OECS Environment and Sustainable Development Unit
Fisheries Management and Data Collection Training Programme
Prepared by Peter A. Murray for the Coastal and Marine Resources Management Programme September 2001 Revised February 2008
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Table of Contents Table of Contents
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Section 1 – Principles of Fisheries Management
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What is Fisheries Management?
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Why do we manage a fishery?
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When do we manage a fishery?
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How do we manage a fishery?
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Section 2 – Elements of Fisheries Biology
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Ecosystem and habitat concepts
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Growth of fish and how it affects fisheries management
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Overfishing – myth or reality?
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Section 3 – The Biology of Management and the Management of Biology
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Data collection
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Management measures
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People Management – working with fishers
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Section 4 – The Fisheries Management Team
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Section 5 – Lessons Learned in Fisheries Management
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Outside the Caribbean
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Outside the OECS
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Outside Your Country
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Within Your Country
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Section 6 – Building a Fisheries Management Team
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Section 1 Principles of Fisheries Management What is Fisheries Management? Fisheries Management is the pursuit of certain objectives through the direct or indirect control of effective fishing effort or some of its components. · It involves individuals, groups or both performing organized activities, in a coordinated manner, toward common objectives. · It assumes one or more objectives exists, towards which the organized activities are directed · Activities involve the establishment of formal and informal relationships among people to accomplish management objectives · Requires decisionmaking. It involves the evaluation and selection of alternatives in an atmosphere which is often risky and uncertain Why do we manage a fishery? There are many possible objectives of fisheries management: · · · · · ·
Increase profit to fishermen and their organisations Increase revenue to Government Increase foreign exchange earnings Increase integration between and among fisheries and other sectors (e.g. Tourism) Produce cheap source of protein for the nation Ensure that future generations can earn a reasonable living, or obtain a reasonable amount of protein, from the fisheries sector · Assist in strengthening communities which are dependent on fishing for sustainable livelihoods When do we manage a fishery? Fishery management is an ongoing process if it is to be successful in meeting the objectives set out for the industry. Management should not wait until it appears that the fishery is no longer sustainable, but should be proactive and ensure sustainability. Rational fisheries management (and development) requires that a set of welldefined objectives are developed for the sector. The policies and overall objectives must be identified for the sector as a whole, as well as for individual fisheries. This must be based on the best available understanding or the status of the fisheries resources at the time, and the costs and benefits of various management approaches. Management policies and objectives should also be based on the biological characteristics of each particular fisheries stock. Fisheries resources and the socio economic conditions that affect their utilisation are dynamic. This means that there is a constant need to monitor the effects of the methods used for catching fish and to make adjustments to the overall system as necessary in order to ensure sustainability of the resource and the viability of the fishery.
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How do we manage a fishery? Usually, the overall objective for a particular fishery is to maintain the catch as high as possible without depleting the stock, while at the same time avoiding large catch fluctuations from year to year. The Fisheries Management Plan is ideally the overall tool for managing the fisheries of a country. It identifies the status of the fisheries, and the actions needed to achieve management objectives. These management measures may also include a variety of options for controlling the level of fishing effort (and hence the proportion of the fish population which dies as a result of fishing – the fishing mortality). Measures may include legislation, rules, and agreements as well as education and enforcement programmes. The combination of measures selected and their effectiveness will depend on the: · · · ·
Biological nature of the resource Social nature of the particular fishery Economic nature of the particular fishery Policies guiding overall management and development of the sector
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Section 2 – Elements of Fisheries Biology Ecosystem and habitat concepts An ecosystem is a community of living things and the environment in which they live. In other words the habitat of a particular stock may be such that it is part of a particular ecosystem (and all the ecosystems of the world together form the biosphere). Ecosystems are defined by the form of the environment (a reef, an estuary) and the major communities of things living there (a coral reef, a mangrove forest). Both the living and nonliving things are a part of this ecosystem. Living things in ecosystems occur in groups called species populations, each of which consists of individuals so similar that they can breed with each other. The species population is a basic unit of nature. When a fish population is fished by a particular group of people, it is called a stock. The stock is the basic unit of fisheries management. The population of a species is always bigger than the stock of a fishery. Populations of different species form communities when they live together in particular regions of the marine environment called habitats (e.g. pelagic fish community, reef fish community, the fishing village). It is an understanding of the habitat of various species that helps us determine what stock they come from. The marine ecosystems in which fish live include the plants and animals that fish eat, the other animals that eat fish, the rocks, the corals, sponges and plants in which fish take shelter, the water in which they swim, and the weather that moves the water. Marine ecosystems have thousands of populations in them, each of which affects each other one (see figure 1), and each of which is affected by the environment. Man is always a part of any ecosystem, not separate to it. Man’s actions influence, and are influenced by the other parts of the ecosystem. Communities of fishermen are as important as communities of fish in managing a fishery. That is why it is important that we obtain certain types of information about the fishermen themselves. The effect of man’s activities on the other parts of the ecosystem can be direct and obvious (e.g. how fishing kills fish), or it can be indirect and very difficult to measure (like how coastal construction affects fish behaviour) Growth of fish and how it affects fisheries management Growth can be considered as the difference between what enters the body and what leaves it. It is a highly irregular process, varying with age, sex, season, climate, reproductive cycle, and population size. After passing through the juvenile stage most fish species grow in a fairly regular way with growth slowing until it almost reaches a maximum size such that any further increase in size takes place so slowly as to be negligible. The size where this occurs it is known as the “asymptotic size” or the “size of a very old fish”. In the region we tend to focus on length of the fish, as the measure of fish size, because it is relatively easier to measure under regional field conditions than individual weights of
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Figure 1. In marine ecosystems each population affects each other one
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fish; thus we speak about “asymptotic length). The equation that models how fish grow is incorporated into the models that suggest to us the status of the stock.
