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Glóbulo Frontal La neurobiología de la Corteza Cerebral y Prefrontal del Cerebro Humano. Por Martin Howard

Copyright @2019 Ninguna parte de este libro puede reproducirse de ninguna forma ni por ningún medio sin permiso por escrito del editor, por Martin Howard.

Tabla de Contenidos 1 El Lóbulo Frontal ......................................................................................................... 3 Funcionamiento del lóbulo frontal .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Daño .................................................................................................................................... 6 Tratamiento.......................................................................................................................... 8 División .............................................................................................................................. 11 Cirugía ................................................................................................................................ 13 Teorías ............................................................................................................................... 14

2 La Corteza Prefrontal ................................................................................................ 17 Projección........................................................................................................................... 18 Conecciones........................................................................................................................ 19 Relación a Estudios Clínicos ................................................................................................. 20

3 La Corteza Cerebral ................................................................................................... 22 Conclusión ................................................................................................................... 24

1 El Lóbulo Frontal Cuando observamos las funciones de nuestro cerebro, cada área tiene un rol diferente, una tarea diferente, una “pericia” diferente a su gusto, que interactúa con las otras áreas y hace que la mente piense como lo hace. De modo que, ante todo, asegurémonos de separar las definiciones de las áreas de las que hablaremos y de obtener una mayor comprensión de cuáles de esas mismas definiciones se superponen y cuáles no. A medida que examinamos el material de este libro, los hechos se aclararán, ya que, a cada uno de los principales nombres relacionados, se dedica un capítulo. El lóbulo frontal tiene un rol esencial en inspiración y memoria. La motivación está también conformada por lo mismo. El lóbulo frontal es una pieza de la corteza cerebral del cerebro. Por sí mismos, los lóbulos emparejados se conocen como la corteza frontal izquierda y derecha. Como su nombre indica, el lóbulo frontal está situado cerca de la parte frontal de la cabeza, justo debajo de los huesos frontales del cráneo y cerca de la sien. Fue la última área de la mente en avanzar y evolucionar, según la ciencia, lo que la convierte en una expansión generalmente nueva para toda la estructura. Todas las criaturas de sangre caliente tienen un lóbulo frontal, pero el tamaño y la intrincación fluctúan de acuerdo a la especie. La mayoría de las investigaciones recomiendan que los primates tienen lóbulos frontales más grandes que muchos otros mamíferos, entonces en cierto modo, nuestra especie está exenta de cierta normalidad y nos hace a nosotros, la raza humana, más únicos y creativos, en consecuencia, otorgándonos, tal y como se lee en la Biblia, la dominación sobre otras criaturas. Los lados opuestos del cerebro controlan, en gran medida, las actividades en ambos lados del cuerpo. El lóbulo frontal no es un caso especial. Sigue el mismo patrón. En este sentido, el lóbulo frontal izquierdo influye en los músculos del lado derecho del cuerpo. Del mismo modo, el lóbulo frontal derecho afecta los músculos del cuerpo en la mitad izquierda del cuerpo. Esto puede tener un impacto en la forma en que el cuerpo se daña, por ejemplo, por un accidente y las lesiones cerebrales resultantes. El cerebro es un órgano complicado, con millones de células ensambladas, llamadas neuronas, trabajando todas juntas como si fueran una. Mucho de lo que hacen estas neuronas y cómo funcionan no está completamente entendido por la ciencia. Todavía hay lugar para la exploración y descubrimiento. La forma en la que los átomos afectan los billones de sus funciones, pensamientos, visiones, sentidos, emociones y acciones, lo más probable es que, hasta cierto punto, siempre sea un misterio para el hombre. El lóbulo frontal trabaja cerca de otras regiones de la mente para controlar cómo funciona el cerebro en general. La disposición de la memoria, por ejemplo, se basa en información tangible y toneladas de impulsos, que se basan en varias regiones del cerebro. Además, la mente puede "renovarse" para compensar el daño infligido cuando algo sucede. Esto no

significa que el lóbulo frontal pueda sanar de todas las heridas. Todavía. significa que otras regiones o áreas en el cerebro pueden cambiar a la luz del daño al lóbulo frontal.

Funcionamiento del Lóbulo Frontal El lóbulo frontal tiene una tarea clave, y se manifiesta en la planificación futura, viendo el panorama general, tomando decisiones a largo plazo, sopesando los pros y los contras, estimando riesgos y calculando recompensas. Las decisiones sabias están hechas sólo cuando un lóbulo frontal saludable está presente, por lo que es muy estúpido rodearnos de adicciones, que a menudo hacen literalmente que el lóbulo frontal se contraiga, funcione mal y se dañe. La gente que se entrega a la pornografía, alcohol, azúcar excesiva o ingesta de cafeína, o drogas a menudo no tienen idea de que esto resulte en una incapacidad para pensar claramente y tomar decisiones sabias. La autodisciplina es otro rasgo que está siendo controlado, parcialmente, por el lóbulo frontal. Individuos con el lóbulo frontal dañado batallan regularmente con la incapacidad de recordar ciertas cosas, recopilar información o datos, o tomar decisiones que haya pensado. Los aspectos importantes a menudo se pasan por alto, y los muchos factores que tienen la toma de decisiones inteligentes pueden ser ignorados por alguien que tiene un lóbulo frontal dañado. Una porción de las numerosas y diferentes capacidades del lóbulo frontal juega en las capacidades de cada día, incluídas:

