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6,17(=/,1*9,67,&*(1(5$/ Anul I 6SHFLDOLW LOH$úL% 2000 Const. Dominte, Zamfira Mihail, Maria Osiac SUMAR Introducere /LQJYLVWLFDJHQHUDO'HILQL LHúLVFXUWLVWRULF&' /LPEDMúLDFWGHFRPXQLFDUHYHUEDO&' )XQF LLOHúLFDUDFWHULVWLFLle definitorii ale limbajului (C.D.) &kWHYDGLKRWRPLLGLVWLQF LL FRQFHSWXDOH&' $QDOL]DFRQWUDVWLY&' Semnul lingvistic (M.O.) 6FKLPEULOHOLQJYLVWLFH&RQWDFWXOGLQWUHOLPEL=0 /LQJYLVWLFDVSD LDO=0 Limba în cadrul social (Z.M.) Compartimentele limbii (C.D.) 3ULQFLSLXOVWUDWLILFD LRQDODOOLPEDMXOXL&' Fonetica – studiul sunetelor vorbirii (C.D.) Fonologia – studiul fenomenelor sistemului (C.D.) Morfemul (M.O.) Sintaxa (Z.M.) Lexematica – lexicologia (Z.M.) Semantica (M.O.) BibliogUDILHREOLJDWRULHúLIDFXOWDWLY Teme – subiecte pentru referate 3UHFL]UL Test de autoevaluare

UNIVERSITATEA SPIRU HARET )$&8/7$7($'(/,0%,ù,/,7(5$785,675,1( &$7('5$'(/,1*9,67,&*(1(5$/ Const. Dominte, Zamfira Mihail, Maria Osiac CURS DE LING9,67,&*(1(5$/ Anul I 6SHFLDOLW LOH$úL% INTRODUCERE &XUVXO GH OLQJYLVWLF JHQHUDO XUPUHúWH V-L LQWURGXF SH WLQHULL ILORORJL vQ VWXGLXOOLQJYLVWLFLLVOHSUH]LQWHRELHFWXOúLLPSRUWDQ DDFHVWHLGLVFLSOLQHFDúWLLQ D limbii.

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Dintre problemele care fac obiectul cursului, amintim: metodele de cercetare, UDSRUWXOGLQWUHOLQJYLVWLFúLDOWHúWLLQ HSULQFLSDOHOHúFROLOLQJYLVWLFHVWUXFWXUDOLPELL OHJLOHOLPELLOLPEDMOLPEYRUELUHUHOD LLOHGLQWUHOLPEúLJkQGLUHOLPEúLVRFLHWDWH clasiILFDUHDOLPELORUvQUXGLUHDGLQWUHOLPELúLIRUPDUHDIDPLOLLORUOLQJYLVWLFHIRQHWLFD úLIRQRORJLDOH[LFRORJLDJUDPDWLFDFDX]HOHVFKLPEULORUOLQJYLVWLFH 6WXGHQ LL WUHEXLH IDPLOLDUL]D L FX R VHULH GH WHUPHQLúLGHQR LXQLFDUHDSDU LQ exclusiv lingvistLFLL FX RELHFWXO úL PHWRGHOH VSHFLDOH GH LQYHVWLJD LH V LQWHJUH]H QRLOHLQIRUPD LLvQVLVWHPXOSURSULXGHJkQGLUH 6HPLQDUXO YHULILF DVSHFWH WHRUHWLFH DSURIXQGkQG SULRULWDU SH FHOH SUDFWLFaplicative. /,1*9,67,&$*(1(5$/'(),1,,(ù,6&857,6725,& /LQJYLVWLFD JHQHUDO HVWH WHRULD JHQHUDO D VWXGLXOXL OLPEDMXOXL DGLF D VWXGLXOXLFRPXQLFULLYHUEDOHSULQFXYLQWHúLFRPELQD LLvQWUHFXYLQWH LQWHUXPDQHvQ FDGUXOVRFLHW LL(DQXVHFRQIXQGFXILORVRILDOLPEDMXOXLFDUHVHUHIHUODOLPEDMvQ reOD LHFXDOWHDFWLYLW LXPDQHvQVSHFLDOFXJkQGLUHD/LQJYLVWLFDJHQHUDOWUHEXLHV ILHGHRVHELWúLGHVHPLRWLFVWXGLXOWHRUHWLFDOWXWXURUWLSXULORUGHVHPQHúLDOUROXOXL ORU vQ DQVDPEOXO YLH LL VRFLDOH 6H SRDWH YRUEL GH R VHPLRWLF H[WUDOLQJYLVWLF UHSUH]HQWkQGVWXGLXOVHPQHORUQHOLQJYLVWLFHFURPDWLFHRSWLFHROIDFWLYHHWF úLGHR VHPLRWLF OLQJYLVWLF DGLF VWXGLX DO XQLW LORU OLQJYLVWLFH PRUIHPH FXYLQWH HQXQ XUL  SULYLWH FD VHPQH 6H vQ HOHJH F OLQJYLVWLFD JHQHUDO vQ FDOLWDWH GH Weorie a OLPEDMXOXLVHDIOvQUHOD LLPDLVWUkQVHFXVHPLRWLFDOLQJYLVWLF 7HRULD FRPXQLFULL DUH XQ RELHFW IRDUWH ODUJ GH VWXGLX SULYLQG FRPXQLFDUHD vQWUH RDPHQL FRPXQLFDUHD vQWUH RDPHQL úL FDOFXODWRDUH FRPXQLFDUHD vQWUH LQGLYL]L DSDU LQkQG DOWRU VSHFLL GH YLH XLWRDUH HVWH XQ GRPHQLX IRDUWH ODUJ LQFOX]kQG GHFL úL FRPXQLFDUHD YHUEDO úL QXPDL SULQ DFHVW GRPHQLX GLQ XUP OLQJYLVWLFD JHQHUDO VH DIO vQ UHOD LH FX WHRULD JHQHUDO D FRPXQLFULL ùL ILORORJLD VH SRDWH UDSRUWD OD OLQJYLVWLFD JHQHUDO 3ULQ ILORORJLH VH vQ HOHJH VWXGLXO FRPSOH[ DO OLPELL úL OLWHUDWXULL XQXLSRSRUVDXDOHXQRUSRSRDUHvQUXGLWHOLQJYLVWLFDJHQHUDOIXUQL]HD]FRQFHSWHOHúL ÄDSDUDWXUDWHRUHWLF´FRPSRQHQWHLOLQJYLVWLFHDILORORJLHL ùWLLQ D OLPELL D SDUFXUV R LVWRULH vQGHOXQJDW GLYL]DW FRQYHQ LRQDO vQ GRX HWDSH HWDSD SUHúWLLQ LILF GLQ $QWLFKLWDWH SkQ OD vQFHSXWXO VHFROXOXL DO ;,;-OHD  úL HWDSD úWLLQ LILF GH OD vQFHSXWXO VHFROXOXL DO ;,;-OHD SkQ vQ ]LOHOH QRDVWUH  /LQJYLVWLFD D GHYHQLW R úWLLQ  GXS DSDUL LD SUimei metode specifice de cercetare a IHQRPHQXOXL OLQJYLVWLF PHWRGD FRPSDUDWLY-LVWRULF  SULQ RSHUD OLQJYLVWXOXL JHUPDQ )UDQ] %RSS  úL GXS FRQWXUDUHD RELHFWXOXL HL GH VWXGLX  SULQ RSHUD OLQJYLVWXOXLHOYH LDQ)HUGLQDQGGH6DXVXUHFDUHDQDOL]D limbajul, ca facultate general XPDQGHDFRPXQLFDYHUEDOvQGRXDVSHFWHLPSRUWDQWHOLPEDFDVLVWHPGHVHPQH YHUEDOHúLGHUHOD LLvQWUHDFHOHVHPQHúLYRUELUHDFDSXQHUHvQIXQF LXQHDVLVWHPXOXL úL UH LQHD FD RELHFW SURSULX OLQJYLVWLFLL QXPDL OLPED QX úL YRUELUHD  /LQJYLúWLL IXQF LRQDOLúWL FRQWHPSRUDQL 5-DNREVRQ$0DUWLQHW(&RúHULX DXRYL]LXQHPDL ODUJ DVXSUD RELHFWXOXL OLQJYLVWLFLL FRQVLGHUkQG F WRWXúL QX OLPED FL OLPEDMXO constituie acest obiect. ÌQ HWDSD SUHúWLLQ LILF D OLQJYLVWLFLL vQ ,QGLD DQWLF V-D DMXQV OD R EXQ clasificare articulatorie a sunetelor limbii sanskrite (în special a consoanelor), au fost GHVFRSHULWH DOWHUQDQ HOH IRQHWLFH úL DFFLGHQWHOH GH FRDUWLFXOD LH VDQGKL  D IRVW LQWXLW conceptul de fonem (sphota)FDúLVWUXFWXUDPRUIHPDWLFDFXYLQWHORUGHDVHPHQHD– FRQFHSWXOÄPHWDOLPEDM´ÌQ*UHFLDDQWLFV-DXSXVED]HOHUHWRULFLLúLDOHILORORJLHLV-au