length
age
Figure 2. The “von Bertalanffy growth model, showing fish length going to an asymptote as the fish gets older The parameters from the growth model, called growth parameters, differ from species to species, from stock to stock, from sex to sex within the same species, and can take different values in different parts of the range of the species. In other words, we say that growth parameters are “stock specific”. These stock specific parameters provide the basis for determining the change in status of the stock as a consequence of fishing pressure (for example as shown in figure 3). It is this determination that serves to provide us with guidelines by which we will put in place the appropriate management measures. These measures, which will be discussed in more detail later, fall under a number of categories Figure 3. Stock status changes with increased fishing pressure
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· · · · · ·
Biological controls Gear controls Catch controls Monitoring control and surveillance Environmental controls Sustainable fisheries measures
Overfishing – myth or reality? Some years ago, two types of overfishing were recognised, however these days a larger number of manifestations of overfishing have been identified: · Growth overfishing, the easiest to grasp and to account for theoretically occurs when fish are caught before they had “a chance to grow” · Recruitment overfishing is what occurs when so few adult fish are left in an exploited stock that the production of eggs is reduced to the extent that recruitment of young fish to the fishery is impaired · Ecosystem overfishing is what takes place in an ecosystem when the decline (through fishing) of the originally abundant stocks is not fully compensated for by an increase in the biomass (weight of living material) of other exploited animals, for example by not compensating for the overall catch per unit of effort. · Economic overfishing occurs when less than maximum economic yield is obtained from a fishery, in other words, when fishing effort exceeds that needed to maximize the economic rent (simply put, the difference between the amount obtained from the activity and the cost of carrying it out) from the fishery. · Malthusian overfishing occurs as a result of the direct link between population growth (or density) and overfishing, such that with fishermen put shortterm gain ahead of future benefit even if it is to the detriment of the habitat which supports the fishery on which they depend. Put another way, Malthusian overfishing occurs because coastal systems cannot continue to serve as a convenient dump for excess labour and still produce ever increasing or even sustained amounts of goods and services. Some of the effects of overfishing are shown below. We can thus see the link between what is happening in the fishery and its impact on the society as a whole, moving overfishing from the realm of myth to that of an urgent reality. In singlespecies fisheries I. Reduction in size of the animals caught, hence a. Usually a reduction in value per unit weight II. Reduction of biomass on the ground, hence a. Reduction of catch per unit of effort (and hence returns) of individual vessels III. Reduction of total catch (at high levels of effort), hence a. Lowered overall food supply 8
b. Increased prices c. Need to import substitutes and hence, increased nutritional deficiency among poorer segments of the human population IV. Increased fluctuation of stock due to reduced number of age groups in the stock and to reduced ‘buffering’ of recruitment fluctuations, hence a. More frequent occurrence of periods with extremely low catches b. Increasing risk of occasional recruitment failure, inclusive of total collapse of stock and fishery V. Lowered income among fishers, hence a. A multitude of social ills such as violent conflicts between pauperized smallscale fishers and their ‘industrial’ competitors While in multispecies fisheries I. Same as (I) to (V) above, plus II. Massive changes in species composition of catch i.e. a. Disappearance of previously important highvalued species b. Increase of unmarketable species (trash fish), and hence c. Reduction in average value of species mix d. Loss of biological diversity
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Section 3 The Biology of Management and the Management of Biology Data collection A field data collection programme ideally has a number of components. Catch and effort, biological, economic and sociological data are gathered. In some instances, there is overlap between the types of data as a result of commonalities among them or their analytical requirements (Figure 4). For example, for biological data to be properly analysed, there is need for some corresponding catch and effort information. Thus, care must be taken to ensure that clearcut guidelines are followed to allow for maximum utility of the data collected.