• Generación del habla y dialecto: El área de Broca, una región particular en el lóbulo frontal, ayuda a las personas a articular y expresar lo que están pensando en palabras. Dañar esta zona puede socavar la capacidad de hablar, de comprender el dialect, o de dar discursos que tengan sentido. Pueden terminar articulando mal las palabras, repetirse a sí mismos, o haber fallado en la lógica, algo que personalmente noté en alguien que estaba específicamente obsesionado con puntos políticos particulares después de una cirugía cerebral.

• Habilidades motoras: El lóbulo frontal es el hogar del primer motor de la corteza. Esta región ayuda a facilitar movimientos intencionales, incluyendo correr, saltar y caminar. El daño en el lóbulo frontal puede conducir a una falla en el equilibrio.

• Comparar cosas: El lóbulo frontal ordena y caracteriza objetos, aparte de reconocer una cosa de otra. Arreglar, organizar y otras habilidades estructurales están influenciadas por esta importante área en el cerebro, y la falla de este lóbulo frontal para

funcionar apropiadamente puede conducir a un caos, pensamiento esporádico, algo que los acaparadores extremos a menudo no están completamente convencidos.

• Formar recuerdos: Virtualmente cada región del cerebro tiene un trabajo en nuestra memoria, entonces el lóbulo frontal no es especial en ese sentido. Sea como sea, los hallazgos científicos recomiendan que también desempeñe un papel en la elaboración de recuerdos a largo plazo. Su memoria está en juego cuando su lóbulo frontal está dañado.

• Entender y responder al sentimiento de otros: El lóbulo frontal es crucial para la empatía. Fallar en sentirse empático hacia los demás es carencia del funcionamiento del lóbulo frontal. En otras palabras, podemos en ocasiones ver a aquellos quienes son muy autistas, narcisistas, o tienen algún tipo de desorden y sentido de falta de empatía, lo que es causado por el lóbulo frontal.

• Formar la identidad: La increíble operación de autocontrol, memoria y diferentes funciones ayuda a enmarcar las cualidades y rasgos clave de un individuo. Dañar el lóbulo frontal puede profundamente ajustar la identidad y formar una personalidad percibida de forma diferente. Quienes han sido severamente dañados en su lóbulo frontal, pueden experimentar confusión sobre quien son y cuáles son sus propósitos.

• Conducta de recompensa y motivación: La mayoría de las neuronas delicadas de dopamina del cerebro están en el lóbulo frontal. La dopamina es una neurona que ayuda a reforzar los sentimientos de remuneración y motivación. Un lóbulo frontal dañado puede resultar en la falta de motivación o propósito. La recompensa de los sacrificios no puede ser vista claramente, y puede dejar a un individuo deprimido y miserable.

• Controlar la extensión de la atención, incluir atención selectiva en particular: Cuando el lóbulo frontal no puede supervisar todo apropiadamente, en ese punto, las condiciones como el TDAH pueden tener un mayor impacto.

Investigar en esta área particular del cerebro debería impresionar a cualquiera que lo estudia. Es mi opinión personal que este puede ser uno de los puntos, regiones o áreas más importantes, sin embargo, lo llamará ... del cuerpo y la mente humanos. Sin ello, estamos perdidos. Con ello, podemos lograr cosas increíbles y llevar vidas satisfactorias.

Por lo tanto, es algo que me gustaría enfatizar, a saber, que debemos estudiar este tema y cuidar nuestros cuerpos y ajustar nuestra conducta para que los neurotransmisores correctos, la dosis correcta de dopamina en el momento correcto y la correcta, la mayoría se debe buscar un estilo de vida saludable y óptimo para tomar decisiones más inteligentes, agudizar nuestras mentes y mejorar nuestras capacidades para lograr más felicidad y éxito en todos los aspectos de la vida.

Daño Por ahora, debería ser evidente que he estado intentando de implicar los peligros de infligir el daño del lóbulo frontal, y que nosotros parcialmente controlamos este daño, más o menos, por las sustancias que entran en nuestro cuerpo y el comportamiento que resulta en cortisol, dopamina y recompensas versus sacrificios. Las adicciones y compulsiones provienen del cerebro humano, y aunque muchas personas no pueden percibir el daño físico que genera un hábito destructivo, es muy real y no debe descuidarse. Dañar al lóbulo frontal puede, por ejemplo, resultar en efectos secundarios, tales como mal balance o coordinación.

A veces, este daño no está bajo nuestro control, así fue el caso con el especialista ferroviario Phineas Gage. Este hombre tuvo un accidente en el cuál un pico del ferrocarril golpeó su lóbulo frontal. Aunque sobrevivió al accidente, su vista fue dañada y su personalidad sufrió también. A través de los años, su impulso de control empeoró, y se volvió más agresivo en ambos; habla y comportamiento. Su autocontrol disminuyó, de acuerdo a quienes lo conocían.