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GLVRFLDWPRUIRORJLDúLVLQWD[DvQLQWHULRUXOJUDPDWLFLLV-DVFKL DWRIRQHWLFLQFLSLHQW dar – mai ales – D IRVW LQL LDW ILORVRILD OLPEDMXOXL 3UHOXkQG vQY WXUD JUHFLORU URPDQLL DX GDW PDUH DWHQ LH FXOWXULL XQHL OLPEL OLWHUDUH ODWLQD FODVLF  FRPEWkQG dintr-R SHUVSHFWLY QRUPDWLY DEDWHULOH GH OD DFHVWH IRUPH GH OLPE FH DYHDX V ILH cunoscute mai tkU]LX FD ODWLQ YXOJDU SRSXODU  GLQ FDUH VH YRU GH]YROWD OD vQFHSXWXULOH (YXOXL 0HGLX OLPELOH QHRODWLQH vQWUH FDUH úL URPkQD 7RW vQDQWLFKLWDWH DXDSUXWSULPHOHJORVDUHúLFKLDUGLF LRQDUHELOLQJYHFDRSUHILJXUDUHDSUHRFXSULORU lexicologice de mai târziu. În Evul Mediu s-D QVFXW ILORORJLD DUDE FX XQHOH VXJHVWLL YHQLWH GLQVSUH vechea Indie, iar altele –GLQVSUHYHFKHD*UHFLH/DDUDELFDúLODFKLQH]LVHGH]YROW LQWHUHVXO ID  GH GLYHUVLILFDUHD GLDOHFWDO D OLPELORU PDQLIHVWDW PDL vQWkL vn vechea FXOWXU D *UHFLHL ÌQ (YXO 0HGLX HXURSHDQ vQ HSRFD VFRODVWLFLL V-a acordat interes DFFHQWXDW UDSRUWXULORU GLQWUH H[SULPDUHD OLQJYLVWLF úL JkQGLUHD FRUHFW UHJXOLOH úL principiile logice), culminând cu Gramatica de la Port-Royal (1660) – o gramDWLF ÄUD LRQDO´DOLPELLIUDQFH]HGLQSHUVSHFWLYDFDWHJRULLORUORJLFH'DQWH$OLJKLHULvQF vQDLQWH GH 5HQDúWHUH VH UHIHUHD OD GLDOHFWHOH OLPELL LWDOLHQH (YXO 0HGLX HXURSHDQ UPkQHDvQVGRPLQDWGHRPDUHHURDUHvQSULYLQ DJORWWRJHQHWLFLLDRULJLQLi limbilor): VHFUHGHDvQVSLULWXO%LEOLHLFWRDWHOLPELOHFXQRVFXWHDUSURYHQLGLQHEUDLFLGHHD FUHL IDOVLWDWH DX GHPRQVWUDW-o mai ales secolele al XVII-OHD úL DO ;9,,,-lea. De DWXQFL vQ ORFXO LSRWH]HL PRQRJHQHWLFH D OLPEDMXOXL úL-a croit drum ipoteza SROLJHQHWLF LGHHD F OLPEDMXO D DSUXW vQ PDL PXOWH SXQFWH GH SH JORE vQ PRG independent). ÌQFGLQ$QWLFKLWDWHDXIRVWVFKL DWHWUHLSHUVSHFWLYHGLQFDUHSRDWHILVWXGLDW RULFHOLPED SHUVSHFWLYDGHVFULSWLYGHVFULHUHDOLPELLDúDFXPIXQF LRQHD]HDvQ SURFHVXO GH FRPXQLFDUH YHUEDO OD XQ PRPHQW GDW  E  SHUVSHFWLYD HYROXWLY FHUFHWDUHD OLPELL GLQ SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH DO PRGLILFULORU SH FDUH HD OH VXIHU GH-a lungul timpului) – PDL VODE UHSUH]HQWDW WRWXúL F  SHUVSHFWLYD FRPSDUDWLY (cercetaUHDHOHPHQWHORUGHRVHELWRDUHGLQWUHOLPELúLPDLDOHVDDFHORUDDVHPQWRDUH sau chiar comune unor limbi diferite). 'DU úWLLQ D OLPELL D DSUXW R GDW FX SULPD PHWRG SURSULH GH FHUFHWDUH D limbii: metoda comparativ-LVWRULFGHMDDPLQWLW3ULQDFHDVWPHWRGVHvQ HOHJHXQ DQVDPEOXGHSULQFLSLLúLSURFHGHHDSOLFDWHvQFHUFHWDUHDOLPELORUvQUXGLWHSHQWUXDOH lumina trecutul (pre)istoric. Principiile ei sunt: 1) arbitrarul semnului lingvistic, FRQIRUP FUXLD XQD úL DFHHDúL QR LXQH HVWH H[SULPDWvQFKLSIHOXULWGHODROLPEOD DOWDH[URPkQRPUXVþHORYHNJHUPDQ0DQQPDJKLDUHPEHUWXUFDGDP DUDE LQVDQXQ FKLQH] UHQ HWF    UHJXODULWDWHD VFKLPEULORU IRQHWLFH FRQIRUP FUHLDvPSUXPXWXULOHGLQWU-ROLPEvQWU-DOWDVHIDFIUIRDUWHPDULPRGLILFULIRQHWLFH vQVFKLPEHOHPHQWHOHOH[LFDOHPRúWHQLWHGLQWU-ROLPE-PDPSURWROLPE vQOLPELOHILLFHUH]XOWDWHSULQGLYHUVLILFDUHDFHOHLGLQWkLVXIHUDQXPLWHPRGLILFULUHJXODWHH[ grupul latin ct din lacte, noctem, octo devine pt în roPkQODSWHQRDSWHRSWGHYLQHWW vQ LWDOLDQ ODWWH QRWWH RWWR UHVSHFWLY LW vQ IUDQFH] ODLW QXLW KXLW HWF  (YROX LD JUXSXOXL ODWLQ FW VSUH URP SW LW WW IU LW vQ FXYLQWH URPDQLFH GLQ ODWLQ HVWH R VFKLPEDUH IRQHWLF UHJXODW FD IHQRPHQ LVWRULF GH RUGLQ IRQHWLF  SH FkQG UHOD LD GLQWUH URP SW LW WW IU LW HWF FRQVWLWXLH XQ QXPU GH FRUHVSRQGHQ H IRQHWLFH vQWUH limbile neolatine (ca fenomene de ordin fonetic comparabile într-RDQXPLWHSRFGLQ HYROX LD DFHORU OLPEL  'H UH LQXW F VFKLPEULOH IRQHWLFH UH]XOWDWH QX VH SURGXF vQ cuvintele împrumutate (ex.: rom. nocturn, pectoral, cu bazele latine nocturnus, pectorale nu au schimbat, din acest motiv, grupul ct în pt). /LPELOHvQUXGLWHDGLFSURYHQLWH– prin diversificare –GLQDFHHDúLSURWROLPE IRUPHD] IDPLOLL GH OLPEL 'H SLOG IDPLOLD GLQ FDUH IDFH SDUWH OLPED URPkQ VH

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QXPHúWH LQGR-HXURSHDQ úL VH vPSDUWH vQ PDL PXOWH VXEIDPLOLL VDX UDPXUL GH OLPEL GLQWUHFDUHVHPHQ LRQHD]PDLMRVQXPDLFHOHDFWXDOHUDPXUDURPDQLFVDXQHRODWLQ FXURPkQDLWDOLDQDVkUEDUHWURURPkQDIUDQFH]DFDWDODQDVSDQLRODSRUWXJKH]DúD  UDPXUD JHUPDQLF FX JHUPDQD HQJOH]D OLPELOH VFDQGLQDYH úD  UDPXUD VODY FX grupul de est: rusa, ucraineana, bielorusa; grupul de vest: polona, ceha, slovaca úD JUXSXO GH VXG VORYHQD FURDWD VkUED EXOJDUD  UDPXUD FHOWLF LUODQGH]D JDOH]D bretona); greaca; albaneza –WRDWHDFHVWHDYRUELWHvQ(XURSDLDUXQHOHGLQWUHHOHúLvQ $PHULFL $VLD $IULFD $XVWUDOLD DUPHDQD UDPXUD LUDQLF FX QHRSHUVDQD DIgana, WDGMLND NXUGD úD  UDPXUD LQGLDQ FX KLQGL XUGX EHQJDOL LJQHDVF úD  FDUH VH vorbesc în Asia de Sud-vest. 2 GDW FX vQ HOHJHUHD UDSRUWXULORU GLQWUH DFHVWH OLPEL D DSUXW FRPSDUDWLVWLFD indo-HXURSHDQ GXS PRGHOXO FUHLD DX DSUXW URPDQLVWica (studiul comparat al limbilor romanice – întemeiat de lingvistul german Friedrich Diez, 1836), germanistica (studiul comparat al limbilor germanice – întemeiat de lingvistul german Jakob Grimm), slavistica (studiul comparat al limbilor slave – întemeiat de rusul Al. Hr. Hvostokov) etc. În secolul al XX-lea, comparatistica indo-HXURSHDQ D IRVW VWUOXFLWUHSUH]HQWDWGHIUDQFH]XO$QWRLQH0HLOOHW&HOGLQWkLLQGR-europenist român a fost B. P. Hasdeu. La dezvoltarea romanisticii au mai contribuit austriecii Hugo 6FKXFKUGWúL:LOKHOP0H\HU-/ENHDXWRUDOSULPXOXLGLF LRQDUHWLPRORJLFDOOLPELORU URPDQLFH  IUDQFH]XO *DVWRQ 3DULV úL DO LL ÌQ OLQJYLVWLFD URPkQHDVF GXS +DVGHX FRQWULEX LL LPSRUWDQWH DX DYXW $O 3KLOLSSLGH vQWHPHLHWRUXO úFROLL OLQJYLVWLFH de la ,DúL 2YLG'HQVXVLDQXIRQGDWRUXOúFROLLOLQJYLVWLFHGHOD%XFXUHúWL úL6H[WLO3XúFDULX IRQGDWRUXO úFROLL OLQJYLVWLFH GH OD &OXM FRRUGRQDWRU DO PDUHOXL GLF LRQDU-tezaur al OLPELL URPkQH úL DO XQXL EXQ DWODV OLQJYLVWLF URPkQHVF  LDU OD MXPWDWHD secolului al XX-OHD úL GXS DFHHD URPDQLVWXO ,RUJX ,RUGDQ URPkQLVWXO $OH[DQGUX 5RVHWWL FODVLFLVWXO úL URPkQLVWXO $OH[DQGUX *UDXU vQWHPHLHWRU DO OLQJYLVWLFLL JHQHUDOH OD 8QLYHUVLWDWHDGLQ%XFXUHúWLVODYLVWXO(PLO3HWURYLFL La limita dintre secolele al XIX-OHD úL DO ;;-OHD DX DSUXW vQ 2FFLGHQWXO (XURSHL GRX QRL PHWRGH GH FHUFHWDUH OLQJYLVWLF IRQHWLFD H[SHULPHQWDO VWXGLXO VXQHWHORUDUWLFXODWHFXDMXWRUXOXQRUDSDUDWHVSHFLDOHLQL LDWGHIUDQFH]XO-5RXVVHORW  úLJHRJUDILDOLQJYLVWLFUHSUH]HQWDUHDFDUWRJUDILFDUVSkQGLULLWHULWRULDOHDDQXPLWRU SDUWLFXODULW L OLQJYLVWLFH LQL LDW GH HOYH LDQXO - *LOOLHURQ  7HRULD OLPELL VDX OLQJYLVWLFD JHQHUDO D IRVW UHYROX LRQDW vQ (XURSD GH FWUH )HUGLQDQG GH 6DXVVXUH prin Curs-XOGHOLQJYLVWLFJHQHUDOSXEOLFDWSRVWXP LDUvQ$PHULFDGHFWUH Leonard Bloomfield prin volumul Language (1933). )HUGLQDQGGH6DXVVXUHDWUJHDDWHQ LDDVXSUDFDUDFWHUXOXLVRFLDODOOLPELLúLD IDSWXOXL F OLPED HVWH XQ VLVWHP GH VHPQH FHHD FH LPSOLFD vQFDGUDUHD lingvisticii teoretice în domeniul mai larg al semioticii. Tot el a reorientat studiul limbii dinspre SHUVSHFWLYD LVWRULF VSUH DFHHD GHVFULSWLY PRWLYkQG F vQ IHOXO DFHVWD VH SRDWH identifica mai pregnant sistemul lingvistic. A definit cuvântul ca semn format prin DVRFLHUHDXQXLVHPQLILFDQWLPDJLQHDFXVWLF FXXQVHPQLILFDWFRQFHSW úLDDUWDWF VHPQHOH OLQJYLVWLFH VH RUJDQL]HD] SH R LPDJLQDU D[ DVRFLDWLY vQ YDULDWH VHULL IOH[LRQDUH OH[LFDOH HWF  úL SH R LPDJLQDU D[ VLQWDJPDWLF vQ úLUXUL constând din FRPELQD LL DOH ORU /LPED ILLQG GXS 6DXVVXUH SULQWU-R VXJHVWLH SUHOXDW GH OD vQDLQWDúL  R IRUP úL QX R VXEVWDQ  VH FRQWXUHD] vQ IHOXO DFHVWD R OLQJYLVWLF IRUPDOVDXLQWHUQvQRSR]L LHFXOLQJYLVWLFDH[WHUQDOFUHLRELHFWHVWHreprezentat GHUHOD LLOHOLPELLFXDOWHIHQRPHQHVRFLDOH'LQOLQJYLVWLFDLQWHUQVDXVVXULDQDYHDV VHGH]YROWHvQHSRFDLQWHUEHOLFVWUXFWXUDOLVPXOOLQJYLVWLFHXURSHDQ $FHVWFXUHQWOLQJYLVWLFDIRVWUHSUH]HQWDWSULQGRXúFROLLPSRUWDQWHùFRDODGH lD 3UDJD vQWHPHLDW GH OLQJYLúWLL FHKL vQ IUXQWH FX 9LOpP 0DWKHVLXV FURUD OL V-au