Figure 4 Field Data Collection Programme
General guidelines for the collection of all types of field data 1. Write clearly at all times. Check data at the end of each interview to ensure that the relevant information has been collected 2. Use a pencil to record your information. Writing in ink may become smeared if exposed to water 3. Record all information on the data sheets directly; do not transfer data from loose scraps of paper away from the data collection site 4. Keep your completed data sheets in a secure place at all times 10
5. Familiarise yourself with the target species for which you are required to collect field data if at all. Ask yourself the following questions: a. From which species are fisheries data to be collected? b. How are these species caught by vessels that use the landing site? Do vessels use more than one fishing gear to catch the same species? c. What types of data are to be collected for a particular species? Is it catch (total weight) and effort data only? Length frequencies? Maturity and ageing? d. If you are doing individual measurements you should ask yourself the following questions: are most of the fish landed for the species less than or greater than 30 cm? Are most of the fish landed for the species less than 1 kg; between 1 and 5 kg or greater than 5 kg? Guidelines for collecting Catch and Effort Data General 1. Do not ask questions unnecessarily. Fishermen are often suspicious of persons asking questions related to their income and are irritated after a long and frustrating fishing trip; and may be impatient in answering your questions. 2. Obtain as much background information for the landing site, this may be compiled over time based on your previous visits and should include information concerning: a. How many vessels are based on the landing site? b. Where are the fishing grounds located? c. What is the predominant fishing gear used by the vessels at the landing site? d. Is there any distinct pattern in the gear use (e.g. seasonal, diurnal etc.)? e. Do vessels use more than one fishing gear during a fishing trip? (e.g. trap fishing may be combined with handline or trolling) f. Does crew size vary among the vessels? 3. Minimise your interference with the natural flow of the post harvest fishing operations. In some cases fishermen make special arrangements to dispose of their catch (e.g. catch may be sold to special vendors) it is a good practice for you to note the catch species composition and the total weight of each species sold. After the fisherman has conducted the transactions you may then obtain the relevant information for fishing effort and other catch information that you may have missed (e.g. discards, portions of catch retained for personal consumption, which species were caught by each fishing gear etc.) 4. Do not select a vessel to collect catch and effort data because the fisherman is friendly, or he always has a large catch. Select your vessels randomly where possible. 5. If a vessel that you selected to be interviewed did not catch any fish, try to ascertain the reason for this as there may be valuable information (e.g. the trip was terminated due to bad weather, mechanical problems etc.) Remember the old saying, “every day is a fishing day, but not every day is a fish catching day”. It is important to record the fishing effort that was spent.
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Specific 1. Note the time you arrive at the landing site 2. Determine the number of vessels that have gone to fish. This may be obtained from your knowledge of the landing site based on your previous visits. 3. Decide on a sampling strategy. You should decide whether you can interview all the vessels that return to port; if not, you may wish to interview every n th boat that returns (e.g. if 10 vessels are expected to return during your visit, you may decide to sample every third vessels that returns to port). 4. Record the vessel identification mark. Remember, this is the only information that will allow you to trace your recorded catch and effort, and is also used to trace the origin of biological data that are collected. 5. Determine the type of fishery for which the vessel was involved. 6. Complete as many of the sections as you are able to based on your observations and knowledge (e.g. number of crew used, fishing gear etc.) If you suspect deviations from the normal fishing activities ask the fisherman to verify this. 7. Determine if the trip was regular, if this was the case there may be no need to ask certain questions (e.g. days fished, days in/out etc.). 8. Decide on the primary (main) fishing gear that was used; this gear is associated with the target fishery. 9. Determine which species were caught by each fishing gear that was used. You should rely both on observation and your knowledge of the fishing practices (e.g. you would not expect wahoo to be caught in a trap). If you are uncertain ask the fisherman which species were caught by each gear. 10. Record the total weight of each species caught by each fishing gear. If you are unable to obtain this detailed information, you may wish to obtain total weights for the major species groups landed and obtain an estimate for the other species in the catch. 11. Determine the total fishing effort for each gear deployed. This is the amount of gear that was used to obtain the respective species. The units of fishing effort that are to be recorded are: a. Trap fishing – total number of traps hauled and soak time b. Line fishing – number of line fished, soak time and the number of hooks used on each line c. Trolling – number of tows made by the vessel d. Beach seines – number of hauls e. Nets – number of sets/hauls made f. Diving – number of divers and number of dives made by each person 12. Note all vessels that have returned from fishing regardless of whether you obtained an interview. Guidelines for the collection of total weights (mass) General 1. Select a method that you find least time consuming. Remember that you are required to obtain catch and effort information from as many vessels as possible. 2. Try to develop your skills in estimating total weights so that you become competent in using at least one of the methods available.
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3. Use the post harvest process to your advantage. You should rely on your background knowledge especially with respect to the stages involved in the post harvest stages of fish production. 4. Ask a fisherman to verify your estimates of total weight if you are uncertain of your estimates. Specific 1. Obtain an estimate of the total weight (gross weight) of the catch (i.e. all species combined). You may use one of the following methods to achieve this: a. Obtain a visual estimate of the weight of the total catch. This method is most convenient and with practice you will learn to perfect this art. If you are uncertain ask the fisherman to estimate the total weight of the catch. b. Sum the weights of known volumes. This method is most convenient where the fish are transferred from the vessel using a standard container (e.g. a bucket, crate etc.); the total weight of catch is related to the number of the containers that are transferred. In certain areas you may also find most of the fishermen use similar containers. You may then determine the capacities of such containers and use this as the standard for that particular landing site. Identify a common unit of measurement that may be used at a particular landing site; you may want to ask your supervisor to assist you in determining the capacity of such containers at a convenient time. 2. Obtain an estimate of the weight of each species group that was caught by each fishing gear. This may be facilitated by any of the following methods: a. Estimate the relative proportion of each species group in the total catch (start with the species group with the largest overall weight then work your way “downwards”); an estimate of the weight for each group is then determined based on your previous estimate of total weight. b. Obtain a visual estimate of the weight of each species group c. Note the weight of each species group as it is sold, then obtain totals for each species group at the end (as shown in figure 5, if you total weights of all the species groups that were sold, then you will obtain an estimate of the total weight of the catch (assuming there were no portions retained for any particular reason). This method allows you to determine estimates of both the weights of the species groups and the total weight of the catch at the same time. As this method is particularly time consuming you might wish only to use it when you have a lot of time to spare. Guidelines for measuring individual weights 1. Record all individual weights in grammes only 2. For cases in which the species landed are generally less than 1kg in weight, measure the weight to the nearest 1g. 3. For cases where the species landed are generally between 1 and 5kg in weight, measure the weight to the nearest 10g. 4. For cases where the species landed are generally greater than 5kg in weight, measure the weight to the nearest 100g.
