; usually in three movements, but sometimes four, as in Brahms, or more - Ferruccio Busoni's piano concerto is in five movements. Generally designed to display virtuosity, it has been consistently popular form since the 18th century. Concertos have been written for every imaginable instrument as soloist; and here are also "concertos for orchestra" displaying virtuosity throughout the orchestra, written by such 20th century composers as Bartok, Roberto Gerhard, and Elliot Carter. Conductor: - the director of a group of performers, indicating the tempo by beating and communicating phrasing, dynamics and style by gesture and facial expression. Console: the keyboards, stops, and pedals of an organ, by which the player activates and controls the organ's sounds. Consonance: in diatonic harmony, a group of tones that are heard as a compatible combination when sounded together; its opposite is dissonance. Consort: a group of instruments, in Renaissance and early aroque music. A "whole consort" constitutes instruments of one sort (for instance, a consort of viols); a "broken consort" is made up of instruments of different sorts. Continuo: the part played, in Baroque music, by a bass instrument and keyboard. Generally, only the bass line is written out, with the harmonics indicated by means of chord numbers, which the keyboard player fills in and decorates in appropriate style. Contralto: the lowest female voice. Cool: the term for California jazz in the 1950s, a reaction to the more frenetic style of bebop. Counterpoint: the combination of simultaneous melodic line to form choral progressions and harmony. Country music: white American folk music - a term preferred by fans to the more common Country and Western. Courante: a Baroque dance form, utilizing a combination of three or two beats to the bar, often compound duple.

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Crescendo: a steady increase in volume. Crotchet: the British term for a quarter note. Cycle: a sequence of pieces, particularly songs, with a common theme or subject. Da capo: a term meaning "from the beginning" -an instruction to repeat the first section of a piece before stopping. Downbeat: the beat given the strongest accent, at the beginning of a bar. Drone: a held bass note under a melody, such as that heard in the playing of bagpipes. Duet: a piece of music for two performers. Duple time: a tempo with two beats in a bar (for instance, 2/4, 2/2, or 6/8). Dynamics: the loudness of softness of music, indicated by a system of gradations; from softest to loudest, these are pp, p, mp, f, ff. The extremes have been extended in both directions. Ecossaise: a dance in duple time of the late 18th century, supposedly of Scottish origin. Electronic music: music produced by live performers on electronic instruments; or sound manipulated by electronic means into a recording, which contains a piece of music rather than being a record of performance of a piece. Elegy: an instrumental lament. Embouchure: the position of the lips in wind instrument playing, by which the player controls the sound, especially for brass and the flute. Encore: an extra piece played at the end of a recital in response to an audience's enthusiastic reaction to the performance. Enharmonic interval: two notes that sound the same (as played on a modern keyboard instrument) and differ from each other only in name-for instance, A sharp and B flat, or E sharp and F natural. Ensemble: a group of performers; also, the term used to describe the quality of playing together with unanimity of attach and balance of tone. Expressivo: expressively. Etude: literally, a "study," A musical form originally intended solely to improve technique, it was raised to a level of musical interest by Chopin, and concert studies have been written by many composers since. Exposition: the opening section in sonata form or a fugue, which sets out the initial thematic and harmonic material. Expressionism: a school of German music at the beginning of this century, often atonal and violent in style, as a means of evoking heightened emotions and expressing states of mind. Falsetto: a style of male singing in which, by only partial use of the vocal cords, the voice reaches the pitch of a female voice. Fanfare: a short exclamatory phrase on brass instruments, originally for eremonial occasions. Fantasia: a piece in free form or of improvisational character, often for a single performer. Fermata: a pause. Fifth: the interval between notes that are three whole tones and a semitone apart is a perfect fifth-for instance, C natural to G natural. increased by one semitone, it becomes an

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augmented fifth-C natural to G sharp. Decrease by one semitone, it becomes a diminished fifth-C natural to G flat. Finale: the last movement of a sonata-form work : also, a sequence of numbers at the end of an act in an opera. Fingerboard: the long piece of hardwood over which the strings of a stringed instrument are stretched. Fingering: a system of indicating by numbers which finger should play which note on keyboard, wind, or stringed instruments. Flat: a sign showing that a note should be lowered by one semitone. Flutter-tonguing: in wind instruments, a colorist effect produced by the performer rolling "R" sound while playing. Form: the structure or architecture of a piece of music. Forte: dynamic marking meaning "loud", indicated by the letter f. May by strengthened to fortissimo (ff). Fourth: the interval between notes two whole tones and a semitone apart is a perfect fourth - for example, C natural to F natural. Reduced by one semitone, it becomes a diminished fourth - C sharp to F natural. increased by one semitone, it becomes an augmented fourthC natural to f sharp. Foxtrot: a lively American popular dance in duple time. Free Jazz: cutting itself loose from the harmonic and rhythmic shackles of the past, free jazz was a radical improvising style of the 1960's. Frequency: the rate of vibration that produces a particular pitch. On the piano, the lowest C has a frequency of 32 vibrations per second, the next C has 64 per second, and so on. Fret: on some stringed instruments such as guitar, a metal band on the fingerboard to mark a particular position of the fingers. Frog: the heel of the bow of a stringed instrument. Fugue: a contrapuntal form, beginning with an exposition in which each voice enters with the same subject in turn and proceed in imitation. Unlike a canon, fugues have free passages of imitation and passages without imitation. They commonly have from three to six separate voices. In more complex examples a fugue may have two or three different themes, contrapuntally combined. These are known as double and triple fugues. Fugues were most regularly written in the later Baroque period, but, regarded as a demonstration of compositional virtuosity, have also been written by most composers since then. G.P.: general pause Gagaku: the ceremonial music of the Japanese court. Western composers in the 1960's, otably Karlheinz.