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DOWXUDWUXúLL167UXEH NRLúL5-DNSEVRQúLùFRDODGHOD&RSHQKDJDvQWHPHLDWGH OLQJYLúWLL GDQH]L /+MHOPVOHY úL +-:GDOO ùFRDOD GH OD 3UDJD D vQWHPHLDW R QRX discipOLQ OLQJYLVWLF IRQRORJLD VWXGLXO VXQHWHORU-tip ale limbii, privite din punct de YHGHUH IXQF LRQDO úL QXPLWH IRQHPH  LDU ùFRDOD GH OD &RSHQKDJD D GXV PDL GHSDUWH VFKL DGHVWXGLXIRUPDODOOLPELLLQL LDWGH6DXVVXUHSULQGH]YROWDUHDXQHLOLQJYLVWLFL FHQWUDWHSHLQWHUHVXOQXDWkWSHQWUXXQLW LOHOLPELLFDDWDUHFkWSHUHOD LLOHGLQWUHHOH FRQFHS LHSXUWkQGGHQXPLUHDJORVHPDWLF Americanul L.Bloomfield, întemeietor al structuralismului mecanicist FXQRVFXW úL VXE GHQXPLUHD GHVFULSWLYLVP  D GDW PDUH DWHQ LH ODWXULL GH H[SUHVLH D XQLW LORUOLPELLQHUHVSLQJkQGODWXUDORUGHFRQ LQXWGDUFRQVLGHUkQG-RFDH[WHULRDU OLPELL FD RELHFW GH VWXGLX DO DOWRU úWLLQ H GHFkWOLQJYLVWLFD(OúLGLVFLSROLLVLDXGDW DWHQ LH GLVWULEX LHL YDULDWHORU HOHPHQWH úL XQLW L DOH OLPELL vQ FDGUXO FRPELQD LLORU posibile dintre ele, au introdus conceptul „context diagnostic”, util definirii formale a GLIHULWHORU FODVH GH XQLW L 8Q VWUXFWXUDOLVP GH WLS RSXV úL DQXPH PHQWDOLVW D promovat lingvistul american Edward Sapir, întemeietorul etnolingvisticii (studiul OLPELLvQVWUkQVUHOD LHFXvQWUHDJDFXOWXUDXQHLFRPXQLW LXPDQH DXWRUDOXQXLDOW volum cu titlul Language (421). 'LQ vQFHUFDUHD GH D FRQFLOLD GLUHF LD PHFDQLFLVW D VWUXFWXUDOLVPXOXL descriptivist cu aceea PHQWDOLVWDDSUXWvQ68$vQDGRXDMXPWDWHDVHFROXOXLDO XX-lea, curentul gramaticilor generative-WUDQVIRUPD LRQDOH LQL LDWRUXO FUXLD HVWH Noam Chomsky.

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6

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2 DOW FDUDFWHULVWLF D VHPQXOXL OLQJYLVWLF R UHSUH]LQW WUVWXUD VD LQIRUPD LRQDO FXYLQWHOH VXQW VHPQH FH VHUYHVF OD FRPXQLFDUHD XQRU PHVDMH OD WUDQVPLWHUHDGHLQIRUPD LLSULQLQWHUPHGLXOXQRUVHPQDOHDFXVWLFHVDXJUDILFH Semnul lingvistic nu poate fi schimbat de vorbitorul unei limbi conform SURSULHL ORU GRULQ H GHúL HO HVWH FRQYHQ LRQDO 3HQWUX D VH IDFH vQ HOHúL úL SHQWUX D vQ HOHJHFHVSXQDO LLYRUELWRULLVXQWREOLJD LVIRORVHDVFDFHOHDúLVHPQHFXDFHOHDúL vQ HOHVXUL 6HPQLILFDQWXO HVWH LPXWDELO vQ UDSRUW FX YRLQ D LQGLYLGXOXL DGLF QX DUH OLEHUWDWHD GH D LQWHUYHQL úL D-O VFKLPED FkQG úL FXP GRUHúWH 7UDGL LD FRQVWUkQJH YRUELWRULL V QXPHDVF OXFUXULOH vQWU-XQ DQXPLW IHO V VH VXSXQ XQRU QRUPH XQRU reguli ale limbii respectLYHFDUHGDFDUILvQFOFDWHSURFHVXOGHFRPXQLFDUHQ-ar mai fi posibil. &X WRDWH DFHVWHD vQ OLPE DX ORF úL XQHOH LQRYD LL PXWD LL FDUH FX WLPSXO printr-RIUHFYHQWvQWUHEXLQ DUHúLRODUJUVSkQGLUHSRWGHYHQLQRUPH6HPQLILFDQWXO devine, astfel, mutabil. Raportul semnificant-semnificat se poate schimba: lat. necare ÄDRPRUv´DGHYHQLWvQIUDQFH]– noyer – „a îneca”. 6HPQXOXL OLQJYLVWLF vL VXQW FDUDFWHULVWLFH IXQF LD GH FXQRDúWHUH HO IFkQG SRVLELO VDOWXO GH OD FXQRDúWHUHD VHQ]RULDO OD FHD UD LRQDO GH OD SULPXO OD FHO GH-al GRLOHD VLVWHP GH VHPQDOL]DUH IXQF LD GH GLIHUHQ LHUH vQ FDGUXO VLVWHPXOXL UHDOL]DW SULQIRQHPHOHúLPRUIHPHOHGLQFDUHHVWHDOFWXLWVHPQXOúLRIXQF LHGHWUDQVPLWHUHD LQIRUPD LHLGHODXQLQGLYLGODDOWXOGHODRJHQHUD LHODDOWD 8QHOHVHPQHOLQJYLVWLFHSRWILPDLPXOWVDXPDLSX LQPRWLYDWH 0RWLYDUHD DEVROXW H[WHUQ  FXSULQGH FXYLQWH FDUH SULQ VXQHWHOH ORU FRPSRQHQWH VXJHUHD] vQ HOHVXO ÌQ DFHDVW FDWHJRULH vQWU RQRPDWRSHHOH PLDX zbâr!, poc!), interjHF LLOHDKYDLRI úLFXYLQWHOHFXVLPEROLVPIRQHWLFFDUHDXvQ FRPSRQHQ D ORU XQHOH VXQHWH FH DPLQWHVF GH FDUDFWHULVWLFLOH RELHFWXOXL D YkMkL D Ek]kLD]XP]L 0RWLYDUHD UHODWLY LQWHUQ  YL]HD] FXYLQWH GHULYDWH FX SUHIL[H VDX VXIL[H úL cuvintHFRPSXVHEXQVWDUHRFKLXO-boului, Pronosport, OZN. 1HYRLDPRWLYULLJHQHUHD]XQHRULIDOVHOHJWXULHWLPRORJLFHIRUPHDOHXQRU FXYLQWHPDLSX LQFXQRVFXWHúLvQ HOHVHPDLUDUvQWUHEXLQ DWHVHPRGLILFLQIOXHQ DWH GH WHUPHQL FXQRVFX L DVHPQWRUL FD IRUP úL VHQV )HQRPHQXO HVWH FXQRVFXW VXE QXPHOH GH HWLPRORJLH SRSXODU YE D DVDPEOD úL GHULYDWHOH OXL  SXV vQ OHJWXU FX DQVDPEOXGHYLQHDDQVDPEODGHQXPLUHDSRSXODUDIHEUHLWLIRLGH–OLQJRDUHOHJDWGH DGMOXQJGHYLQHOXQJRDUHFRRSHUDWLYOHJDWGHDFXPSUDvQURVWLUHDXQRUSHUVRDQH PDLvQYkUVWGHUHJXO GHYLQHFXPSDUDWLYúD 6FKLPEULOHOLQJYLVWLFH Contactul între limbi Ä'RX VDX PDL PXOWH OLPEL VH FRQVLGHU D IL vQ FRQWDFW GDF VXQW IRORVLWH DOWHUQDWLY GH XQHOH úL DFHOHDúL SHUVoane.” Contactul dintre limbi este rezultatul unor IHQRPHQH H[WUDOLQJYLVWLFH GDWRULW IDSWXOXL F GLQWRWGHDXQD FROHFWLYLW LOH XPDQH DX LQWUDWvQUHOD LHXQHOHFXDOWHOH Tipurile de contacte pot fi clasificate ca: I. 1 pasagere sau accidentale; 2. de foaUWH OXQJ GXUDW VDX SHUPDQHQWH ,,  H[WHUQH LQWHUOLQJYLVWLFH   LQWHUQH (intralingvistice, intraregionale, inclusiv enclave aloglote). III. 1. directe (interumane); 2. mijlocite (limbile A-% LQWHUDF LRQHD] SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO XQHL D WUHLD OLPEL  ,9 1 LPHGLDWH VDX QHPLMORFLWH GH WLS RUDO   OD GLVWDQ  SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO VFULVXOXL D vQY PkQWXOXL VDX D PDVV-PHGLD  9  SRSXODUH vQFHHDFHSULYHúWHQLYHOXOVRFLR-