La identidad de Gage cambió significativamente, y el trabajador una vez amable se convirtió en una amenaza para los que lo rodeaban.

Muchas de las historias sobre su personalidad antes del accidente tal vez han sido exageradas o falsas, pero el caso sentó las bases para lo que los científicos ya asumieron: El lóbulo frontal controla cuánto sentido tenemos y en qué medida podemos controlar nuestras emociones y acciones.

El caso muestra un punto más importante sobre el cerebro humano, y es que nuestra comprensión de él siempre se está desarrollando. Posteriormente, es absurdo prever con precisión el resultado de algún daño aleatorio en el lóbulo frontal, y las heridas

comparables pueden crecer distintivamente en cada individuo. Cada lesión y cada persona es diferente, y los detalles de tal daño determinan los resultados.

Como regla, sin embargo, el daño al lóbulo frontal debido a un golpe en la cabeza, un derrame cerebral y enfermedades, puede causar los síntomas acompañantes:



problemas del habla



cambios en la identidad



coordinación pobre



dificultades con el control de motivación



Problemas para arreglar o adherirse a una rutina

Tratamiento El tratamiento para las heridas del lóbulo frontal se centra en señalar la causa de la herida. Un especialista puede respaldar medicamentos para tratar una enfermedad o infección, un procedimiento médico para expulsar cierto crecimiento o un medicamento para disminuir el peligro de un ataque cardíaco.

Por supuesto, las cosas dependen de la razón del daño, las diferentes curas tal vez hagan el truco. Por ejemplo, las lesiones del lóbulo frontal luego de un accidente cerebrovascular pueden significar pasar a una dieta cada vez más vigorizante, y hacer más ejercicio para disminuir el peligro de un futuro ataque cardíaco o un acontecimiento similar. Luego de que la razón subyacente por el daño se determina, el tratamiento se concentra en ayudar a la recuperación del individuo tanto como sea posible.

El cerebro puede a veces resolver cómo funcionar alrededor del daño ya que diferentes regiones compensan el daño al lóbulo frontal. El tratamiento profesional, del habla y no intrusivo puede hacer avanzar este procedimiento. Estas medicaciones pueden demostrar particularmente apoyo en el comienzo de los períodos de recuperación, a medida que el cerebro comienza a remendar.

Las lesiones del lóbulo frontal pueden influenciar en la identidad, sentimientos, y conducta, como se mencionó anteriormente. La orientación individual, de pareja y familiar puede ayudar con la administración de estos cambios.

Las drogas que abordan los problemas de control de impulsos también pueden ser valiosas, especialmente para las personas que luchan con la atención y los déficits de motivación.

El tratamiento para el daño del lóbulo frontal se cambia con frecuencia, lo que requiere atención progresiva y una reevaluación incesante de la técnica de tratamiento. Puede incorporar consejeros profesionales del habla, especialistas, psicoterapeutas, especialistas del sistema nervioso, expertos en imágenes, y otros.

Recuperarse de un daño en el lóbulo frontal es a menudo un largo procedimiento. No sucede de la noche a la mañana. Como sabemos, nuestros cuerpos con frecuencia no se

curan instantáneamente, y esta parte del cerebro demuestra no ser la excepción. Por supuesto, todo depende del alcance o grado del daño, y la salud del individuo, cuán rápido la herida curará, si lo hace. El avance puede ocurrir de manera abrupta o rara vez y es difícil anticiparlo por completo.

El daño al lóbulo frontal puede suceder de muchas maneras. Hemos discutido las adicciones y los hábitos destructivos, y accidentes simples en los que la cabeza se daña en esa área particular. Mini golpes, o ataques isquémicos transitorios, son otra manera, tanto como los ataques al corazón en adultos de 65 años en adelante. La sangre se bloquea para que no fluya al cerebro como el resultado del golpe o debido a la ruptura de aneurisma en una arteria en el cerebro. Las heridas en el cerebro pueden conducir a la enfermedad de Alzheimer o Parkinson u otro síntoma de demencia. La película “La verdad oculta” con Will Smith hace referencias particulares a estos tipos de daños, afirmando que el fútbol americano incrementa la oportunidad de daños serios en la cabeza y así causa que los heridos experimenten una pérdida de control de impulso, e incrementa también la agresión, migrañas y ansiedad.