It exerted a strong influence on some

Gallaird: a Renaissance dance in triple or 6/8 time. Galop: a lively 19th century round dance in duple time. Gamelan: an Indonesian instrument similar to a xylophone; also, an Indonesian orchestra, consisting of such instruments as well as gongs, flutes, strings, drums, and voices. Notable for the prominence given to tuned gongs, its sounds have been used by many Western composers since it was first widely heard at the Paris World's Fair of 1889. Gavotte: a 17th century dance in quadruple time, always beginning on the third beat of the bar. Gigue: a lively dance in triple time or 6/8; the English jig, often incorporated in Baroque

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dance suites. Glissando: sliding between two note. Gopak: lively Russian in duple time. Gospel: the hymn-based choral music of the African-American evangelical churches. Grace note: an ornamental fast note or notes immediately proceeding a main note. Grandioso: grandly Grave: very slowly and serious. Grazioso: gracefully Griot: French term describing a traditional West African story-teller or praise singer. Ground bass: a repeating phrase underneath freely varying upper parts in passacaglias or similar forms. Grunge: rock hybrid of the 1990's, combining punk anger with heavy metal guitar histrionics. Habanera: a slow Cuban dance in duple time. Half note: a note equal in time value to two quarter notes or fourth eighth notes; in Britain it is called a minim. Harmonics: When a note is played on an instrument, along with the fundamental there may often be heard higher pitches, extending in a series up to four octaves above the note. The sounds are known as harmonics, or overtones. In some instruments, such as a bell, they may be heard strongly; in others, they are relatively faint. Harmony: the combination of sounds of different pitch to form chord, which developed initially from the weaving together of two or more melodic lines; and, within the tonal system, the interrelationship of the major and minor chords based on each of the seven degrees of the scale. Although a sophisticated harmonic sense may be discerned in relatively early music, the modern sense of tonal harmony dates back only to the 17th century. Heavy metal: loud, riff-centered rock, fixated on the power and symbolism of the electric guitar. Hip-hop: another name for rap music. Homophony: a non-contrapuntal chordal style, in which all the parts move together in the same rhythm (as in hymns); or a melody with a chordal accompaniment. Hornpipe: a lively British folk dance in duple or triple time, originally accompanied by a reed instrument of the same name, and which became popular among sailors. House music: a form of disco music, with dominant bass motifs, developed in Detroit in the early 1980's. Humoresque: an instrumental composition of playful or unpredictable nature. Hymn: a church song, often choral. Idiophone: an instrument consisting of material producing a simple sound, such as a bell. Imitation: in counterpoint, when a phrase or theme introduced by one voice is repeated almost exactly (but higher or lower) by a second voice. If it is repeated exactly, with part of it overlapping in each voice, as in the stretto of a canon or round, then it is strict imitation. Impressionism: a term borrowed from painting and applied, often inappropriately,

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principally to the works of Debussy and Ravel. Characteristics are often a shimmering texture and loose tonality. Other composers who may be classed as Impressionist are Frederick Delius, Emmanuel Chabrier, and Karol Szymanowski. Impromptu: a short piano piece of improvisatory or intimate character, there are examples by Schubert and Chopin. Improvisation: creating music spontaneously, with the player inventing as he or she plays. It has been a common element in much music, and composers including Bach, Handle, Mozart, Beethoven, and Liszt have been celebrated for their ability to improvise. Many forms, such as the classical piano concerto, incorporate opportunities for improvisations. In the postwar period, aleatoric music raised improvisation to a more important place than it had occupied for many years, as in music by Cage, Stockhausedn, and Xenakis. Incidental music: music written to be performed with a stage play. Instrumentation: the art of assigning appropriate parts of a composition to individual instruments within an ensemble. Interlude: a piece of instrumental music played between scenes in a play or an opera. Intermezzo: either an interlude in a play or opera, or a short comic opera of the 18th century Italy, performed originally a s part of a longer evening. Nineteenth-century composers such as Brahms have used the term for a short, intimate piano work. Interpretation: the art of bringing expression to the performance of a work. Although a composer will probably indicate, in addition to the notes to be played, an appropriate tempo, some articulation, and the dynamic markings for each passage in more or less detail, the performer inevitably has a good detail if leeway, within these indication where his or her powers of interpretation and skill become important. Interval: the difference in pitch between two notes, expressed as a second, third, fourth and so on. These intervals, if altered by a semitone in either direction, may be qualified as major or minor, augmented or diminished. Intonation: singing or playing in tune. Introduction: an opening section of a piece or a movement, formally separate often containing themes or passages that do not recur. In sonata forms, the introduction to a fast movement is very often on a slow tempo. Invention: the term used by Bach for his fifteen short keyboard pieces in two contrapuntal parts. Inversion: the tuning of a musical line upside down, so that an interval moving upward in a melody becomes the same interval downward in its inversion, and vise versa. Invertible counterpoint means that a piece is written in such a way that the individual parts may be exchanged, so that the bass part may be reassigned to the soprano and the result is harmonically satisfactory. Jam session: a term used, especially in jazz, when two or more players get together to improvise. Jazz: a strongly influential musical form, emerging shortly after World War I from black communities in America, incorporating many styles, including blues and ragtime. Taken up by commercial musicians, it was disseminated into the wider musical culture. Originally highly improvisational in character and played only on a small group of instruments, it developed into several forms, such as swing and bebop, and became popular as a form for big band ensembles. It was a big influence on the composers of the interwar period, many of whom wrote in a jazz idiom. Similarly, many musician whose origins were in jazz produced works that have proved lasting in the context of art music, most notably George Gershwin. Jig: a lively English dance, originating in the 16th century; it became the gigue. Jongleur: a wandering musician in the Middle Ages of relatively low status, possibly also capable of juggling, acrobatics, and general entertainment.