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FXOWXUDO FXOWXUDOHDvQWUHROLPEÄPRDUW´DOLDVFODVLFúLOLPELYLLEvQtre limbi DIODWHODPDUHGLVWDQ  )HQRPHQXO GH FRQWDFW SUHFHGH LQWHUDF LXQHD GLQWUH OLPEL FDUH HVWH PLMORFLW SULQ ELOLQJYLVP %LOLQJYLVP VH QXPHúWH ÄFDSDFLWDWHD XQXL LQGLYLG VDX D LQGLYL]LORU XQHL FROHFWLYLW L GH D XWLOL]D vQ FRPXQLFDUH GRX VLVWHPH OLQJYLVWLFH GLIHULWH GRX LGLRPXUL ´%LOLQJYLVPXOFROHFWLYvQPDVDOYRUELWRULORURELúQXL LHVWHFXQRVFXWGLQ HSRFLOHYHFKLDOHLVWRULHL6HSURGXFPXWD LLvQWU-ROLPEFDUHVHQXPHVFLQWHUIHUHQ H VXELQIOXHQ DXQXLÄDJHQW´H[WHULRUWRWOLQJYLVWLF ,QWHUIHUHQ DSRDWHILDQDOL]DWvQSHUVSHFWLYDDGRXFRRUGRQDWHDDWLPSXOXL vQ FDUH VH GHVIúRDU GHRDUHFH GXUDWH SURFHVXOXL HVWH R YDULDELO E D UH]XOWDWHORU intruziunii. a.1. procesul s-DvQFKHLDWúLvQLVWRULDOLPELORUVHVWXGLD]UH]XOWDWHOHVXb trei DVSHFWH DOH VXEVWUDWXOXL VXSHUVWUDWXOXL úL DGVWUDWXOXL  LQWHUIHUHQ H DOH FURU FRQVHFLQ HSRWILLGHQWLILFDWHvQÄvPSUXPXW´LQWHUIHUHQ HvQFXUVGHGHVIúXUDUH 6XEVWUDWXO HVWH XQXO GLQ UH]XOWDWHOH SURFHVXOXL GH LQWHUIHUHQ  VH UHIHU OD sLWXD LDvQFDUHOLPEDEúWLQDúLORUSHVWHFDUHV-DLPSXVROLPEVWULQ HVWHHOLPLQDW (D IRUPHD] VXEVWUDWXO OLPELL FDUH FRQWLQX V ILH IRORVLW OLPED $ VH SHUSHWXHD] SULQ OLPED % DO FUHL VLVWHP SULPHúWH R VHULH GH HOHPHQWH GLQ OLPED vQORFXLW  SXEVWUDWXO VH PDQLIHVW vQ WRDWH FRPSDUWLPHQWHOH GDU PDL DOHV vQ IRQHWLF /LPELOH antice s-au perpetuat prin elemente de substrat în limbi moderne. 'DU vQ LVWRULH DX IRVW FD]XUL vQ FDUH OLPED vQYLQV HOLPLQDW  D IRVW FHD D SRSXOD LHL SWUXQVH XOWHULRU SH XQ WHULWRULX GDW 8UPHOH OVDWH GH OLPED GLVSUXW % DVXSUDOLPELLEúWLQDúHDXIRVWGHQXPLWHVXSHUVWUDWÌQWLPSFHHOHPHQWHOHGHVXEVWUDW GHWHUPLQ WUDQVIRUPUL vQ VWUXFWXUD QRLL OLPEL HOHPHQWHOH GH VXSHUVWUDW VH PDQLIHVW ca împrumuturi foarte vechi. ,QIOXHQ HOH VXIHULWH GH R OLPE GXS FRQVWLWXLUHD HL FD LGLRP QRX GLVWLQFW IRUPHD] DGVWUDWXO 'HúL QX SDUWLFLS FD VXEVWUDWXO úL VXSHUVWUDWXO OD IRUPDUHD XQHL limbi, adstratul include toate formele de manifestare ale contactului lingvistic. ÎmprumutuO OLQJYLVWLF RULFDUH DU IL GRPHQLXO DUH R DQXPLW LQIOXHQ  DVXSUD OLPELL FDUH vO UHFHSWHD] vQ vQWUHJXO HL VLVWHP 8QHOH HYROX LL LQWHUQH SRW V ILH vQWULWH vQ urma contactului dintre limbi. Dificultatea de a atribui anumite fapte lingvistice unor infOXHQ HVWULQHúLVDXXQHLHYROX LLSURSULLDFRQGXVODQHFHVLWDWHDXQXLQRXFRQFHSW FHO GH FRQYHUJHQ  SHQWUX GLIHUHQ LHUHD VFKLPEULORU LQWHUQH ID  GH LQWHUIHUHQ  FH FDUDFWHUL]HD] VFKLPEULOH VXE LQIOXHQ D XQRU IDFWRUL OLQJYLVWLFL GLQ DOW OLPE IQWHUIHUHQ D HVWH FDUDFWHULVWLF vQ DFWXO YRUELULL úL UH]XOWDWXO HL WUHFH vQ ÄOLPE´ HVWH introdus în sistem. /LQJYLVWLFDVSD LDO *HRJUDILDOLQJYLVWLF 6WXGLXO OLPELL YLL vQVHDPQ ÄVWXGLXO OLPELL YRUELWH vQWU-R XQLWDWH WHULWRULDO OLPEFRPXQDXQXL popor”. (L L VH VXERUGRQHD] GLDOHFWHOH FDUH UHSUH]LQW ÄDVSHFWXO SDUWLFXODU UHJLRQDO  al limbii unui popor, caracterizat printr-XQPLQLPXPGHWUVWXULVSHFLILFH´6XEVXPDW GLDOHFWXOXL HVWH JUDLXO FDUH OD UkQGXO OXL UHSUH]LQW ÄDVSHFWXO SDUWLFXODU ORFal) al limbii unui popor caracterizat printr-XQPLQLPXPGHWUVWXULVSHFLILFH´ 'LIHUHQ LHULOHVHGDWRUHVFGHFLVSD LXOXLPDLPXOWVDXPDLSX LQH[WLQVSHFDUH VH IRORVHúWH GLDOHFWXO JUDLXO  UHVSHFWLY IHQRPHQXO FDUDFWHUL]kQG SURFHVXO GH diversificare a limbii.