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Figure 5
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5. When rounding to the nearest measurement, use the lower reading at all times (e.g. whether the fish weighs 400.7g or 400.2 g it should be recorded as 400g if you are measuring to the nearest 1g; a fish of 4kg 567g would be recorded as 4kg 560g (or 4.56kg in other words) to the nearest 10g, etc). Guidelines for the collection of length frequencies General 1. Know what species you are required to measure. Remember, if you collect length frequencies for the wrong species your time will be wasted 2. Ensure that the relevant catch and effort data is collected. If you are uncertain, proceed to collect the relevant catch and effort data. If this information is not made available, the biological data you have taken the trouble to collect will only be of limited use and again you would have wasted your time (except for the practice gained in making the measurements, the data will be of little use to anyone without the relevant catch and effort data). 3. Check whether fish was caught from more than one fishing area. If this was the case, you will need to fill out the data sheet for each fishing area where fish was caught. Do not measure fish from vessels where fish from more than one area has not been separated by area. 4. Check whether more than one gear was used to catch the species that you intend to measure. If this is the case you will need to fill out a data sheet for each gear that was used to catch that species. 5. Record the total weight of the species caught on the trip for any given fishing gear. 6. Determine whether the catch has already been sorted. If the catch was sorted by size, only measure the fish if you can do so for the whole catch of that species. 7. Decide whether you can measure all the fish of a given species in the landing. If so, proceed to measure and record the length frequencies. If not, you must take a representative (fig.6) sample as follows: a. Separate the catch into smaller equal piles; ensure that each pile contains roughly the same number of individuals, and spans similar size ranges b. Determine the total weight of a pile c. Select at least one pile and measure and record the lengths of all the fish contained in the pile Figure 6. A representative sample
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If it is not possible to conveniently sample a particular catch in this manner, do not measure any fish from this catch 8. Measure the fish in your sample in the following order: a. Measure the smallest individuals first b. Measure the largest individuals next c. Measure the sizes that fall in between last 9. It is better to collect small amounts of data from a (relatively) large number of vessels, rather than collecting large amounts of data from a few vessels. Guidelines for measuring individual lengths 1. Use fresh specimens where possible 2. Place the fish flat on a measuring surface so that its snout is at the headboard 3. For fish species with a forked tail, measure the distance from the snout to the notch in the tail (this is called “the fork length”: figure 7) 4. For all other fish species, bring both edges of the tail together, then take your reading of the longest measurement (called “total length”: figure 7). 5. Take all length measurement readings in cm only for all species. a. Methods of measuring lengths of other types of marine animals other than fish are also shown in figure 7. 6. For the cases in which the species landed are generally less than 30cm long you are required to measure each fish to the nearest 0.5 cm. 7. For the cases where the species landed are generally greater than 30 cm long, you should measure each fish to the nearest 1.0 cm. 8. Round each to the nearest unit below at all times (also shown in figure 7). Guidelines for delivery and encoding length frequencies General 1. Record all the relevant background information that will be required to complete the data collection exercise for a given vessel. In compiling this information you will need to find out a. Where were the fish caught? b. How were the fish caught? c. Were the fish caught using more than one gear? d. How much fish was caught by each gear? 2. If a species is caught from more than one fishing area by the same vessel, you should use separate data sheets to record the fish caught in different areas. 3. If a species is caught using more than one fishing gear by the same vessel, you should use separate data sheets to record the fish caught in different gear. 4. Ensure that the minimum catch and effort data are collected for the fish that you measure. Specific 1. Take the length measurement reading for each fish 2. Enter the relevant size class in the appropriate column on the data sheet (for fish generally less than 30 cm use a 0.5cm size interval, i.e. 15.0, 15.5, 20.0, 20.5 etc.; and for fish greater than 30 cm use a 1.0cm size interval i.e. 40, 41, 42, 43 etc)
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Figure 7
3. Denote each individual that you measure in each size class by a single vertical stroke 4. Tabulate the individuals measured in each respective size class in groups of five by making the fifth mark diagonally across the preceding four. 5. Note the sex of the fish where possible. You should use your knowledge of the differences in external features for appropriate species (e.g. in most parrotfishes
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the male has a very different colour from the other sex). Tally the sexes separately once you can distinguish between them. 6. At the end of each interview, write in the total number of individuals for each size class. 7. Check to verify that you have completed all the sections on the data sheets. Management measures The decision on the type of management measure to be utilised for a particular fishery is often based on the best available scientific information on the status of the stock that is exploited by the fishery. Consistent with this, there must be conceptual criteria which capture (in broad terms) the management objective for the fishery. These are know generally as Conceptual Reference Points, where a reference Point can be defined as “a conventional value, derived from technical analyses, which represents a state of the fishery or population, and whose characteristics are believed to be useful for the management of the unit stock”. In practical terms reference points may frequently assume arbitrary values and are often specified without indicating the probability of error. Two of the more common conceptual reference points are: ü Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) § When the objective is to maximize the catch obtained from the fishery (maximum yield), a conceptual reference point known as MSY is frequently used. MSY can be considered to be the