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Jota: a quick Spanish dance in triple time. Key: in tonal music, the concept of interrelated chords based on the notes of the major and minor scales, and centered on the tonic (the fist note of the scale, also called the undamental). A key is indicated at the beginning of each piece by means of a key signature. Other notes, foreign to the key, may be used in a piece, but the nomination of all else b the basic key-exerted by gravitational pull of the tonic-is virtually constant. Most tonal works, even a very substantial piece such as a symphony or, on occasion, an entire opera, are written in a single key. Although the piece may in its course move far away from the fundamental key for the sake of variety, the unity imposed by the fundamental key is always felt. Keyboard: the range of levers pressed by the player on an instrument such as a piano or harpsichord to sound the note; also; generically, an instruments having such a keyboard. Key signature: the sharps or flats at the beginning of each line of music to indicate the key of the music. Klavier: any keyboard instrument; in German, the piano. Landler: an Austrian or Bavarian dance in tripletime, a precursor of the waltz. There are examples byBeethoven and Schubert. Leader: British term for the concertmaster (first violinist) in an orchestra or ensemble. Leading note: the seventh note of the scale,characterized by a strong tendency to lead upward tothe tonic. Legato: smoothly. Leger line: short line which indicates the pitch of anote above or below the five-line staff. Leggiero: lightly. Libretto: the text of an opera. Ligature: a form of plainchant notation combining two notes in a single symbol. Madrigal: a secular composition of the 14th through 17th centuries, written for four, five, or six unaccompanied voices. Maestoso: majestically. Maestro: the Italian term given to a distinguished inusician, usually a conductor. Major: one of the two modes of the tonal system; the other is the minor mode. The sequence of degrees in the major scale is always as follows:whole tone, whole tone. semitone, whole tone,whole tone, whole tone. semitone. Works written in major keys are often felt by listeners to have a positive, affirming character. Malaguena: in the style of the music of Malagaoccasionally refers to a type of fandango. Manual: an organ or harpsichord keyboard. March: music for marching to, in quadruple time,originally for military use. Masque: an allegorical court show of the Renaissance and early Baroque, which almost invariably includedmusic and songs as an essential part of the spectacle. Mazurka: a Polish dance in triple time, with much use of rubato; the most celebrated examples are by Frederic Chopin. Medley: a sequence of tunes, often used in overtures of musicals or operettas. Melisma: several notes sung to a single syllable.

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Melodrama: spoken text over music, popular fromthe late 18th century onwards. Melody: a particular, identifiable association of notes and pitches; a tune. Meno: less (for example, meno vivo, "less fast"). Mesto: mournfully. Metronome: a pendulum-like instrument datingfrom the early 19th century, used to regularize and measure tempo. Mezzo: half (for example, mezzo tempo, "halfspeed"; mezzo soprano, a voice between soprano and alto in pitch). Microtone: an interval between semitones. Middle C: the C more or less at the center of thepiano keyboard (about 262 vibrations per second). Minim: the British term for a half note. Minor: one of the two modes of the tonal system.The melodic minor scale differs from that of the major scale in having a flattened third degree (and, in the harmonic minor, a flattened sixth). When used melodically, the sixth and seventh degrees are the same as the major scale when ascending, but both are flattened when descending. The minor mode is often felt by listeners to have a more poignant, less positive sense than the major mode, and in Classical usage, a piece in the minor mode would often have a conclusion in the major, which was felt to have more final effect. Minstrel: a singer of verses ac companied by harp in the Middle Ages. Minuet: a formal 18th-century court dance in triple time, very commonly used in substantial Classical sonata-form works. Moderato: moderate tempo. Modes: the system that predated the tonal system. In each mode, the ordering of tones and SCMiLones in thescale differed somewhat. Tonal music consists of only two modes, major and minor. In post-tonal music some composers (such as Messiaen) havewritten pieces using artificially constructed scales asmodes. Modulation: changing from one key to a related key in the course of a musical passage. Monotone: the repetition of a single pitch. Motet: an accompanied or unaccompanied choral work, in a single, usually fairly short movement on a sacred text, of polyphonic character. Mosso: literally, "moved" (for example, piu mosso, "quicker"). Motif or Motive: a short melodic or harmonic idea, perhaps a fragment of a larger theme in a symphonic development. Wagner's leitmotifs are short themes associated with particular characters or certain psychological or symbolic elements in his operas. Moto: motion (for example, con moto, "moving onwards"). Movement: a separate section of a large work. Musette: an instrumental Baroque dance with a bagpipe-like drone bass. Musicology: the theoretical and historical study of music. Mute: a device used to dampen the tone of an instrument, affecting its volume and tone color.