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/DvQWUHEDUHDGDFGLDOHFWXOHVWHRIRUPLQFLSLHQWDXQHLOLPELFRPXQHVDXR IRUP GHULYDW SULQ GLYHUVLILFDUH  XQLL OLQJYLúWL DX RSWDW SHQWUX SULPD IRUPXO LDU DO LL SHQWUX FHDODOW $FHVWH UVSXQVXUL VXQW vQ OHJWXU úL FX SUREOHPD vQF nerH]ROYDW D OLQJYLVWLFLL FRPSDUDWH úL DQXPH GDF WRDWH OLPELOH JOREXOXL DX GHULYDW dintr-R VLQJXU OLPE FRPXQ RULJLQDU SURWROLPE  WHRULD PRQRJHQH]HL  VDX GLQ FRQWU GLYHUVHOH WLSXUL GH OLPEL DX DSUXW vQ GLIHULWH ]RQH DOH JOREXOXL LQGHSHQGHQW unele de altele. (teoria poligenezei). /LPEDHVWHXQIHQRPHQVRFLDOúLPLMORFGHFRPXQLFDUHGHFLUDSRUWXULOHGLQWUH IRUPHOH GLDOHFWDOH DOH JUDLXULORU  úL OLPED FXOWLYDW QRUPDW VH IRUPHD] úL VH UHvPSURVSWHD] QHvQWUHUXSW úL vQ ]LOHOH QRDVWUH SULQ VFKLPEXUi constante între GHSULQGHULOH GLDOHFWDOH SH GH R SDUWH D YRUELWRULORU úL OLPED QD LRQDO YRUELW úL VFULV SH GH DOW SDUWH ùL vQ PHGLXO XUEDQSHUVLVWGHSULQGHULGLDOHFWDOH'LIHUHQ HOH GLQWUHOLPEGLDOHFWVHVLWXHD]SHGLIHULWHWUHSWHGHVXERUGRQare. Dialectul unei limbi VHSRDWHvQGHSUWDGHDFHDVWDGDWRULWXQRUSUHVLXQLH[WUDOLQJYLVWLFHGDUúLXQRUIDFWRUL OLQJYLVWLFLúLSRDWHGHYHQLODUkQGXOOXLRDOWOLPE &ULWHULLOH GH VWDELOLUH D VWDWXWXOXL OLPEGLDOHFW DX XQ FDUDFWHU VRFLDO-politic DSDUWHQHQ D SRSXOD LHL OD XQ JUXS HWQLF  WHULWRULDO vQ IXQF LH GH XQLWDWHD úL GLYHUVLWDWHD DVSHFWHORU OLPELL FRPXQH úL D WUDGL LLORU FXOWXUDOH 6LQJXUH DUJXPHQWHOH OLQJYLVWLFH SHQWUX FODVLILFDUHD OLPEGLDOHFW QX VXQW FRQFOXGHQWH &RQVLGHUP F H vorbaGHDFHHDúLOLPEGHúLHYRUELWvQVWDWHGLIHULWHGHH[HPSOXOLPEDIUDQFH]GLQ &DQDGD VDX GLDOHFWXO FDQDGLDQ DO OLPELL IUDQFH]H IU D IL FRQVLGHUDW R HQWLWDWH VHSDUDWFDÄOLPEFDQDGLDQ´ 3HUPHDELOLWDWH OLPEGLDOHFWJUDL VH IDFH SULQ LQVWUXF LH úFRDO úL OHFWXU  úL WHQGLQ DHVWHGHYUVDUHvQOLPEDOLWHUDUVWDQGDUG 6WXGLXO GLDOHFWHORU FDUH VH IDFH vQ FDGUXO GLVFLSOLQHL OLQJYLVWLFH QXPLW GLDOHFWRORJLH VHED]HD]SHPHWRGHOH D GHVFULSWLY PRQRJUDILL GLDOHFWDOH FDUH DX vQ YHGHUH OLPED YRUELW GLQWU-o ]RQ PDL PXOW VDX PDL SX LQ H[WLQV GHVFULV SDU LDO GLQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH IRQHWLF úLVDXPRUIRORJLFVDXvQWRDWHDVSHFWHOHVDOHGHFLOH[LFDOHúLVLQWDFWLFH  b. geografiei lingvistice. +DUWD HVWH R UHSUH]HQWDUH VLQFURQLF D YRUELULL LQGLYLGXale de pe un teritoriu GDW &kWHYD GLQWUH SULQFLSLLOH IXQGDPHQWDOH GH LQWHUSUHWDUH D KU LORU FRQGXF OD R vQ HOHJHUHWHPHLQLFDVWUXFWXULLúLGLQDPLFLLDULLORUGLDOHFWDOH3ULPHOHGRXSULQFLSLL DSDU LQOXL-*LOOLHURPHOHVHUHIHUODPLJUD LDFXYLQWHORUúLOXSWDGLQWUHFXYLQWH D &XYLQWHOHPLJUHD]ODQLYHOXOYRUELULLGLQUHJLXQH]RQ /LQJYLVWXOURPkQ ,$&DQGUHDDVWDELOLWFPLJUD LDVHIDFHSULQ LUDGLD LH LQILOWUDUH UHYUVDUHúL 4) suprapunere. ,UDGLD LDDUHORFvQMXUXOXQXLFHQWUXGHLQRYD LH,QILOWUDUHDVHSURGXFHvQVSD LL DSURSLDWH]RQHLXQGHVHIRORVHúWHXQOXFUXVDXDUHORFXQIHQRPHQ8QIDSWGHOLPE PLJUDWPDLvQWkLWLPLGSULQLQILOWUDUHVDXLUDGLD LHVHSRDWHDSRLUVSkQGLPDVLYSULQ UHYUVDUH LQXQGkQG ]RQH vQWLQVH 'H RELFHL UH]XOWDWXO XQHL PLJUD LL HVWH úL VXSUDSXQHUHDGHSDUWLFXODULW LOLQJYLVWLFH E ÌQOHJWXUFXOXSWDGLQWUHHOHPHQWHOHOH[LFDOHWUHEXLHVUH LQHPPDLvQWkL LGHHD ÄvPEROQYLULL´ XQRU FXYLQWH GLQ FDX]H PXOWLSOH RPRQLPLD SROLVHPLD scurtimea (corpul redus) al cuvântului. 0 %DUWROL FUHDWRUXO OLQJYLVWLFLL VSD LDOH D SXV DFFHQWXO SH VWDELOLUHD FURQRORJLHL IDSWHORU OLQJYLVWLFH SOHFkQG GH OD GLVSR]L LD DULLORU GLDOHFWDOH 'H DFHHD PHWRGDVDVHQXPHúWHúLOLQJYLVWLFDUHDO$XWRUXODDYXWvQ vedere întregul teritoriu URPDQLFúLDVWDELOLWDOWHFLQFLSULQFLSLLVDXÄQRUPH´GHLQWHUSUHWDUHDKU LORU DULD L]RODW DULDODWHUDO DULDPDMRU DULDXOWHULRDUúL DULDGLVSUXW

18

 'LQWUHGRXID]HOLQJYLVWLFHFHDL]RODWHVWHPDLveche. Ariile izolate ar fi, deci, mai arhaice decât celelalte.  )D]DGLQDULDODWHUDOHVWHPDLDUKDLFGHFkWFHDGLQDULLOHFHQWUDOHGHXQGH DSRUQLWLUDGLHUHDVDXPLJUD LDWHUPHQXOXL   )D]D GLQ DULD PDL PDUH DULD PDMRU  HVWH PDL YHFKH GHFkW FHD Gin aria PLQRU 4) Ariile ulterioare pot fi arhaice.   'LQ DULD GLVSUXW VH PHQ LQ PDUWRULL GH HUR]LXQL SDUWLFXODULW L IRDUWH rezistente. 3H ED]D KU LORU VH SRDWH REVHUYD IRDUWH FODU FXP GLQWU-un punct (localitate) RDUHFDUH R QRXWDWH OLQJYLVWLF SURQXQ LH IRUP PRUIRORJLF WUVWXUL VLQWDFWLFH FXYLQWH  VH UVSkQGHúWH vQ IXQF LH GH FXUHQWH SROLWLFH FRPHUFLDOH VDX FXOWXUDOH ÌQ Evul Mediu, în Apus, centrele ecleziastice au impus teritoriilor subordonate normele OLQJYLVWLFH SHQWUX F HSDUKLDSDURKLa reprezenta o unitate), apoi centrele politice, FDSLWDOHOH DX H[HUFLWDW vQ FRQWLQXDUH LQIOXHQ D QRUPDWLY 'H RELFHL vQV SUHVWLJLXO FXOWXUDODSUHYDODWDVXSUDFHOXLSROLWLF$VWIHOJUDLXOGLQ)ORUHQ D7RVFDQDIRORVLWGH Dante în opera sa a devenit liPEDOLWHUDULWDOLDQ Zonele limitrofe dintre graiuri/dialecte depind de multe ori de cauze JHRJUDILFH 8Q ODQ  GH PXQ L FRQVWLWXLH R EDULHU QDWXUDO vQWUH JUDLXUL vQ WLPS FH R YDOHWLDWGHXQIOXYLXIRUPHD]GH-a lungul ei o unitate. Periferia în sSD LXDXQXL JUDLGHSUWDWGHFHQWUX HVWHPDLFRQVHUYDWRDUHGHFkWFHQWUXOvQVXúL +U LOH DX LPSRUWDQ  SHQWUX UHFRQVWLWXLUHD GLIX]ULL HOHPHQWHORU OLQJYLVWLFH 3HQWUXFQXPDLSULQGLIX]DUHLQRYD LDGHODQLYHOXOXQXLYRUELWRUSWUXQGHvQYRUELUHD unui JUXS D XQXL JUDLGLDOHFW úL DSRL vQ OLPED FRPXQ VWDQGDUG 7HRULLOH OLQJYLVWLFH FDUHSHUPLWDFHDVWUHFRQVWLWXLUHVXQW a. WHRULD WUDGL LRQDO D ÄILOLD LHL´ D DUERUHOXL JHQHDORJLF FHHD FH SUHVXSXQHFWUDQVPLWHUHDLQRYD LHLVHIDFHQXPDLvQWUHOLPELvQUXGite b. WHRULD YDOXULORU Ä:HOOHQWKHRULH´ FDUH FRQVLGHU F WUVWXULOH OLQJYLVWLFHVHUVSkQGHVFGHODXQYHFLQODDOWXOLQGLIHUHQWGHRULJLQHDORU DFHDVWWHRULHDSDU LQHOXL-RKDQQHV6FKLPGW 0RGXOGHGLIX]DUHDXQHLWHQGLQ HOLQJYLVWLFHVHSRDWHSHtrece: a. printr-XQDYDQVSHXQIURQWODUJFDRSDWGHXOHL  b. printr-R PLúFDUH FH SRDWH IL DVHPQDW WUXSHORU DHURSXUWDWH DGLF DYDQVHD] vQ ORFDOLW LOH LPSRUWDQWH GH-D OXQJXO FLORU GH FRPXQLFD LHúLDELDvQWU-RDGRXDHWDSWHQGLQ HOHOLQJYLVWLFHVHH[WLQGúLvQ VSD LLOHLQWHUPHGLDUH 3HED]DKU LORUVHSRWVWXGLDVWUDWXULOHVXFFHVLYHGHLQIOXHQ H6HIRORVHúWHvQ acest caz metoda geologiei lingvistice, care permite stabilirea unei cronologii relative a vechimii elementelor (fonetice, morfologice sau lH[LFDOH GLQWUHOLPE $VWIHO SHQWUX GLDOHFWRORJ WUDGL LLOH RUDOH H[WUDOLQJYLVWLFH UHSUH]LQW FHHD FH HVWHÄWH[WXO´SHQWUXVSHFLDOLúWLLGLQGRPHQLXOOLPELLOLWHUDUH Limba în cadrul social ÌQ RULFDUH HSRF úL RULFkW DP XUFD vQ WLPS OLPED DSDUH vQWRWGHauna ca o PRúWHQLUH D HSRFLL SUHFHGHQWH 1LFL R VRFLHWDWH QX FXQRDúWH úL QX D FXQRVFXW OLPED GHFkWFDSHXQSURGXVPRúWHQLWGHODJHQHUD LLOHSUHFHGHQWHSUHOXDWFDDWDUH6LQJXUXO RELHFWUHDODOOLQJYLVWLFLLHVWHYLD DQRUPDOúLUHJXODWDXQXLLGLRPGHMa constituit. 'DUDVSXQHFOLPEDHVWHRPRúWHQLUHQXH[SOLFQLPLFGDFQXPHUJHPPDL GHSDUWH úL SODVP OLPED vQ FDGUXOVXVRFLDO7UHEXLHVSXQHPSUREOHPDDúDFXPR