Los impactos básicos del daño al lóbulo frontal son diferentes. Los pacientes que se han encontrado con una lesión en el lóbulo frontal pueden conocer la reacción adecuada a una circunstancia, pero muestran reacciones impropias a esas circunstancias equivalentes cuando se trata de situaciones de la vida real. Del mismo modo, los sentimientos que se sienten pueden no ser comunicados en la cara o la voz. Por ejemplo, alguien que se siente contento no sonríe, y la voz no tendrá sentimiento. Similarmente, sin embargo, el individuo puede mostrar en la parte superior, excesivas e injustificables despliegues de otros sentimientos o emociones. La depresión es una aparición regular en pacientes con un accidente cerebrovascular. Las personas a menudo se han quedado desmotivadas por el daño en el lóbulo frontal. Alguien tal vez no tenga ningún deseo de hacer ejercicios típicos cotidianos y no se sienta con ganas de hacerlos. Aquellos que son cercanos al individuo que se le ha encontrado el daño puede que vean cambios en su comportamiento. Este cambio de identidad es normal en el daño al lóbulo frontal y fue ejemplificado en la cuenta de Phineas Gage. El lóbulo frontal es una pieza similar de la mente que está a cargo de capacidades oficiales, por ejemplo, prepararse para el futuro, criterio propio, habilidades básicas de liderazgo, la habilidad de concentrarse, y la capacidad de atención. Estas capacidades pueden disminuir radicalmente en alguien cuyo lóbulo frontal ha sido dañado.

Otro resultado común del daño es que las personas dicen falsas verdades mientras insisten en que lo que dicen es verdad. Esto es debido a la confabulación, lo que es un error de memoria definido como la producción de memorias fabricadas, distorsionadas y malinterpretadas sobre uno mismo en el mundo, sin la intención consciente de engañar.

Yo he personalmente experimentado esto en una relación de amistad con alguien que ha tenido trastorno límite de la personalidad. Ella decía mentiras sin mentir en realidad intencionalmente. Su personalidad había sido dañada tanto por el abuso en su niñez que su lóbulo frontal recibió un golpe numerosas veces, resultando en la distorsión de recuerdos y a veces convenientes ajustes de sus recuerdos a lo que ella quería creer. Cuando ella demandó a alguien basado en mentiras, yo aseguré al acusado que un detector de mentiras sería probablemente inútil, ya que ella creía en sus propias mentiras. Todas estas cosas están relacionadas con el lóbulo frontal.

Otro raro impacto es la paramnesia reduplicativa, en la que los pacientes confían que el área en la que viven actualmente es una imitación de una encontrada en otro lugar, como en la película “The Matrix”. Del mismo modo, los individuos que se encuentran con el trastorno de Capgras después del daño en el lóbulo frontal confían en que una "sustitución" indistinguible ha tomado el carácter de un compañero querido, pariente u otro individuo y actúa como ese individuo. Este último impacto es visto en mayor parte en pacientes esquizofrénicos que tienen un problema neurológico en el lóbulo frontal también.

En la corteza humana frontal, muchas cualidades y genes experimentan una expresión disminuida después de los 40 años y particularmente después de los 70 años. Este set incorpora cualidades que encarnan funciones importantes en la plasticidad sináptica, que es vital en el aprendizaje y la memoria, el transporte vesicular y el trabajo mitocondrial. En medio de la maduración, el daño de ADN se encuentra notablemente expandido en los promotores de estos genes mostrando actividad disminuida en la corteza frontal. En las neurones humanas refinadas, estos promotores se dañan específicamente por el estrés oxidativo. Las personas con trastornos neurocognitivos relacionados con el VIH, acumulan daños en el ADN atómico y mitocondrial en la corteza frontal, por lo que hay otra razón para evitar las enfermedades del VIH a toda costa.

Un informe del Instituto Nacional de Salud Mental dice que una variación genética de (COMT) que disminuye la liberación de dopamina en la corteza prefrontal se identifica con una ejecución más deficiente de las tareas.

División They all have particular functions and applications, and are typified by specific gyrus types, which obviously has nothing to do with the Greek “gyros,” that delicious dish my wife and I have recently enjoyed in a European restaurant. A gyrus is a ridge on the cerebral cortex and is often surrounded by a sulcus or multiple sulci. These two, gyri and sulci, make the brains look like spaghetti, if you will, and are typical for humans and other mammals. During fetal and neonatal development, the mind goes through a process called gyrification, even in the embryo. The brain starts to smooth off the edge and becomes a neural tube. The cerebral cortex is lissencephalic, or, in other words: smooth-brained. In the fetal brain, the gyri and sulci, those edge of the smooth, spaghetti-shaped parts of the brain, take shape as time elapses. Deepening indentations and ridges develop on the surface of the cortex in a natural way.

El lóbulo frontal está formado por varias partes: la lateral, polar, orbital (que también se llama basal o ventral) y la parte medial. Todos tienen funciones y aplicaciones particulares, y están tipificados por tipos específicos de giros, que obviamente no tienen nada que ver con el griego "giroscopios", ese plato delicioso plato que mi esposa y yo hemos recientemente degustado en un restaurante europeo. Un giro es una cresta en la corteza cerebral y a menudo está rodeado por un surco o múltiples surcos. In human beings, the frontal lobe becomes fully mature in the late 20s, which is why some people have indicated that youngsters and teenagers aren’t fully capable of making 100% reasonable, non-emotional decisions and think ahead in the same manner other adults do. Of course, this is a generalization and could be interpreted by those who are easily offended as an accusation as well, or a simple label, but taking these biological facts into account gives us greater insight in the development of the human brain and makes us think about the significance of one’s choices and behavior in the context of their cerebral stance in life. Of course, emotional maturity is greatly impacted by parents, environment, cultural factors, intelligence, and other influences, but the fact itself gives us the opportunity to see life in stages, in a way, as did Freud and many others with similar opinions. After full development, however, the frontal lobe isn’t always at its peak, and several studies related to Alzheimer’s disease, the frontal lobe, and aging, resulted into conclusions that indicated that the frontal lobe decreases in volume (or in other words, literally shrinks), 0.5%-1% per year in those labeled as living an unhealthy lifestyle, versus less than 0.5% or way smaller in those individuals who were living in a significantly healthier way. This explains forgetfulness and making less sense at an older age, as well as the major differences in aging and the related components of nutrition, stress-control, exercise, etc.