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Nationalism: a 19th-century political movement that led to investigation of native folk music by musicologists, and the incorporation of folk material into art music. The most notable musical nationalists were in Russia (Glinka, Mussorgsky), Czechoslovakia (Smetana, Dvordk, Jangcek), Scandinavia (Gfieg, Nielsen, Sibelius), Hungary (Kodaly, Bart6k), America (Ives), and Britain (Vaughan Williams, Hoist). Natural: a sign that, after a particular note has been raised by a sharp or lowered by a flat, restores it to its original pitch. Neck: the narrow part of a stringed instrument extending from the body. Neoclassicism: a movement in music which sought, during the period between the two world wars, to use past forms and styles in more or less stylized and even ironic ways. Its traces may be found in composers as varied as BarL6k, Schoenberg, and Poulenc, but the composer most associated with Neoclassicism is Stravinsky, who wrote several compositions reinterpreting the works of previous composers, including Bach, Pergolesi, Gounod, and Tchaikovsky. Its characteristic manner is crisp and direct, and only rarely are Neoclassical works written for large orchestra. Neumes: the ancient system of notation, indicating the rise in pitch of plainchant. Niente: nothing (as in a niente, "diminishing to nothing"). Nocturne: originally a salon piano work, as in examples by John Field and Chopin, with nighttime associations. Mozart's Nottumi are small chamber pieces. A celebrated orchestral set by Debussy owes more to the paintings so titled by Whistler than to previous musical examples. Nonet: a work for nine instruments. Notation: methods of writing music. Notation was first developed in the 8th century with neumes, and slowly evolved into the present system by the middle of the 17th century. Obbligato: an occasional but extended instrumental solo, often to accompany the vocal part in an aria. Octave: the interval between two notes six whole tones apart that bear the same name; thus, C natural to C natural. An augmented octave is C natural to C sharp; a diminished octave, C natural to C flat. Octet: a work for eight instruments. Ode: a formal celebratory address to a person or on the subject of an abstract quality. There are several examples by Purcell, and the form was revived by Schoenberg and Stravinsky in this century. Open strings: the strings of a stringed instrument when played without being fingered. Opera: a drama in which the actors sing and are accompanied by an orchestra. It was invented at the beginning of the 17th century in Italy as a court entertainment by composers such as Monteverdi, who were attempting to revive classical Greek drama. By the end of the century it became a widespread public entertainment. In the first half of the next century, in the works of Handel and Alessandro Scarlatti, it was characterized by spectacle and vocal virtuosity. In the reforming spirit of Gluck and the operas of Mozart that followed, a new simplicity and psychological penetration entered into opera. In the 19th and 20 th centuries, opera has been written by practically every major composer, and, in the hands of Wagner. became the focal point of some of the most advanced musical thinking of the day. Opera continues to fascinate composers, despite the complexity, difficulty, and expense of mounting new works. Operetta: a light and perhaps short opera, often comic, usually with spoken dialogue instead of recitative. There are familiar examples by Jacques Offenbach, Johann Strauss, Arthur Sullivan, Franz Lehdr, and Sigmund Romberg. Opus: literally, a work; shortened to Op., a convenient method of numbering a composer'sworks. Thus, Beethoven's Op. 111 is his last piano sonata. Oratorio: an extended cantata on a sacred subject, such as Handel's Messiah, Mendelssohn's

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Elijah, or Sir William Walton's Belshazzar's Feast. Orchestra: a large group of instrumentalists, at least some of whom are normally playing more than one to a part. Chamber orchestras may have only twenty players, but a large symphony orchestra may consist of more than a hundred players. The basic instruments that make up its regular membership have remained constant since the late 18th century, although the orchestra since then has been increasing steadily in size. Instruments are occasionally added and ultimately become a fundamental part of the orchestra. The clarinet was added in the last years of the 18th century; the trombone in the first years of the 19th; then the tuba, the harp, numerous percussion instruments, and so on. Ornaments: formalized decorations of a melodic line, such as the trill or the mordent. Ostinato: a repeated phrase. Overture: an extended prelude to an opera also, the term for a Baroque suite or an independent orchestra] work, often on a literary theme. There are examples of the latter by Tchaikovsky, Berlioz, Elgar, and many others. Pariando: a rhythmically free or even semi-spoken way of singing. Parody: as in "parody mass," a work based on previous material, one of the three common techniques of composition in medieval and Renaissance sacred music. Part: an individual voice, or instrument, in a piece; or a line in a contrapuntal work. Partial: a harmonic given off by a note when it is sounded. Partita: a Baroque suite of dances, adapted by Bach as a suite for keyboard instruments. Part-song: an unaccompanied vocal work in harmonic style. Pasodoble: a fast 1920s dance in 6/8 time. Passe-pied: a French Baroque dance in triple time. Pastorale: a theatrical piece, song, or instrumental piece on a pastoral theme or idyllic in character. Pause: a held note, or a moment of silence. Pedal: the foot-operated mechanisms on piano, organ, or timpani; also, the term for a longheld bass note. Pentatonic scale: a five-note scale on which much folk music is based: the most common corresponds tothe black keys on the piano. Phrase: a single line of music, usually played or sung by a single musician in one real or metaphorical breath. Piano: instruction to play softly, abbreviated p; more quietly, pianissimo, abbreviated pp. Pitch: the frequency of a note; how high or deep it sounds. Piu: more (for example, piu mosso, "faster"). Pizzicato: of stringed instruments, plucked rather than bowed. Plainchant: unaccompanied church singing. Poco: little (for example, poco a poco crescendo, "getting louder little by little"). Polka: a fast 19th-century middle-European dance in duple time. Polonaise: heroic or ceremonial Polish dance in triple time, transformed in the examples for