19

SXQHP SHQWUX FHOHODOWH LQVWLWX LL VRFLDOH &XP VH WUDQVPLW DFHVWHD" 9RP YHGHD F pentrX ILHFDUH GLQWUH HOH H[LVW XQ HFKLOLEUX GLIHULW vQWUH WUDGL LD LPSXV úL DF LXQHD OLEHUDVRFLHW LL 5HYHQLQG OD OLPE QH YRP vQWUHED GH FH IDFWRUXO LVWRULF DO WUDQVPLWHULL R GRPLQvQvQWUHJLPHúLH[FOXGHRULFHVFKLPEDUHVXELWJHQHUDO (YROX LDOLPEii (langage) în genere, cea a diverselor limbi în particular, poate ILH[SOLFDWSULQDQXPLWHHOHPHQWHFDUH LQGHYRUELWRUL - PRGGHYLD úLGHFOLP - UHOD LLVRFLDOHLQWHUXPDQH - PRGFRPXQGHDJkQGLSHGLIHULWHWUHSWHGHFLYLOL]D LHDFHHDúL mentalitate) - dLIHULWHWLSXULGHUHJOHPHQWULVRFLDOH 'DUIDSWHOHOLQJYLVWLFHDXúLSURSULLOHORUHYROX LLFKLDUGDFVXQWvQOHJWXUFX DOWHIDSWHULWPXULOHGHHYROX LHVXQWGLIHULWHúLWUHEXLHDYXWvQYHGHUHFRPSOH[LWDWHD FLUFXPVWDQ HORU ÌQFRPSDUWLPHQWDUHDXPDQHVWHQDWXUDOFOLPEDMXODDYXWRVRDUWDQDORJvQ FHHD FH SULYHúWH YDULHWDWHDGLYHUVLWDWHD VD SH PDUL VSD LL JHRJUDILFH GHRDUHFH HO HVWH PRELOúLDQWUHQDWvQWU-RPLúFDUHJHQHUDOGHHYROX LH /LQJYLúWLLDXFXWDWVGHPRQVWUH]HGH]YROWDUHDQDWXUDODOimbii, dar au trebuit VUHFXQRDVFvQILQDOFRGH]YROWDUHQDWXUDODOLPELLQXH[LVWFFLÄWRDWHOLPELOH FXQRVFXWH SRSXODUH úL VDYDQWH GH]YOXLH SUHRFXSDUHD XQXL ÄD VSXQH PDL ELQH PDL H[DFW ©G¶XQ PLHX[ GLUHª´ FDUH SUHWXWLQGHQL D FRQGXV VXELHF LL YRUELWRUL V-úL vQVXúHDVF PRGXO GH D YRUEL DO FHORU FDUH VH H[SULP PDL ELQH 'H IDSW DFHDVW WHQGLQ  VSUH PDL ELQH FRUHVSXQGH SURSULX-]LV QHYRLORU GH FRPXQLFDUH úL QX XQHL GRULQ HVXELHFWLYH7RDWHWUDQVIRUPULOHvQOLPEVHIDFSULQLQWHUPHGLXOYRUELUii, dar FDX]HOH WUDQVIRUPULORU QX UH]LG vQ DFHDVWD DGLF vQ YRUELUH 1X HVWH GRULQ D VDX YRLQ D GH H[SUHVLH D LQGLYL]LORU FHD FDUH D GHWHUPLQDW GH H[HPSOX IHQRPHQXO GH GLIWRQJDUH vQ OLPED IUDQFH] VDX PXWD LD FRQVRQDQWLF vQ OLPED JHUPDQ $FHVWH fenoPHQH UH]XOW GLQ IRU H VXSUDLQGLYLGXDOH úL VH GDWRUHVF vQ SDUWH úL PDULORU evenimente istorice, cum este amestecul popoarelor. $F LXQHD UHFLSURF vQWUH OLPE úL YRUELUH GDF FRQVLGHUP YRUELUHD R ÄUHFUHDUH LQGLYLGXDO D H[SUHVLHL OLQJYLVWLFH´  QX H[SOLF GHFkW SDU LDO DQXPLWH DVSHFWHDOHHYROX LHLIRQHWLFHúLPRUIRORJLFH5DSRUWXOGLQWUHOLPEúLYRUELUHVHUHOHY numai în maniera în care se transmite limba. /LPED HVWH PRúWHQLUHD FROHFWLY úL VSLULWXDO D JUXSXOXL XPDQ vQ LQWHULRUXO FUXLDVHGH]YROWFRSLOXOVSUHGHRVHELUHGHDSWLWXGLQLOHIL]LFHúLFHOHODOWHDSWLWXGLQL VSLULWXDOH SH FDUH XQ FRSLO OHPRúWHQHúWHGHODSULQ LúLGHODVWUPRúL OLPEDHOR vQYD GHODDQWXUDMXOVXSULQ LGRLFHGXFDWRDUH&RSLOXODUHGRDUFDSDFLWDWHDGHD FUHúWHúLDVHGH]YROWDvQWU-ROLPEILHFHFHDDSULQ LORUOXLILHFHROLPEVWULQ 8QFRSLOGLQSULQ LMDSRQH]LVDXSURYHQLQGGLQWU-R DUGLQ$IULFDSRDWHvQY D GHODSULPHOHVXQHWHvQPHGLXOHXURSHDQVDXDPHULFDQOLPEDORFXOXLFDúLXQEúWLQDú /LPED HVWH LQGHSHQGHQW GH DSWLWXGLQLOH IL]LFH DOH YRUELWRULORU 3ULQ XUPDUH WUDQVPLWHUHDGHODRJHQHUD LHODDOWDDOLPELLVHIDFHDVWIHOvQFkWILHFDUHQRXJHQHUD LH VHGH]YROWvQWU-RVIHUVSLULWXDOGHMDH[LVWHQW ÌQ WLPS FH YLD D WUHFH GLUHFW GH OD PDP OD FRSLO OLPED SDUFXUJH R FDOH VSLULWXDOSULQDF LXQHDDQWXUDMXOXLDVXSUDFRSLOXOXLúLDDGROHVFHQWXOXLDFHDVWDH[SOLF de ce un om de orice origine poate fi integrat într-RFROHFWLYLWDWHOLQJYLVWLFGLIHULWÌQ ,PSHULXO URPDQ RULJLQHD HWQLF D ORFXLWRULORU HUD GLQWUH FHOH PDL GLIHULWH GDU WR L DX DMXQVVVHvQ HOHDJvQODWLQ/DIHOvQPDUHDFROHFWLYLWDWHD$PHULFLLGH1RUGXQGH

20

DSURDSHWRDWHSRSRDUHOHOXPLLVXQWUHSUH]HQWDWHvQFROHFWLYLWDWHDXPDQWR LYRUEHVFR VLQJXUOLPERILFLDOHQJOH]D COMPARTIMENTELE LIMBII 'LQSHUVSHFWLYDVWUXFWXUDOVLVWHPXOOLPELLSRDWHILFRQFHSXWFDXQDQVDPEOX GHFRPSDUWLPHQWHQXPLWHúLQLYHOHVWDWXULVDXVXEVLVWHPH DIODWHvQDQXPLWHUDSRUWXUL LHUDUKLFHúLGLVSR]DELOHvQGRXSODQXULSODQXOH[SUHVLHLvQFDUHVHPDQLIHVWIDSWHOH GH DUWLFXOD LH úL DXGL LH GLQ FRPXQLFDUHD YHUEDO  úL SODQXO FRQ LQXWXOXL vQ FDUH VH PDQLIHVWIDSWHOHGHJkQGLUHGHFXQRúWLLQ   &RQILJXUD LD FRPSRUWDPHQWHORU úL  OLPELL SRDWH IL UHSUH]HQWDW VXE IRUPD unui tabel, cum este cel de mai jos:

Planuri

Expresie

&RQ LQXW

Compartimente

biplane (bilaterale)

monoplane (unilaterale)

SINTAXA FRPSDUWLPHQWXOHQXQ XULORU LEXICUL (compartimentul lexemelor) MORFOLOGIA (compartimentul morfemelor) FONOLOGIA SEMANTICA (compartimentul (compartimentul fonemelor) sememelor) Compartimentul Compartimentul WUVWXULORU GLVWLQFWLYH WUVWXULORU GLVWLQFWLYH (pertinente, relevante) semantice (=al semelor) DUWLFXODWRULLúLDFXVWLFH