The frontal lobe plays a vital role in moving. It is the place for the primary motor cortex which controls exercises like sports, walking, moving, etc. The capacity of the frontal lobe includes the ability to estimate future outcomes that are the consequence of things that are being done in the present. Frontal lobes work a lot like filters. They have the function of perceiving what is socially unacceptable and suppress inappropriate or deviating activities, behavior, or words that would fall flat or become a cause of contention. Those who are socially awkward, have undoubtedly some issues in their frontal lobe. This doesn’t mean that their frontal lobe is necessarily smaller than others’ who are more socially educated or have intuitive senses that tell them what is commonly accepted or respected. Some of those who are autistic or have Asperger’s Syndrome, schizophrenia, or some other condition which causes them to miss social cues and lack empathy are often geniuses and intelligent or competent in other areas of life, where others are not. What is implied here, is simply that a certain part of the frontal lobe that focuses on such social cues may be underdeveloped, even if other parts are comparatively more impresses than the average individual. We all have a different set of ingredients, if you can call it that, in our brains, which highlight certain strengths and tones down other ones. One example: I have always been articulate, I speak several languages fluently (including English, which isn’t my first language actually), and I am interested in text, words, and synonyms, as you might have noticed by now. But give me something practical to do, like fixing the door or the car, and I space out, looking like a deer facing the headlights of a car. My wife, on the other hand, is dyslectic and is terrible at spelling and punctuation. It takes her longer to find the right words for the message she attempts to convey, and she struggles with multiple language learning. But when it comes to practical solutions, she is a genius who finds solutions quickly and fixes things, advances our lifestyle, or comes up with improvements I would have never thought of. In this way, we complement each other perfectly. The frontal lobe is also important when it comes to integrating long memories into the brain. These emotions and attached memories are derived from input from the cerebrum’s limbic system. Frontal lobes alter emotions to adapt to socially acceptable standards. In this way, reality is often modified in our minds, depending on the emotions, our mood, and other detailed experienced annotated to the actual event.

Surgery In the mid-twentieth century, a therapeutic treatment for psychological sickness, first created by Portuguese nervous system specialist Egas Moniz, included harming the pathways interfacing the frontal lobe to the limbic sytem. A frontal lobotomy (or frontal leucotomy) effectively decreased trouble, but at the expense of frequently blunting the subject's feelings, volition and identity. The aimless utilization of this psychosurgical methodology, joined with its serious reactions and a death rate of 7.4% to 17%, picked up an awful notoriety. The frontal lobotomy has, to a great extent, vanished as a mental treatment. Progressively exact psychosurgical methods are as yet utilized, albeit once in a while and not as a first solution. They may incorporate anterior capsulotomy (bilateral thermal lesions of the anterior limbs of the internal capsule) or the two-sided cingulotomy (including lesions of the anterior cingulate gyri) and may be utilized to treat generally untreatable obsessional clutters or clinical sorrow.

Theories The theories of about the frontal lobe can be divided into the following, with some lesspopular ones being the exception:

• Single-process theory, which recommends that "harm to a solitary procedure or framework is in charge of various distinctive dysexecutive side effects" In other words, damage to the frontal lobe may result into damage and dysfunctional part of all other parts in the brain.

• Multi-process theory, which proposes "that the frontal lobe official framework comprises of various segments that ordinarily cooperate in ordinary activities (which is heterogeneity of capacity)." In other words, the components of the frontal lobe work together every day, even though they focus on different functions.

• Construct-led theory, which suggests that "most if not all frontal capacity can be clarified by only one single construct (homogeneity of capacity, for example, working memory or hindrance." This implies that there is one central system in the frontal lobe that controls. Compare it to the multi-process theory, and it's more like a dictator versus a democracy that's going on in your brain.

• Single-symptom theory, which states that an explicit dysexecutive side effect (like confabulation or distorting truths) is identified with the procedures and development of the basic structures. In other words, if there is something wrong, it may be caused by the underlying structure and interaction of all parts of the frontal lobe.

It might be featured that the speculations depicted above vary in their emphasis on specific procedures/frameworks or build lets. Stuss (1999) comments that the subject of homogeneity (single develop) or heterogeneity (different procedures/frameworks) of capacity "may speak to an issue of semantics and additionally fragmented practical examination as opposed to an unresolvable polarity". In any case, further research will appear if a brought-together hypothesis of frontal lobe functioning that completely represents the assorted variety of capacities will be accessible.