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piano by Chopin into a kind of ceremonial rhapsody. Polyphony: the art of counterpoint, or combining melodies. Polytonality: the combination of two or more keys simultaneously. Twentieth-century music has often used the technique-for instance, the simultaneous sounding of C major and F sharp major in Stravinsky's ballet Petrushka, or many examples by Milhaud. Prelude: a short piece, originally preceding a more substantial work, for instance Bach's Preludes and Fugues; also, an orchestra] introduction to an opera not substantial enough to merit the term overture, or a short independent piano piece, often collected into sets, such as those by Chopin, Debussy, and Messiaen. Presto: tempo marking, meaning "very fast." Program music: music on a particular non-literary subject, usually with a narrative-for instance, some of Couperin's keyboard works, or Richard Strauss's symphonic poems. Progression: a series of harmonies. Punk: a fiery, high-speed variant of rock that values excitement and energy above technique. Quadrille: a French 19th-century dance in duple time. Quadruplet: a group of four notes played in the time normally occupied by three. Quarter note: a note equal in time value to two eighth notes or four sixteenth notes; in Britain, it is called a crotchet. Quartet: a work for four instruments, such as a string quartet, consisting of two violins, viola, and cello or, in opera, an ensemble for four singers. Quasi: almost (for example, quasi forte, "almost loudly"). Quaver: the British term for an eighth note. Quintet: a work for five instruments, such as a string quintet, consisting of two violins, two violas, and one cello, or two violins, one viola, and two cellos, or a wind quintet. for flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn. Quintuplet: a group of five notes played in the time normally occupied by three or four notes. Quodlibet: a medley, or a polyphonic combination of well-known tunes. Raga: an ancient traditional melodic pattern or modein classical Indian music; also, an instrumental improvisation based on a traditional raga, in which a melody is usually played over a pedal note without change of key. Ragtime: a style of music with a characteristic syncopation in duple time, predating jazz but sharing some of its characteristics. Its most famous composer was Scott Joplin. Igor Stravinsky wrote two compositions based loosely on the style, Ragtime and Piano Rag Music. Rallentando: getting slower. Rap music: a form of pop music based on chanted street poetry and rhymes accompanied by a thumping rhythmic backbeat. Recital: a concert by a soloist, with or without accompaniment. The term was invented by Liszt for his solo performances. Reed: in wind instruments, the piece of cane that the player causes to vibrate by blowing through it, in order to produce sound. Reel: i Scottish or Irish folk dance in duple time.

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Refrain: a repeating phrase that occurs at the end of each verse in a song. Reggae: Jamaican popular music, associated with Rastafarianisni, which achieved great popularity in the United States and Europe in the 1970s. Register: a portion of the range of an instrument or voice; thus, the bottom octave of the clarinet is known as the chaltimeau register. Relative major and minor: the major and minor keys that share the same key signature. Thus, E major is the relative major of C sharp minor, since both have four sharps. Relative pitch: the ability to determine the pitch of a note in terms of its relationship to the notes that precede and follow it. Repeat signs: the signs at the beginning and end of a section of music, indicating that the section in between should be played twice. Reprise: a repeat of some earlier material. generally after some different music has intervened. Requiem: a mass for the dead in the Roman Catholic liturgy, although works that are not settings of the mass text may also be called requiems, such as those by Brahms, Delius, and Hans Werner Henze. Resonance: the phenomenon by which several strings tuned to pitches that are harmonically related will vibrate even if only one of the strings is struck. Thus, if a note is struck on a piano, with the strings undamped, the strings tuned to pitches that belong to the harmonic series of that note will also vibrate. Rest: a period of silence within a piece of music. The various lengths of rests correspond to note lengths. Rhapsody: a musical composition of irregular form, and having a dramatic, improvisatory character, usually either for a solo performer or a soloist with orchestra. Rhythm: the element of music pertaining to time and expressed as grouping of notes into accented and unaccented beats, of beats into measures, etc. Ricercar: an elaborate polyphonic or imitative instrumental composition of the Renaissance or Baroque period. Riff: a repeating motif or refrain in a modern pop song or jazz piece. Rigaudon: a fast 17th-century dance in duple or quadruple time, of French origin. Pitardando (ritenuto) - slowing down, perhaps for less time or less forcefully than would be implied by rallentando. Ritornello: a passage that returns repeatedly in a rondo-like form-. also, a tutti passage in a concerto. Rococo: a short-lived musical style that occurred roughly between the end of the high Baroque and the beginnings of the Classical period, most often applied to the music of such French composers as Couperin, Claude Daquin, and Rameau. Often characterized as trivial, ornamental, or lightweight, it is sometimes called the gallant style. Rondo: a musical form in which the principal theme is repeated several times, with short sectionsbased on different themes (called episodes) in between each restatement of the opening theme; sometimes one or more of the episodes is also repeated, a common pattern being ABACABA. The rondo was often used for the final movements of Classical sonataform works. Root: the principal note of a triad or triad-derived chord. Round: a canon in which the melody is sung by two or more voices in strict imitation (i.e., using the same notes) of the original statement, and in which all the parts repeat continuously. (See Canon.) Rubato: literally, "robbed." A style in which the strict tempo is temporarily loosened by