Sunt trei compartimente biSODQHVDXELODWHUDOHVLQWD[DOH[LFXOúLPRUIRORJLD FRQVLGHUDWH vQ IHOXO DFHVWD SHQWUX F XQLW LOH ORU VSHFLILFH HQXQ XO OH[HPXO PRUIHPXO  VXQW HOH vQVHOH ELODWHUDOH DGLF GLVSXQ GH FkWH GRX ODWXUL H[SUHVLH VHPQLILFDQW úLFRQ LQXWVHPQLILFDW  $OWHSDWUXFRPSDUWLPHQWHVXQWPRQRSODQHVDXXQLODWHUDOHSHQWUXFVHGLVSXQ GRX FkWH GRX vQ FkWH XQ VLQJXU SODQ DO OLPELL FHHDFHvQVHDPQFHOHPHQWHOHORU constitutive sunt ele însele unilaterale: fonemele dispun numai de expresie, iar sememele – nXPDL GH FRQ LQXW 3ULPHOH VXQW DQDOL]DELOH vQ WUVWXUL GLVWLQFWLYH GH expresie, celelalte –vQWUVWXULGLVWLQFWLYHGHFRQ LQXWVHPH  8QLW LOHúLHOHPHQWHOHFRQVWLWXWLYHDOHVLVWHPXOXLOLPELLVXQWvQDQVDPEOXOORU invariante. Aceste invariante, ca uQLW L úL HOHPHQWH GH VLVWHP VH UHDOL]HD] vQ PRG FRQFUHW vQ SURFHVXO FRPXQLFULL YHUEDOH SULQWU-XQ QXPU PDL PDUH GH YDULDQWH (QXQ XO VH UHDOL]HD] SULQWU-R YDULHWDWH GH SURSR]L LL OH[HPXO VH UHDOL]HD] SULQWU-o YDULHWDWH GH FXYLQWH SROLVHPDQWLFH úL de forme gramaticale (numite alolexeme), morfemul – de asemenea printr-R YDULHWDWH GH IRUPH DOH UGFLQLORU DIL[HORU GHVLQHQ HORU QXPLWH DORPRUIH LDU IRQHPXO VH UHDOL]HD] SULQ YDULDQWHOH QXPLWH alofone (sunete rostite).

21

Membrii inventarelor de invariante constituie sistemul, în care, în fiecare FRPSDUWLPHQWDFHLPHPEULVHRUJDQL]HD]vQVHULLSDUDGLJPDWLFHLDUFRPELQDUHDORU GXSUHJXOLúLUHVWULF LLVSHFLILFHvQODQ XULVLQWDJPDWLFHUHDOL]HD]VWUXFWXULOHYHUEDOH SURSULLILHFUHLOLPEL PRINCI3,8/675$7,),&$,21$/$//,0%$-8/8, ,QYDULDQWHOHVXQWXQLW LIXQF LRQDOHDOHOLPELL(OHVHDIOvQUDSRUWXULLHUDUKLFH úL VWUXFWXUDOH XQHOH ID  GH DOWHOH FDUH VH H[SULP VXE IRUPD SULQFLSLXOXL VWUDWLILFD LRQDO DO OLPEDMXOXL )RUPXODUHD DFHVWXL SULQFLSLX HVWH XUPWRDUHD R XQLWDWH dintr-XQ FRPSDUWLPHQW DO VLVWHPXOXL OLQJYLVWLF VH VWUXFWXUHD] GLQ FHO SX LQ R XQLWDWH GLQ FRPSDUWLPHQWXO LPHGLDW LQIHULRU $VWIHO HQXQ XO SRDWH FRQVWD GLQWU-un lexem H[URP1LQJH VDXGLQPDLPXOWHOH[HPH$IDUQLQJHOLQLútit cu fulgi mari), lexemul poate consta dintr-XQ PRUIHP SRP  GLQ GRX SRPXO SRPL  VDX PDL PXOWH SRPLúRUL SRPLúRULL  ODWXUD GH H[SUHVLH D PRUIHPXOXL SRDWH FRQVWD GRQWU-un IRQHP R GLQ FRPELQD LD URPR FDV  GLQ GRX OD SH FH" DP HWF  Vau mai multe SRP >SRP@ FDV >NDV@ GLQ IRUPD JUDPDWLFDO FDV VDX FDUW- [kart] din forma JUDPDWLFDOFDUWHHWF  1X WUHEXLH V VXUSULQG IDSWXO F vQWUH VLQWD[ GRPHQLXO HQXQ XULORU  úL PRUIRORJLH GRPHQLXO IRUPHORU úL VWUXFWXULORU JUDPDWLFDOH  FRQceput în gramatica FODVLF GUHSW FRPSRQHQWH DOH VWUXFWXULL JUDPDWLFDOH ÄVH LQWHUFDOHD]´ OH[LFXO YRFDEXODUXO GRPHQLXO FXYLQWHORU  )DSWXO VH H[SOLF SULQ DFHHD F vQ PDMRULWDWHD OLPELORU HQXQ XULOH XQLW L VLQWDFWLFH  VXQW GLYL]LELOH PDL vQWkL vQ OH[HPH XQLW L GH YRFDEXODU  úL DELD DFHVWHD GLQ XUP OD UkQGXO ORU VH GLYLG vQ PRUIHPH XQLW L PRUIRORJLFH  'H H[ HQXQ XO URP 6WXGHQWD FLWHúWH OHF LD HVWH VHJPHQWDELO GLUHFW vQ WUHL FXYLQWH 6WXGHQWD FLWHúWH úL OHF LD úL QXPDL LQGLUHFW vQ úDSWH PRUfeme (substantivul studenta fiind analizabil în morfemul student- UGFLQ úL –a, articol GHILQLW FX YDORDUH GH GHVLQHQ  YHUEXO FLWHúWH – vQ UGFLQD FLW-, sufixul –HúW- úL GHVLQHQ D–HVXEVWDQWLYXOOHF LDvQUGFLQDOHF L-úLGLQQRXDUWLFROXO–a). Numai în XQHOHOLPELYRUELWHvQ([WUHPXO2ULHQWFXPVXQWFKLQH]DúLYLHWQDPH]DHVWHSUREDELO FDOH[HPHOHVÄFRLQFLG´VWUXFWXUDOFXPRUIHPHOHFHHDFHvQVHDPQFDQDOL]DXQRU HQXQ XUL vQ OH[HPH V ÄFRLQFLG´ WRWRGDW FX DQDOL]D OH[HPHORU vQ PRUIHPHOH lor constitutive. Limbile de acest fel sunt considerate radical-izolante din perspectiva tipurilor de limbi. Mai este necesar de subliniat un detaliu relativ la modul de manifestare a XQLW LORU VLVWHPXOXL OLQJYLVWLF úL DQXPH FDUDFWHUXO VHFYHQ LDO DO HQXQ XULORU OH[HPHORU PRUIHPHORU úL IRQHPHORU vQ VHQVXO F DVWIHO GH XQLW L SRW FRQVWLWXL VHFYHQ H DGLF VH SRW ÄvQúLUD´ XQHOH GXS DOWHOH vQ ÄODQ XUL´ VLQWDJPDWLFH  GDU FDUDFWHUXO IDVFLFXODU DO WUVWXULORU GLVWLQFWLYH GH H[SUHVLH DO VHPHPHORU úL DO IRQHPHORUvQVHQVXOFDVWIHOGHHOHPHQWHFRQVWLWXLHIDVFLFXOHDGLFQXVHSRWvQúLUD XQHOH GXS DOWHOH FL VH SURGXF UHVSHFWLY VH SHUFHS VLPXOWDQ vQ SURFHVXO GH FRPXQLFDUH  ([HPSOH WUVWXULOH FDUDFWHU YRFDOLF GHVFKLGHUH PD[LP FDUDFWHU QHODELOúLORFDOL]DUHFHQWUDOVHUHDOL]HD]FRQFRPLWHQWvQIRQHPXOYRFDOLFD>D@DVH YHGHDFDSLWROXOFRQVDFUDW)RQRORJLHLVHPHPHOHÄSDUWHDLQIHULRDUDGLQWHOXL´ÄSDUWHD LQIHULRDU D XQXL DUERUH VDX D XQHL SODQWH´ ÄPRIHPXO SULQFLSDO GLQ VWUXFWXUD XQXL cuvânt´ÄQXPUFDUHvQPXO LWFXHOvQVXúLSURGXFHXQDQXPLWDOWQXPU´VXQWSURSULL PRUIHPXOXL UGFLQ- GLQ OH[HPXO UGFLQ vQ PRG VLPXOWDQ vQ VLVWHP FHHD FH FRQILJXUHD] XQ FXYkQW SROLVHPDQWLF QXPDL vQ YRUELUH UHDOL]kQGX-se dor unul sau altul dintre cele patru sememe, în mod distinct de celelalte.