The frontal lobes can be found at the highest area of our cerebrum behind our eyes. It’s where most of our character gets shaped. Two main regions in the frontal lobe stand out:

The motor cortex: This area is located at the very back of the frontal lobe. With this thin tissue, signals are being sent, which is called motor neurons. It tells us, as the name already indicated, to move. Our bodies react as a result. When we move our fingers, for instance, there is much more going on in the motor cortex than when we move our pinky toes, since our fingers comprise a vast scale of varied movements in an almost endless number of possible combinations. However, a simpler organ with only limited possibilities of movement could, in contrary, only trigger a limited number of neurotransmitters in the motor cortex to interact with each other. Ironically, the top of the motor cortex is in charge of the bottom of our body and vice versa. So when you move your toe, the very top of your motor cortex is triggered, while blinking your eyes sends a signal to the bottom of your motor cortex. It seems that our bodies linger on balance, and this is a fact that will be confirmed later in this book, when we will discuss the left and right hemisphere in the frontal lobe as well.

Broca’s area: This area is located in on the left side of the frontal lobe. This is true with some exceptions, which could be, on rare occasion, certain people (not all) who are lefthanded. With this area, our speech and the muscles in our mouth are controlled. Talking is not that simple, if you think about it. The many words, sentences, meanings, and the sounds we create with our tongue, the top of our mouth, and our teeth have endless varieties that create lisps, dialects, a high or low pitched voice, mumbling, screaming, etc. In case your Broca’s area is damaged enough, you won’t be able to talk at all.

Aside from these two important regions, there are a number of other sub-lobes located in the human brain that we will touch on for a moment:

Parietal lobes: These are in the back of the frontal lobe which are on the top of our head. So they are at the top in the back. They are connected to things and facts we associate with each other. In the parietal lobe lies the sensory cortex, which has the task to make us feel touching sensations in our body. Each time you touch something, whether is pleasure or pain, the information from the skin is being transmitted to sensory neurons, which transport those data to the thalamus. The thalamus redirects the messages to the sensory cortex, which makes us feel it. So each time you feel something soft, hard, sexually stimulating, painful, cutting, cold, warm, smooth or sticky, the sensory cortex is the one you can thank for it. In this cortex as well, the bottom of the body triggers the top of that

particular area, and the top of our bodies, our head, shoulders, etc. trigger the bottom of the sensory cortex.

Occipital lobes: These lie in the very back of our cerebrum. They are responsible for our sight. In it, the primal visual cortex helps us see with our eyes and understand the information that is being sent to our brain from our eyes. In these lobes, too, the information is reversed. So what we see with our right eye gets sent to the left part of the occipital lobes, and vice versa. It makes sense, then, if someone gets damage in the left part of that area in the brain, that his or her eyesight in the right eye could diminish or get damaged as well.

Temporal lobes: Directly above our ears on both sides of our head lie temporal lobes, which are responsible for our hearing. The auditory cortex is a part of these temporal lobes. These lobes are, in contrary to other lobes, not lateralized or reversed. The left temporal lobe is responsible for the hearing of the left and the right ear, something that has been mysteriously created asymmetrical in the human body.

Wernicke’s area: This is a region that can be found in the left temporal lobe. With it, we can interpret and comprehend written and spoken speech. When someone says something, when we listen to or read a book, the meaning of the words gets analyzed in this particular area, which is obviously vital to the development of language skills in young children. With Wernicke’s area, you listen and read. When this area gets damaged, you can suffer from what’s called “Wernicke’s Aphasia” and you would be less capable or fully incapable to comprehend what you are hearing or reading.

2 The Prefrontal Cortex When it comes to the “mammalian” brain anatomy, the front part of the frontal lobe is called the prefrontal cortex. Numerous people have demonstrated an essential connection between an individual's will to live, identity, and the elements of the prefrontal cortex. This region in the brain has been involved in arranging complex intellectual conduct, identity expression, basic leadership, and managing social behavior. The fundamental movement of this cerebral area is viewed as coordination of thoughts and activities as with inner goals. The most common mental term for functions completed by the prefrontal cortex area is the executive one. This identifies with functions to separate contradicting thoughts, decide what is right or wrong, better and best, the same or unique, future results of current actions, progressing in the direction of a characterized objective, forecast of results, desire dependent on activities, and social "control" (the capacity to contain urges that, if not stifled, could prompt socially unsatisfactory results). The frontal cortex bolsters solid principle learning. WIth the frontal cortex, we store rules and regulations, accepted behavior and criminal or controversial conduct. Thus the frontal cortex is essential for the development of a conscience.

In general, there are several ways in which we can define the prefrontal cortex:   

as the granular frontal cortex as the projection zone of the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus. as that part of the frontal cortex in which the electrical stimulation doesn’t induce movements.