maximum constant yield that can be taken year after year. ü Minimum Biologically Acceptable Level (MBAL) § This is the point beyond which “overfishing” is said to occur. Overfishing itself can be described in a number of ways as we saw earlier. To implement fishery management, these conceptual criteria must be converted to a technical point of reference that can be calculated or quantified on the basis of biological or economic characteristic of the fishery. Thus all Conceptual Reference Points to be used are represented by one or more Technical Reference Points, for which the methodology of derivation and measurement is clearly specified. These reference points must also have a means of verification (MOV: i.e. where do we find the information that lets us know when we have reached the reference point?) and an objectively verifiable indicator (OVI: what value of which parameter tells us that we have reached the reference point?), defined and agreed upon in advance, so that they can be acted upon without the necessity for negotiation. It has been found over the decades that it is more important that the basis for fishery management action be clear and indisputable (or maybe: “undisputed”) than that it should claim to be precise and accurate. The many technical reference points that have been suggested to allow rational exploitation of fishery resources can, in terms of their use, be placed into two categories: Target Reference Points (TRPs) and Limit Reference Points (LRPs). ü A Target Reference Point indicates to a state of a fishery and/or resource which is considered to be desirable and at which management action, whether during
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development or stock rebuilding should aim. Thus, managing a fishery corresponds to adjusting the inputs to, or outputs from, a fishery until one or more of the primary or secondary variables corresponds to the TRP chosen. TRP management requires active monitoring and continual readjustment of management measures on an appropriate (usually annual) timescale. ü Limit Reference Points indicates a state of a fishery and/or a resource which is considered to be undesirable and which management action should avoid. In other words a LRP may either correspond to some minimum condition or some maximum condition at which point a management action which has been (previously) negotiated by all stakeholders is automatically triggered. Where information necessary to use complex mathematical models is not available (like in developing countries or for new fisheries) qualitative or semiquantitative criteria also can be used directly as LRPs. The TRPs and LRPs can be incorporated into a set of management criteria. These can be developed most effectively if based on a sequence of questions and answers, and if one or more of the criteria are infringed, a preset management response is triggered (figure 8). The management action triggered often takes the form of instituting a management control measure.
Figure 8. Triggering management action based on reference points
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Some of the different forms of control measures are outlined below. Biological controls Objectives: 1. Preventing harvest of juveniles 2. Protecting breeding and nesting areas and activities 3. Reducing the harvest of overexploited or threatened species 4. Reducing damage to critical habitats Options ü Size limits § A minimum legal size for each species can be set so that it allows individuals to reproduce several times before they can be caught legally. ü Closed areas § Fishing and other forms of “extractive use” of fish stocks can be prohibited in areas which are particularly important as breeding grounds or nursery grounds ü Protection of eggs and nesting females § Harvesting eggs, or disturbing nesting females and the nesting activity can be restricted ü Complete protection § There may be need to completely protect a resource that has been seriously reduced in terms of abundance or distribution. Such a ban may remain in place until scientific research proves that the population has recovered significantly to allow some stipulated level of harvesting to start again. Catch controls Objectives 1. Controlling the level of catch over time 2. Maintaining fish stock productivity Options ü Limited entry § Licensing all existing vessels and/or fishers provides the opportunity to control or limit the number or type of new entrants into a particular fishery ü Close seasons § Prohibition of the use of a resource during a specified part of the year is often used to protect particularly vulnerable/critical biological activities ü Fishery periods § Similar to close seasons, these periods are more flexible in terms of when they start and stop. This option is suitable for fisheries that target a reproductive phase of the life cycle. Gear controls Objectives
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1. Controlling gear efficiency 2. Preventing the use of destructive gear and practices 3. Preventing the harvest of juveniles Options ü Mesh size regulation § Fishing gear do not capture all sizes and all species of fish with equal efficiency. If it becomes necessary to avoid capture of small juvenile fish, the size of the mesh used in various types of nets and traps can also be regulated ü Location of use § Gear which tend to capture small sizes, or are destructive when used in certain types of sea bottom, can be prohibited from certain areas by zoning these areas as nonfishing zones ü Total ban § For particular nonselective or very destructive gear a total ban can be imposed. If these gear are imported, additional controls can be placed at the port of entry ü Duration of use § The time a gear is allowed to remain in the water between sets can be limited, reducing wastage resulting from individuals dying as a result of starvation, injury or predation Monitoring, Control and Surveillance Objectives 1. Determining the resources available 2. Monitoring levels and impacts of use 3. Establishing effective framework 4. Enforcing laws, regulations and agreements 5. Fostering user compliance and cooperation Options ü Data collection § Collecting data and information from catches, and on levels of fishing effort, can yield early warning signs and allow for management action well before fishery collapse leads to drastic social and economic hardship ü Research § Research is needed to assess the overall status and nature of the resource. Through this, the “bigger picture” can be obtained and management decisions can be made on the extent and condition of the overall resource ü Fisheries legislation and agreements § The legal framework needs to address all the components related to fisheries policy and development ü Authorised officers § Fisheries laws are upheld by personnel authorised to do so under the relevant legislation.