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either speed- ing up or slowing down. Rumba: a lively Cuban dance, in quadruple time, divided into a characteristic 3 + 3 + 2 pattern of eighth notes. Saltarello: a fast Italian dance in 6/8 time. Samba: a fast, syncopated Brazilian dance in duple time, based on an Afro-Brazilian ring dance. Sarabande: originally a fast triple dance, by the 17th century it had become a grand slow dance, regularly featuring in Baroque dance suites. Scale: the successive notes of a key or mode. Scat singing: a style of jazz singing with nonsense syllables, popularized by Cab Calloway in the 1920s. Scherzando: jokingly, or in scherzo style. Score: the full copy of all notes to be played in a musical work. This may be in the form of a large "full score," or a reduced "miniature score," or a"vocal score" for use in rehearsal (with instrumental parts reduced to a piano part). Seguidilla: a fast Spanish dance in triple time. Semibreve: the British term for a whole note. Semiquaver: the British term for a sixteenth note. Semitone: normally, the smallest notated pitch difference in Western music-for instance, G to G sharp. Sempre: always, or still (for example, sempre piano, "still quietly"). Senza: without (for example, senza sordo, "without mute"). Septet: a composition for seven players. Sequence: a successive transposition and repetition ol' a phrase at different pitches. Serenade: a somewhat lighthearted piece, either a song or an instrumental work in several movements, such as those by Mozart, Brahms, or Schoenberg. Serial music: a way of writing music in which unity is supplied by basing the entire composition on a short series of notes in which no pitch is repeated until all are used once. Invented by Arnold Schoenberg in the 1920s as a way of ordering atonal music, the series originally consisted of the twelve tones of the octave (called a tone row). The series may be transposed to any other pitch, may be played backward, in inversion, or backward and in inversion to generate forty-eight separate forms from a single series. Schoenberg's pupils Alban Berg and Anton Webem refined the technique. Webem worked with series divided into three or four identical segments, to give the illusory sense that the work is written on a three- or four-note series. Berg used more than one series in each piece; in his opera Lulu. each character is identified by a particular series. In later developments, after World War 11, Olivier Messiaen extended the technique to apply to non-pitch elements such as rhythm and dynamic levels; and Igor Stravinsky, in his late works, often used series of fewer than twelve notes. Sextet: a work for six players (for example, a string sextet, consisting of two violins, two violas, and two cellos). Sforzando: a strong accent; written Shake: a trill. Shanty: a sailors' song.

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Sharp: a sign indicating that the pitch of a note should be raised by a semitone. Siciliano: a fairly slow dance with swaying rhythm in compound time, usually 6/8 or 12/8. Skiffle: hybrid of folk music and jazz played on improvised, nontraditional domestic instruments, such as washboards, jugs, etc. Slide: a glissando or portamento; or the moving part of a trombone. Slur: a curve over notes to indicate that a phrase is to be played legate. Sonata: an instrumental work for a soloist or two players. In early examples by Domenico Scariatti. the piece is in one movement, but in general a sonata is in three or four movements. The first movement is generally in sonata form, followed by a slow movement. In a fourmovement sonata, the third movement is usually a scherzo or minuet (although sometimes this is the second movement, preceding the slow movement). The sonata ends with a more extended last movement, usually at a fast tempo. This is the structure that many sonatas follow, although the departure of many of Beethoven's piano sonatas from the model suggests its limitations. Sonatas have been written more or less constantly from the late 18th century onward, and are still being written; there are distinguished examples by such contemporary composers as Pierre Boulez, Jean Barraque, and Elliott Carter. Sonata form: the musical form that evolved in the later years of the 18th century, used in almost every large-scale work-symphonies, quartets, piano concertos, and even ensembles in operas-well into the 19th century and beyond. Sonata form refers primarily to the organization of themes and harmonic relationships within a single movement, the general structure of which consists of an exposition, a development section, and a recapitulation. The exposition (which may be preceded by an introduction, usually in a slow tempo) presents the primary themes in the main key and a second group of themes in a subordinate key or keys, and a partial developments the entire exposition may be repeated, perhaps in different form (for instance, in a concerto,the exposition mav be played first by the orchestra alone and then again with a soloist). In the development section, any portion of one or more themes from the exposition may be presented with new or related material in any order and in any combination, moving through different keys but eventually returning to the original key of the movement. The recapitulation sets out the themes ol'the exposition in the same order as the exposition, but in somewhat different form, such as presenting both the primary and second group of themes in the main key; a short concluding passage, called a coda, may follow. This three-part structure is also known as ABA form. The sonata form lasted so long and produced so many masterpieces principally because it was capable of great variation. Sonatina: a short sonata, sometimes with the implication that it is not too difficult to play, such as those by Muzio Clementi; there are also elaborate examples, not for beginners, by Maurice Ravel, Jean Sibelius, and, most notably, Ferruccio Busoni. Song cycle: a sequence of songs, perhaps on a single theme, such as Mahler's Kindertotenlieder, or with texts all by one poet, for instance Debussy's Fetes Galantes, or having a continuous narrative, such as Schumann's Dichterliebe. Soprano: the highest female voice. Sordino: a mute. Sostenuto: sustained, often with a suggestion of playing quietly or more slowly. Soul: the pop refinement of church-based, African-American gospel music. Soundboard: the part of a piano that amplifies the sound. Spiccato: a type of bowing on stringed instruments in which the bow is allowed to bounce rather than be drawn across the string. Spirito: liveliness. Staccato: abbreviated and detached notes. Staff: the horizontal lines on which notes are set down; in modem notation, there are five