Projection To characterize the prefrontal cortex as the projection zone of the mediodorsal core of the thalamus is part of the works by Rose and Woolsey, who demonstrated that this core projects to the anterior and ventral parts of the cerebrum in nonprimates. The projection zone definition is still generally acknowledged today, in spite of the fact that its value has been questioned. Modern track following examinations have demonstrated that projections of the mediodorsal core of the thalamus are not limited to the granular frontal cortex in primates. Subsequently, it was recommended to characterize the prefrontal cortex as the locale of cortex that has more grounded complementary associations with the mediodorsal core than with some other thalamic nucleus. Uylings et al. recognize, notwithstanding, that even with the use of this model, it may be fairly hard to define the prefrontal cortex unequivocally.

Connections The prefrontal cortex is exceedingly interconnected with a great part of the mind, incorporating broad associations with other cortical, subcortical and cerebrum stem destinations. The dorsal prefrontal cortex is particularly interconnected with cerebral regions required when thinking, and with perception and activities, while the ventral prefrontal cortex interconnects with regions that concern emotions. The prefrontal cortex likewise gets contributions from the brainstem arousal frameworks, and its capacity is especially subject to its neurochemical condition. Along these lines, there is coordination between our condition of excitement and our psychological state. The transaction between the prefrontal cortex and socioemotional arrangement of the human brain is pertinent for maturity improvement, as proposed by the Dual Systems Model. The medial prefrontal cortex has been ensnared in the age of moderate wave rest (SWS), and prefrontal decay has been connected to diminishes in SWS. Prefrontal decay or atrophy happens normally as people age, and it has been shown that more seasoned grown-ups encounter weaknesses in memory combination as their average prefrontal cortices corrupt. In monkeys, this same atrophy has been found because of neuroleptic or antipsychotic psychiatric medicine. In more established grown-ups, rather than being moved and put away in the neocortex amid SWS, recollections begin to stay in the hippocampus where they were encoded, as proved by expanded hippocampal initiation and contrasted with more youthful grown-ups amid review assignments, when subjects learned words that were connected to each other, rested, and afterward were requested to review the educated words. In other words, the memory in adults gets to a peak at a certain age, but degrades later in life, something we all know to be commonly true. A generally acknowledged hypothesis with respect to the capacity of the cerebrum's prefrontal cortex is that it fills in as a store of short-term memory. This thought was first defined by Jacobsen, who announced in 1936 that harm to the primate prefrontal cortex caused short-term memory deficits. Karl Pribram and partners (1952) distinguished the piece of the prefrontal cortex in charge of this deficiency as zone 46, otherwise called the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. As of late, Goldman-Rakic and associates (1993) evoked transient memory loss in confined areas of space by impermanent inactivation of bits of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

Relation to Clinical Studies Once the idea of working memory was set up in contemporary neuroscience by Alan Baddeley (1986), these neuropsychological discoveries added to the hypothesis that the prefrontal cortex actualizes working memory and, in some outrageous details, that and nothing else. In the 1990s this hypothesis built up a big audience, and it turned into the overwhelming hypothesis of PF work, particularly for nonhuman primates. To investigate elective elucidations of deferral period movement in the prefrontal cortex, Lebedev et al. (2004) explored the release rates of single prefrontal neurons as monkeys took care of an improvement stamping one area while recalling an alternate, plain location. Both areas filled in as potential focuses of saccadic eye development. In spite of the fact that the task made concentrated requests on momentary memory, the biggest extent of prefrontal neurons spoke to went to areas, not recalled ones. These discoveries demonstrated that short-term memory capacities can't represent all, or even most, delayperiod action in the area of the prefrontal cortex investigated. The creators proposed that prefrontal movement amid the postponement time frame contributes more to the procedure of attentional selection (and specific attention) than to memory storage. In other words, what was being chosen to give attention to, was less common and less influenced by the prefrontal cortex than the impulsive choices of giving our attention to. In case you've missed the definition of attentional selection, it is this: Goal-driven attentional selection is now and again intentional and purposeful yet may continue quickly and consequently too. At the point when the objective of visual search is known ahead of time, improvements that have an objective characterizing highlight catch attention. Over the most recent couple of decades, cerebrum imaging frameworks have been utilized to see regions in the brain volumes and nerve linkages. A few investigations have demonstrated that diminished volume and interconnections of the frontal lobes with other cerebrum areas are seen in patients who have been diagnosed to having mental problems and recommended intense antipsychotics; those exposed to rehashed stressors; the individuals who too much expend explicitly unequivocal materials; suicides; those detained; crooks; sociopaths; those influenced by lead poisoning; and day by day male potheads (just 13 individuals were tested). It is trusted that probably a portion of the human capacities to feel blame or regret, and to translate the truth, are reliant on a well-working prefrontal cortex. It is likewise generally believed that the size and number of associations in the prefrontal cortex relate to awareness, as the prefrontal cortex in people possesses a far bigger level of the cerebrum than in some other creature or animal. An audit on official capacities in sound practicing

people noticed that the left and right parts of the prefrontal cortex, which is partitioned by the average longitudinal gap, seems to wind up increasingly interconnected in light of predictable oxygen consuming activity.