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Environmental controls Objectives 1. Avoiding marine pollution 2. Reducing habitat destruction Options ü Pollution control § Prohibitions can be placed on pollution of the fishery waters. Polluters can be made to pay for remedial action that has to be taken ü Ban on noxious and other destructive substances § Prohibitions are placed on poisons or explosives that are particularly destructive to all sizes and species of fish, as well as causing damage to habitats. Sustainable fisheries measures Objectives 1. Ensuring sustainability of the sector 2. Ensuring sustainable use of fisheries and marine resources 3. Facilitating effective consultation with interest groups/stakeholders 4. Ensuring social and economic stability for sectoral development Options ü Fisheries management planning § The means of considering the short term impacts of day to day use of and impacts on the resources, on its long term future ü Fishery advisory mechanisms § A key institutional arrangement to be established for effective consultation in developing and managing the sector can be an interagency body such as a Fisheries Advisory Committee (FAC) ü Collaborative management/ comanagement § This allows for fisheries management and development to be integrated into other national policies and plans. Comanagement can include mechanisms where specific rights and responsibilities are granted to management agencies or user groups. Most, if not all, of the control measures mentioned above are essentially geared at changing the behaviour of people. Thus it is essential that fisheries managers have at least some “people management” skills. People Management – working with fishers Fishermen spend a great deal of time observing nature while at sea. There is a lot we can learn about the lives of the fish, their relationships to the environment, and their response to man simply by talking to fishermen. The best fishermen retain and use not only what they have learned in a lifetime of working on the sea, but also the knowledge of their predecessors. Thus, in the course of work as a fisheries officer, a person will have opportunity to acquire some of the special knowledge of fishermen. This knowledge
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should be treated with respect. It may prove useful, not only to you as a part of the fisheries management team, but also to you personally. If a fisherman is forthcoming about the habits of fish and the patterns of their occurrence: write them down. One thing you will hear a lot from fishermen are complaints. Remember that unlike a farmer who (most likely) owns his land, the fisherman does not own the sea, or the fish in it. This means that as well as suffering the changes in the weather and the market, the fisherman has to share the resource with everyone else who wants to fish. He knows that the fish he does not catch today may well be caught by someone else tomorrow. Thus, there may seem to him to be no strong reason to be careful not to take too many, or too small fish, unless he is sure that his fellow fishermen will respect nature as well. Bear in mind though, that regardless of how they may appear to behave, most fishermen are aware of what is happening, and want to hunt fish in a way that leaves enough for their future livelihood, and even for their children. There are three problems, however, that make it hard for even the most forward thinking fishermen to achieve this goal. 1. Fishermen do not always have a good way of knowing how much fish of what size is enough, and how much is too much. By the time they see the obvious signs like greatly reduced catches and sizes, it is often too late to save the fishery 2. They cannot be sure that other fishermen will respect the rules designed to protect the fish stock and sustain the fishery, even if those rules are clear. This is a question of “human nature” and its effect on the enforcement of laws 3. Fishermen cannot count on a guaranteed access to the fish resource, unlike the farmer who has a fixed amount of land that (only) he can use. If too many people join the fishery, no matter how prudent they are, there simply will not be enough to go around These problems exist in your country, the Caribbean, and indeed, most of the tropical world. The information you gather from the fisherman is a first, important step in solving these problems because: 1. The numbers and sizes of fish recorded in the field will/can are used to inform the fishermen themselves of change in their fish stock as it happens, so that management measures such as fishing seasons and mesh sizes can be used to protect fish stocks before they decline too far. 2. It is impossible to get people to obey laws they do not believe in. The data collector on the abundance of fish stocks and the amount of fish taken by man will educate society about the value of rules to manage the fisheries, and will provide fisheries managers with some of the information they need to choose more wisely among different management options 3. One of the hardest decisions facing politicians is how to divide up scarce resources fairly. These decisions can never be fair until it is known how much fish there is to divide up, how much of it different groups in society are getting already, and how much effort it takes to get it. Fish are relatively scarce in the Caribbean (as compared to temperate waters) but we do not know how scarce
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they are compared to the demands of the people. The field information collected is vital in helping alleviate this situation. The role of a fisheries data collection/extension officer Given all that we have just said, the role of a data collector cum extension officer is very much that of a partner with the fisherman and other stakeholders as well as a facilitator (figure 9), a liaison officer, an information gatherer, and often and advisor, all rolled in one. This means that the officer must: 1. Build trust with empathy and humility Figure 9. Acting as facilitator a. Try to understand the person from their perspective b. Listen for feelings; don’t concentrate on the facts as these are often less important than how the person feels c. Use restating to ensure that you understand what is being said to you d. Try not to express shock or judgment: accept the person and their feelings e. Be aware of body language, both yours and the person you are listening to f. Try to see yourself as the fisherman sees you g. Be friendly and polite (while fostering a few good informants) h. Express concern, acceptance and friendship 2. Respect privacy, confidentiality and the speaker’s knowledge a. If no one else is in earshot of your conversation then assume that what you have heard is only for your ears (and the data collection supervisor’s computer) b. Fishermen are (understandably) cautious about certain types of information, such as gear type and fishing ground. They may only reveal such information to you after a long period of assessing your discretion. Betray this trust and you will have lost a valuable partner. c. Most fishermen know more about what they do than you! Respect his knowledge even though you may not understand all of it, or if you think he is wrong 3. Know his/her place and know his/her job a. A fisherman’s partner not a superior. Neither is the fisherman simply a source of data. b. A junior scientist, not a policeman. When you collect data on a fisherman’s catch, you are collecting data for scientific research. The information you collect is to be used exclusively to estimate the status of the fish stocks, and how much the entire fisher is exploiting the resource, not how much a particular individual takes or how much money that individual makes. A much as is practicable, you share an obligation to keep the fisherman informed of the results of your work and to help them better appreciate the value of good fisheries data and scientific research.