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lines on each staff. Steel band: an ensemble of beaten oil drums, played like tuned percussion instruments, originating in the Caribbean. Stop: a device that controls the different sets of pipes (or strings) for each note on an organ (or harpsichord), enabling the player to temporary change the tone color. Stretto: in fugue, the overlapping of the same theme or motif by two or more voices a few beats apart; also, more loosely, an accelerando, with the suggestion of an approaching close. Suite: a loose collection of instrumental pieces. In the Baroque period, a collection of dances as in B.ich's instrumental and orchestral suites; in the 19 th and 20th centuries, a series of character pieces, as in Holst's suite The Planets, or a set of excerpts from I larger work, e.g., the suites from Grieg's music for Peer G.Ynt or Ravel's Daphnis and Chloe suites. Swing: a form of big-band jazz, popular in the 1930s and '40s. with a strong element of massed effects and less improvisation than in earlier forms of jazz. Symphonic poem: a single-movement orchestral work with a narrative or a literary theme. Invented by Franz Liszt. it was taken up by such composers as C6sar Franck and, most notably, Richard Strauss, whose lonu and complex symphonic poems were popular and influential before World War 1. Symphony: a three- or four-movement orchestral work, sometimes with choir, generally in sonata form. Early sinfonias were single-movement overtures; but by the middle of the 18th century, such composers as Karl Stamitz were writing elaborate symphonies in several movements. In the hands of Haydn, Mozart. and Beethoven, the symphony attained enormous depth, balance, and variety of expression, ensuring that it remained a common form for composers. The Romantic period both continued the Classical tradition of the symphony-in the works of Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Brahms - and initiated a new kind of symphony with an implied or actual program, such as Beethoven's Sixth Symphony and the symphonies of Berlioz, Tchaikovsky, and Mahler. Twentieth-century composers have continued to write symphonies, and from Jean Sibelius and Carl Nielsen to Witold Lutoslawski and Peter Maxwell Davies, they have continually reconsidered and reinvented the form. Syncopation: placing the strong beat on what are normally the weaker beats in a bar. Thus, in a normal four-beat bar, the accents would lie, in order of strength, 1423. A syncopated bar would place the strongest accent on the second or fourth beat, or even, as in the rumba, on beats which lie between the normal quarter-note beats. Synthesizer: an electronic machine for producing artificial sounds and tones with any desired characteristic or quality, often recorded directly onto magnetic tape for future performance through amplifiers. System: a combination of two staves or more on which all the notes to be played simultaneously in different registers or on different instruments are vertically aligned. Tablature: a system of notation for plucked stringed instruments, for instance lute or guitar, in which the notes are indicated by means of the finger position required. Tango: a slow ballroom dance of Argentine origin in quadruple time, similar to the Cuban habanera. Tarantella: an Italian folk dance in rapid 6/8 time, characterized by light, quick hops and turns. Temperament: tuning. Instruments may be tuned to the exact pitches of a specific key, which would make the intervals between different pairs of semitones not precisely equal; or, as has generally been the case since the 17th century, they may be tuned so that the interval between B and C is the same as the interval between C and C sharp, etc. This system, known as equal temperament, is necessary if modulations from the original key are to be possible. Tempo: speed.