3 The Cerebral Cortex The cerebral cortex is defined as the most essential area of the brain. In psychology, they refer to this part often because it is the one thing that makes us different than animals. It makes us human, in a way. It is sometimes referred to as gray matter, and neurons are all over the place. When we are born, our neurons are higher in volume, but they are inexperienced. By aging, the neurons gain experience in cooperating and sending back and forth signals through which neural networks are being formed. In a way, every time you practice something, neural networks are becoming more experienced. When you do something for the first time, even a daily routine, it’s usually awkward and difficult, but after practicing, the neurotransmitters form a team of habit-forming messages and networks, which allow the process to become faster and eliminate the necessity of hyper focus on the same activity. It makes sense that people who repeat the same action hundreds or even thousands of times, typically become better at what they do. The cerebral cortex is divided into the left and right hemisphere. Contralateral control, which is explained in one of the earlier chapters, basically means that the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side. We often see that people who are right-handed, for this reason, have a stronger left hemisphere, which makes them more effective at logical and sequential tasks. On the other hand (pun intended), left-handed individuals have a stronger right hemisphere and seem to be better at creative activities and spatial tasks. Of course, society pushes people into becoming right-handed because culture and language require reading and writing from left to right, but this doesn’t take away the fact that some go against the grain. The corpus callosum is a part of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres. Its task is to enable the left and right hemispheres to exchange information. People who have a severe case epilepsy, for example, have to get the corpus callosum removed by a surgeon, so that they will suffer less from seizures. The downside is that they become what is called “split brain patients.” So in this sense, the two hemisphere aren’t able to communicate to each other. Those patients have two different brains in their head. In those cases, there are solutions to be found in plasticity, which helps compensate for their losses and finds ways to have the hemispheres communicate again. The cerebral cortex is the external layer of neural tissue of the brain, in people and different well evolved mammals. It is isolated into two cortices, by the longitudinal gap that separates the cerebrum into the left and right cerebral sides of the two hemispheres we know about. The two halves are joined underneath the cortex by the corpus callosum. The cerebral cortex is the biggest site of neural integration in the central nervous system. It assumes a key job in memory, consideration, observation, mindfulness, thoughts, dialect, and awareness.

In substantial warm-blooded creatures, the cerebral cortex is folded, giving a more prominent surface zone in the cranium. Aside from limiting cerebral and cranial volume, cortical folding is urgent and important for the wiring of the mind and its useful association. In warm-blooded animals with a little cerebrum there is no collapsing and the cortex is smooth. The cerebral cortex is responsible for the following functions:

      

Shaping intelligence Shaping character and personality Motor function Organizing, strategizing, and planning Touch sensation Processing sensory information Language processing

In the cerebral cortex, there are both motor regions and sensory regions. The sensory ones receive information from the thalamus and process anything that is connected to our senses. Audio, vision, and kinesthetic sense all send signals to those regions. Within the sensory areas are association areas which give meaning to sensations and associate sensations with specific stimuli. Motor areas, including the primary motor cortex and the premotor cortex, regulate voluntary movement. The cerebral cortex covers the uppermost part of the human cerebrum. Pons, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and other cerebral structures to not match its complexity and possibilities. It is truly an evolutionary or creation masterpiece, either by nature or God, whichever you believe in (or both, which is another way of looking at it). Various disorders come from harm or death to cerebrum cells in the cerebral cortex. The side effects experienced rely upon the zone of the cortex that is harmed. Apraxia is a gathering of disorders that are typified by the failure to play out certain motor undertakings, in spite of the fact that there is no harm to motor or tactile nerve work. People may experience issues when walking, be not able to dress themselves or are unfit to utilize normal objects suitably. Apraxia is regularly seen in those with Alzheimer's sickness, Parkinson's issue, and frontal lobe disorders.

Conclusion When we study the human brain and its functions, we become more aware of what we are made of, why we think the way we do, and why we act in a certain way. Sure, we are all influenced by our parents or caretakers, the culture or generation in which we live, genes, our gender, our standing in society, and many other patterns, factors, and contributing circumstances and examples. But when it comes to the biological, underlying reasons of our behavior, we have to take a closer look at what we do to our brain. As mentioned before, we partially control how healthy our frontal lobe really is. We can learn all about the neurons that are being transmitted from and to the various regions in our brains, and the more we know, the more we understand how much of a product of our environment we really are. However, when we think about it, it is safe to assume that we do have a choice, in many cases, to value nutrition, exercise, learning, healthy developments, education, and the avoidance of anything that leads to compulsive, addictive habits and substances. It is imperative that we do what we can to control ourselves and our lives with the knowledge we’ve been given. Aside from the facts, this is my personal opinion, which I doubt would contradict anyone with what we call “common sense” and a healthy, clear mind. Thank you for reading or listening to this book. I wish you good luck on your journey in life.

DISCLAIMER: This information is provided “as is.” The author, publishers and/or marketers of this information disclaim any loss or liability, either directly or indirectly as a consequence of applying the information presented herein, or in regard to the use and application of said information. No guarantee is given, either expressed or implied, in regard to the merchantability, accuracy, or acceptability of the information. The pages within this e-book have been copyrighted.

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