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c. A representative of the fisheries division, not of government policy or politics. Do not attempt to explain, interpret or rationalise government policy when you are out collecting catch related data, that is for another person or another time d. A listener, not a mediator i. Do not interrupt, unless you are doing so to block or safely re direct potential confrontation ii. Use openended questions to encourage the stakeholder to speak more about their concern iii. When listening, indicate that you are doing so by vocalizing (e.g. mmm, uhhuh, yes, oh, etc.) iv. Provide help to allow the other person to elaborate on their expression of feelings v. Do not talk more than you have to (we have one mouth and two ears!) e. A data collector, not a tax collector. You are not there to determine how much a particular fisherman earns. You may, however, have to gather information about the value of the catch and the cost of fishing. These are not to be seen as being the same as determining how much he earns! 4. Minimize inconvenience and intrusion a. Be sensitive to fishermen’s lives, they can be very hard b. Also be sensitive to his moods and preoccupations c. Don’t interfere with marketing activities d. Apologise for any perceived imposition 5. Avoid confrontation a. Do not take sides in any fishermen’s disputes b. If a bad situation develops, back off and report to your supervisor 6. Enjoy the work being done; it can be interesting, pleasant and even exciting.
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Section 4 The Fisheries Management Team We must bear in mind that effective management of the fisheries sector is the management of the use of fisheries resources so that it can contribute to the livelihoods of the people of the nation over the long term in a way that future generations do not lose the ability to enjoy the resources (and their use) that the current generation enjoys (let’s call it “sustainable use”). This means that a number of people or groups of people have a role to play. The fisheries management team is made up of all the persons whose decisions and/or behaviour can impact on sustainable use of fisheries resources: ü The Fishermen and other members of the Community who elect government representatives (and pay your salary) ü The Minister with responsibility for fisheries and other members of cabinet who respond to their electorate’s wishes and enact legislation ü The Director of Fisheries and Marine Resources (DF&MR) who provides options for management to the minister and advises him on fisheries matters ü The Fisheries Advisory Committee (FAC) members who advise on the management and development of the fisheries sector (figure 10).
Figure 10. Members of the FAC are an important part of the team ü Scientists locally, regionally and internationally who design data collection plans, use the data to determine the status of fish stocks, and recommend fisheries management measures to the Chief Fisheries Officer (and through him to the FAC and the Minister)
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ü Public servants from other divisions and/or ministries whose decisions impact on the utilisation of fisheries resources ü The data collection supervisor who oversees data collection, organizes the data and transfers it to the relevant scientists ü The field data collector/extension officer who collects data from the fishermen, and who may be called upon to assist with passing the results of data analysis back to the fishermen and/or any training activities geared to improve the lot of fishermen ü The fisherman, who answers your questions, brings fish in from the sea and for whom we all work!
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Section 5 Lessons Learned in Fisheries Management Outside the Caribbean Research in collaboration with fishing communities in Great Britain and experience of West African fisheries, suggest that a lack of suitable information greatly contributes to small and medium scale fishers being unable to “internalize” resource scarcity. Quite often, when information is made available to the smaller vessel owners by government agencies, it has been processed and aggregated to a national or regional scale. As a result it often contradicts the fishers’ intuitive and local knowledge of the fisheries even though they are the main providers of primary data. Another problem lies in the lack of coherence among messages put forward by different information providers, whether public or private. For example, government fisheries development policy measures may still encourage investment that lead to increasing fishing mortality, even though the resource is already fully exploited. Similarly, banks may encourage investments even though government policy measures are reducing fishing opportunities. Fishers collect and process quantities of ecological information while fishing. These range from the ocean climate, the seabed habitat, depth and topography to marine life above and under water. Information is collected at the fishing grounds level, for specific fish stocks, and on the time scale of the fishing trip, daily or weekly basis. However, apart from shipping weather forecasts, government and fisheries management agencies provide little information on marine ecosystems back to fishers. There are many types of economic data collected and produced at the level of a small fishing company. They range from the costs of capital investments, the costs of inputs, cost of labour and microfinancing of fishing trips, to revenues from sales of key species at different fish markets. The spatial scale of interest and level of information aggregation and processing are different from those for ecological information. Government agencies may undertake regular coats and earnings surveys, and collect statistics of prices and availability of key inputs, in a way similar to any other productive sectors. While some data are collated and published, these are little used by fisheries policy makers. Even in countries where a national fisheries policy explicitly means to support the artisanal sector, fishers have little input into the policymaking process. In many cases, even actual numbers of fishers are not precisely known, and parttimers are ignored. The sheer numbers of small operators means that both information collection and dissemination bear high administrative costs. The smallscale sector may be constrained by resource access and conservation measures, but it evolves with little direct steering from the fisheries policy itself. Fisheries policy measures are nearly always modified by other government policies. Social Policy, regional development, transport, environmental protection, national and international trade policies all have great