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Tenor: the highest natural male voice. Tenuto: a marking that means "held," indicating that the note should be sustained for its full value, and even a little more. Ternary form: a simple, common three-part form, in the pattern ABA-that is, consisting of a first section, then a second, contrasting section, followed by a repetition of the first section. Tessitura: the overall range of an instrumental or, more commonly, a vocal part. Theme: a melodic or, occasionally, harmonic idea used as a fundamental unit in a musical form; also called sulliect. Tie: a curved line indicating that two separate notes should be played as a single note, the length of which is the same as the sum of the length of the two individual notes. Timbre: the tone "color" of an instrument, voice, or register. Time signature: the two numbers that indicate the numbey of beats per bar of a piece of music, given at the beginning of the first staff or system of staves, and whenever the number of beats changes. The lower number shows the length of note assigned one beat (i.e., 2 as the lower number refers to half notes, 4 refers to quarter notes, 8 to eighth notes, etc.) and the upper number shows how many of those notes are in a single bar. Thus, 3/4 means three quarter notes to the bar; 5/16 means five sixteenth notes. and so on. Toccata: a fast keyboard piece, exploiting rapidity of performance, runs, and repeated notes. Tonality: the system of major and minor keys. Tone: in American usage, a pitch; also the interval of a major second. Tone row: See Serial music. Tonguing: in wind instruments, the articulation ol'a note or group of notes by the silent sounding of the consonant t or k. Tonic: the fundamental note of a key; also, the triad formed on that note. Transcription: the rewriting of a piece of music for instruments other than those for which it was originally written. Transition: a bridging passage between sections in a composition. Transposition: changing the pitch of a piece of music up or down a given interval. so that the internal relationships remain precisely the same. Treble: the upper half of an entire vocal or instrumental range, as opposed to bass; also, the highest voice in choral singing. Tremolo: the rapid repetition of a note, or the rapid slurred alternation between two notes. Triad: the basic form of three-note chord on which all diatonic harmony is based; it consists of a tonic plus the notes that lie a major (or minor) third and a perfect fifth above it. Trill: the quick repeated alternation between a note and the note a semitone or whole tone above or occasionally below it. Trio: a work for three instruments; also, the middle, contrasting section of a minuet or a scherzo. Triplet: a group of three notes to be played in the time normally taken by two. Triple time: a time with three beats in the bar. Tritone: the interval of the augmented fourth or diminished fifth, equivalent to three whole tones.

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Trope: an addition to or extension of the standard plainchant. Troppo: part of a tempo marking, meaning "too much"; for example, Allegro ma non troppo means "fast but not too fast." Troubadours: court poet-musicians of southern France, northern Spain, and northern Italy during the Middle Ages, often of noble family themselves. Tune: a melody. Tuning: the raising or lowering of the pitch of an instrument. or its strings, to produce correct intonation. Turn: a formal ornamentation of the notes around a principal note. Tutti: a passage for the whole ensemble, or for the orchestra without a soloist in a concerto. Una corda: the muting (or damping) mechanism on a piano. Unison: more than one instrument or voice playing the same notes simultaneously. Upbeat: the beat before a strong beat; also, the conductor's signal immediately before the first entry. Valves: on brass instruments, the pistons that alter the pitch by changing the length of the tube through which air passes. Variation: a musical form consisting of a series of progressively developed versions of a complete self-contained theme, either an original one or, as is common, a preexisting theme. Variation form is a very widespread form in Classical slow movements. as in Beethoven's Seventh Symphony. Verismo: a style of Italian opera from the last decade of the 19th century in which the setting is contemporary to the composer's own time, the manner is, to some extent, realistic, and the characters are drawn from everyday life. Verismo operas, of which the most famous is I Pagliacci (1892) by Ruggiero Leoncavallo, are often strongly melodramatic. Vibrato: a rapid undulation in the pitch of a note, or of two contiguous notes, made by an instrumentalist or a singer to increase the expressiveness of a passage. Virtuoso: an instrumentalist or singer of great technical skill. Vivace: a tempo marking meaning "lively." Vivo: a tempo marking meaning "with life." Vocalise: a vocal style of singing without words, or occasionally, a work for voice without words. Voice: one of two or more parts in polyphonic music. Voluntary: a piece for organ played before, during, or after a church service. Waltz: a dance in triple time of Austrian and Bavarian origin, popular throughout Europe in the 19th century and afterwards, especially the Viennese waltzes of Johann Strauss, Sr. and Jr. The waltz was often incorporated into symphonic works in the place of a scherzo, and independent concert waltzes were written by such composers as Schubert, Chopin, Brahms, Richard Strauss, and Ravel. Whole note: a note equal in time value to two half notes or four quarter notes; in Britain it is called the semibreve. Whole-tone scale: a six-note mode that consists only of whole-tone steps (for example, C, D, E, F sharp, G sharp, A sharp), instead of the combination of whole tones and semitones in other modes.

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Word painting: in vocal music, a passage that imitates some external element referred to in the words at that point. Yodeling: a folk-singing style switching from falsetto to normal voice and back again; common in Switzerland and the Tyrol.

traditional Spanish comic opera, from the 17th to the 19th century, that has spoken dialogue instead of recitative. Zarzuela:

REFERENCES A Team of Writers.1996. English for University Teaching. Semarang: Balai Penerbit University Diponegoro Semarang) Marcella Frank, Modern English a Pratical reference Guide New York University) Soemarno, Thomas. 2001. Cara menafsirkan Frasa Nomina dan Kalimat. Surakarta. Muhamadiyah University Press. Suharto, 2004. Music and Language : a stress analysis of English Song Lyrics.Articles of Harmonia.Semarang: Sendratasik Press. Wiratmo, Tri, dkk. 2002. Program Peningkatan Kemampuan Bahasa Ingris Mahasiswa S1 (UPT Pelayanan dan Pengembangan Bahasa UNS).

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