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potentials to combine and produce incoherent measures at the level of small fishing operators. From this brief review of information use, together with consideration of fishers’ decisions, capital investment and fishing trip planning, it appears that in Great Britain and West Africa at least small scale fishers gather and use a large variety of information, at various time and space scales. This, however, is not acknowledged by fisheries management agencies. The lack of shared understanding between government, fishers, and marine resource conservationists, could be reduced through the production of integrated information systems, incorporating an ecosystembased concept of sustainability. Outside the OECS The success of fisheries management depends on the support of research to provide the necessary data and information in order to properly identify and priories management issues, and on an effective communication between all stakeholders. The main challenge facing Caribbean governments is to ensure that decentralization and civil service reform does not dilute accountability and weaken government functions in areas that need to remain centralized. Such areas include monitoring the fisheries resources and the environment, and the formulation of fisheries policies. It is also very important, no matter where the fisheries sector is located within government’s administrative system, that the sector be given its appropriate share of development resources. In the Caribbean, most of the fisheries resources are either fully exploited or overexploited. So, a critical question is how much fisheries research should focus on the stock assessment, biology and ecology of the resources species, and how much on the socioeconomic conditions of the fisher communities, cooperatives, and other factors that can be expected to influence unsustainable exploitation patterns. Currently, in most Caribbean countries, fishers play an increasing role in management or the setting research priorities and in evaluating research results. If greater emphasis is going to be placed on involving stakeholders in the management of fisheries, then priority should be given to the organizational and socioeconomic aspects of the primary stakeholders, the fishers. Therefore, research (and by extension data collection) priorities should be set on the basis of the information fisheries administrations and fishers require and must share in the interest of good fisheries management. Outside Your Country The fisheries industry has been described as being overcapitalised, and while in the Eastern Caribbean it may be that the fishing industry in the Caribbean has been “badly capitalised” rather than “overcapitalised”. There is, however, little doubt that the nearshore fisheries are most likely overexploited. Additionally, the fishery science practiced in the region in general, and the OECS in particular, has, until recently, paid inadequate attention to the management and development of the industry within a holistic framework. The view is evolving in the Caribbean that while great emphasis has been placed on stock assessment, there has possibly been insufficient attention given to the industry itself. The need for a fisheries (the industry as a whole) assessment, as opposed
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to stock assessment, is based on the necessity to have a comprehensive and holistic view of the industry. Such a view in turn will better inform a development policy and management plan for the fisheries industry. It is felt that the management and development of fisheries, especially of the small island states that make up the OECS, must be objective driven rather than driven by simply the assessment of the fish stocks. The apparent overemphasis on stock assessment has unfortunately diverted attention away from fishery assessment, and the consequent implementation of a development policy and strategic plan for the entire industry. An integrated approach which considers fisheries within the context of the whole island system, will facilitate such a comprehensive and holistic view of the industry, diverting attention more towards the stated developmental objectives of the country and the role that the fisheries play in attaining those objectives. Within Your Country
YOU TELL US!
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Section 6 Building a Fisheries Management Team Invocation [To call on the Almighty to assist in the building of the Fisheries Management Team (FMT) – 1 min.] Lord in working to build an efficient fisheries management team, give us the strength to change the things we can change, the courage to face the things we cannot change, and the wisdom to know the difference. Help us to carry out this exercise with openness, confidence and honesty. Amen Relaxation/Icebreaking exercise [To provide an initiating experience promoting communication and relationship among team members – no more than 15 min] Participants separate into pairs. Each partner conducts a (no more than) oneminute interview of the other. The objective is to get important information about each other, i.e. name, age, occupation, personal aspirations, perception of role in the team, and other general background information. Each member of the pair then makes a (no more than one minute) presentation of his/her partner before the general grouping. Character simulation [To allow persons within the group to appreciate how they are perceived by others – no more than 15 min] Participants present a (1 min) simulation of another character (who is not identified) within the grouping. The idea is to bring out as much of the person’s features as possible. This presentation is then evaluated and assessed by the general grouping, after identifying the individual, as to whether the simulation is accurate. Chinese telegraph [To help participants appreciate how easy it is for misunderstanding to occur and misinformation to be spread – no more than 5 min] Participants stand in a circle. A person is chosen to send the message. That individual tells the message to the person to his/her immediate right. As soon as possible the receiver passes on (what he/she thinks is) the message to the person to his/her immediate right. This is continued until the message returns to the original sender, who then conveys the message out loud, then recites the original message. Defining the team [To determine the parameters which will drive the fisheries management team – 1 hr 40 min]
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With the assistance of the facilitator, the participants will come to a consensus on what they expect the Fisheries Management Team to be/look like in ten (10) years time. This will be coalesced into a “vision” statement. Based on this vision, the participants will develop a “mission” statement for the FMT. Based on the mission statement, participants will decide the four (4) priority areas of focus for the remainder of the current fiscal year or, if the year has less than three (3) months left, up to the end of the coming fiscal year. Evaluation [To evaluate the usefulness of the entire training exercise – 10 min] Each participant will express his/her frank and honest opinion on the usefulness of the training session to him/her; whether it met his/her expectations; what followup (if any) is necessary; what he/she will do (if anything) in furtherance of the priorities decided on. Close
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