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(VWH GH SUHFL]DW DSRL F IUD]D úL VLQWDJPD QHILLQG XQLW L IXQF LRQDOH DOH VLVWHPXOXLVHDEDWGHODSULQFLSLXOVWUDWLILFD LRQDODOOLPEDMXOXLÌQWU-DGHYURIUD]QX HVWH QLFLRGDW IRUPDW ÄGLQ FHO SX LQ R SURSR]L LH´ FL vQWRWGHDXQD GLQ PDL PXOWH SURSR]L LL FHO SX LQGRX ,DUVLQWDJPDvQFRQFHS LDFXQRVFXWvQVLQWD[DPRGHUQ nu s-DU SXWHD GHILQL FD VWUXFWXU IRUPDW GLQ ÄFHO SX LQ´ GRX SU L GH SURSR]L LH FL FRQVWvQWRWGHDXQDvQPRGREOLJDWRULXGLQGRXSU LGHSURSR]L LHFDvQVLQWDJPHOH VXERUGLQDWLYH(OHYXOVLOLWRUVLQWDJPQRPLQDOúLFLWHúWHPXOWVLQWDJPYHUEDOVDX FDvQVLQWDJPDSUHGLFDWLY(OHYXOFLWHúWH 'LQDFHDVWSHUVSHFWLYUH]XOWFvQWU-un HQXQ  VXQW DWkWHD VLQWDJPH FkWH SU L GH SURSR]L LH PLQXV XQX ÌQWU-DGHYU HQXQ XO URP(OHYXOVLOLWRUFLWHúWHPXOWFRQVWkQGGLQSDWUXSU LGHSURSR]L LHVXELHFWDWULEXW SUHGLFDW FRPSOHPHQW  VH VWUXFWXUHD] vQ DFHODúL WLPS vQ WUHL VLQWDJPH FHOH PHQ LRQDWH PDL VXV  FHHD FH UHYLQH OD HFKLYDOHQ D  SU L GH SURSR]L LH –1 = 3 VLQWDJPH 1HILLQG XQLW L IXQF LRQDOH IUD]D úL VLQWDJPD VXQW vQ VFKLPE XQLW L OLQJYLVWLFH UHOD LRQDOH DOWIHO VSXV FRPELQD LL GH XQLW L IXQF LRQDOH IUD]D HVWH ÄFDGUXO´vQFDUHSURSR]L LLOHLQWUvQUHOD LLXQHOHFXDOWHOHLDUVLQWDJPDHVWHÄFDGUXO´ vQ FDUH LQWHUUHOD LRQHD] SU LOH GH SURSR]L LH $FHDVWD vQVHDPQ F úL SU LOH GH SURSR]L LHVXQWXQLW LOLQJYLVWLFHIXQF LRQDOHVHVXSXQSULQFLSLXOXLVWUDWLILFD LRQDODO limbajului, din moment ce o proSR]L LHSRDWHFRQVWDGLQWU-RSDUWHGHSURSR]L LHFHHD FH VH QXPHúWH vQ VLQWD[D FODVLF SURSR]L LH PRQRPHPEU  VDX GLQ PDL PXOWH SURSR]L LHSOXULPHPEU LDUSDUWHDGHSURSR]L LHSRDWHFRQVWDODUkQGXOHLGLQWU-un OH[HPSDUWHGHSURSR]L LHVLPSO VDXGLQPDLPXOWHSDUWHGHSURSR]L LHFRPSOH[ IRUPDW GH UHJXO GLQWU-un cuvânt autonom: substantiv, verb la modul infinitiv sau SDUWLFLSLX DGYHUE GH ORF GH WLPS VDX GH PRG HWF úL XQXO VDX PDL PXOWH FXYLQWH DMXWWRDUH SUHSR]L LH DUWLFRO QHKRWUkW UHVpectiv verb auxiliar sau adverb indicând JUDGXOGHFRPSDUD LH  &RPSDUWLPHQWHOH OLPELL SUH]LQW JUDGH YDULDWH GH FRPSOH[LWDWH DWkW GLQ SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH FDOLWDWLY FkW úL GLQ SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH FDQWLWDWLY 'LQ SXQFWXO GH vedere calitativ, sintaxa, lexicul úL PRUIRORJLD VXQW PDL FRPSOH[H GHFkW IRQRORJLD úL VHPDQWLFD SHQWUX F LQYDULDQWHOH VSHFLILFH SULPHORU WUHL HQXQ XO OH[HPXO úL PRUIHPXO  VXQW ELSODQH GLVSXQ DWkW GH H[SUHVLH FkW úL GH FRQ LQXW LDU LQYDULDQWHOH VSHFLILFHXOWLPHORUGRXVXQWPDLSX LQFRPSOH[HGDWILLQGFLQYDULDWHOHVSHFLILFHORU (fonemul, sememul) sunt monoplane, dispun fie numai de expresie (fonemul) fie QXPDL GH FRQ LQXW VHPHPXO  'LQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH FDQWLWDWLY VLQWD[D OH[LFXO úL morfologia sunt mai complexe decât fonologia, penWUXFLQYDULDQWHOHSURSULLSULPHORU trei sunt mai numeroase decât invariantele din fonologie (în medie, sistemul lingvistic DO OLPELORU FXSULQGH  GH IRQHPH  0DL PXOW GHFkW DWkW HQXQ XULOH VXQW PDL QXPHURDVHGHFkWOH[HPHOHSHFDUHOHvQJOREHD]vQVWUucturile lor), iar lexemele sunt PDL QXPHURDVH GHFkWPRUIHPHOHGXSFXP– printre morfeme –UGFLQLOHVXQWPDL QXPHURDVH GHFkW DIL[HOH úL GHVLQHQ HOH ÌQWU-R DVWIHO GH FRQFHS LH DVXSUD VLVWHPXOXL OLQJYLVWLF vQ FDUH VH DGPLWH F FHOH GRX SODQXUL DOH OLPELL VXQW L]RPRUIH SUH]LQW VWUXFWXUUL SDUDOHOH úL VLPLODUH  FRPSDUWLPHQWXO VHPDQWLF IDFH WRWXúL ILJXU DSDUWH &RQIRUPSULQFLSLXOXLL]RPRUILVPXOXLHODUWUHEXLVILHVUDFvQHOHPHQWHvQWRFPDLFD IRQRORJLD FX FDUH ÄVH vQYHFLQHD]´ vQ SODQXO RSXV DO limbii; or, lucrurile nu stau în UHDOLWDWH DúD VHPHPHOH VXQW PXOW PDL QXPHURDVH vQ VLVWHPXO RULFUHL OLPEL GHFkW IRQHPHOH D FURU ÄFDQWLWDWH´ HVWH GXS FXP DP SUHFL]DW GH RUGLQXO ]HFLORU  3DUDOHOLVPXOVWUXFWXUDOGLQWUHFHOHGRXSODQXULDOHOLPELLQXPDLFRUHVSXQGHUHDOLW LL OLQJYLVWLFHGDFFRPSDUPLQYDULDQWHOHIRQRORJLFHFXFHOHVHPDQWLFHGLQSXQFWXOGH vedere cantitativ. 6WUXFWXUDOLVPXOGLQDPLFFHUFHWDUHDLVWRULFDVLVWHPXOXLOLQJYLVWLFDIRUPXODW ROHJHLPSRUWDQWFXSULYLUHODHYROX LHGLQSHUVSHFWLYDSULQFLSLXOXLVWUDWLILFD LRQDODO

23

OLPEDMXOXL(VWHOHJHDLQHJDOHLPRELOLW LúLSHQHWUDELOLW LDFRPSDUWLPHQWHORUOLPELL 3ULQ PRELOLWDWH VH vQ HOHJH PRGLILFDUHD UDSRUWXULORU LQWHUQH GLQWUH XQLW LOH ILHFUXL compartiment lingvistic. De exemplu, formarea derivatului porumbel, ca nume de SDVUHvQGLDOHFWXOPXQWHDQDOOLPELLURPkQHSHQWUXDHYLWDFROL]LXQHDRPRQLPLFFX QXPHOH SODQWHL SRUXPE vQ GLDOHFWXO PROGRYHDQ SDVUHD VL-D SVWUDW YHFKLXO QXPH QHGHULYDWSRUXPESHQWUXFQXULVFDVVe confunde cu numele plantei, care este, în 0ROGRYDSSXúRL  3ULQ SHQHWUDELOLWDWH VH vQ HOHJH SRVLELOLWDWHD XQRU UHSHUFXVLXQL vQ VLVWHPXO OLPELLFDXUPDUHDUHOD LLORUGLQWUHOLPEúLDOWHIHQRPHQHUHDOL]DWvQWUHDOWHOHSULQ FUHúWHUHD VDX GHVFUHúWHUHD QXPUXOXL GH XQLW L OLQJYLVWLFH 'H H[HPSOX R GDW FX HYROX LD VRFLHW LL R GDW FX GLVSDUL LD XQRU YHFKL LQVWLWX LL DX GLVSUXW GLQ OH[LFXO FRQWHPSRUDQ úL XQ QXPU GH FXYLQWH DUKDLVPH FD URP KDWPDQ VWROQLF SDKDUQLF HWF LDURGDWFXGH]YROWDUHDFXOWXULLúLFLYLOL]D LHLDSUkQGFRQFHSWHQRLOHJDWHGH SLOG GHLQVWUXPHQWHPRGHUQHvQOH[LFDXLQWUDWúLGHQXPLULOHGHDVHPHQHDQRLDOH acestora ( ca neologisme, de felul substantivelor: binoclu, telescop, microscop etc.). Exemplele furnizate aLFL LQ GH FRPSDUWLPHQWXO OH[LFDO YRFDEXODU  DFHVWD FD úL FRPSDUWLPHQWXO VLQWD[HL ILLQG PDL XúRU SHQHWUDELO PDL VXSXV LQIOXHQ HORU extralingvistice. 0RELOLWDWHDFRPSDUWLPHQWHORUOLPELLHVWHXQIHQRPHQGHOLQJYLVWLFLQWHUQLDU penetrabilitatea lor – XQXO GH OLQJYLVWLF H[WHUQ vQ WHUPLQRORJLD LQWURGXV GH ) GH 6DXVVXUH7UHEXLHIFXWSUHFL]DUHDFH[LVWRUHOD LHGHGLUHFWSURSRU LRQDOLWDWHvQWUH PRELOLWDWH úL SHQHWUDELOLWDWH SH GH R SDUWH úL JUDGXO GH FRPSOH[LWDWH FDQWLWDWLY úL FDOLWDWLY D compartimentelor limbii. Cu alte cuvinte, cu cât un compartiment OLQJYLVWLFHVWHPDLFRPSOH[FXDWkWHOHVWHPDLPRELOúLPDLSHQHWUDELOvQWU-RDQXPLW XQLWDWHGHWLPSúLLQYHUVFXFkWHVWHPDLSX LQFRPSOH[FXDWkWHVWHPDLSX LQPRELO úL PDL JUHX SHQHWUDELO vQ DFHHDúL XQLWDWH GH WLPS $FHDVWD HVWH IRUPXODUHD OHJLL LQHJDOHLPRELOLW LúLSHQHWUDELOLW LDFRPSDUWLPHQWHORUOLPELLÌQWU-DGHYUVLQWD[DúL PDLDOHVOH[LFXOOLPELLURPkQHGHH[HPSOXDXHYROXDWPXOWvQXOWLPHOHGRXVHFROH pe când morfolRJLDDDFKL]L LRQDWXQQXPUUHODWLYPDLPLFGHPRUIHPHLDUIRQRORJLD URPkQHDVFQXV-DPRGLILFDWGHORFvQDFHODúLLQWHUYDOFURQRORJLF $PIFXWPDLVXVRUHIHULUHODWLSXOGHOLPELUDGLFDO-L]RODQWHFDUHvQVQXHVWH singurul tip lingvistic. Prin tip liQJYLVWLF VH vQ HOHJH DQVDPEOXO SDUWLFXODULW LORU VWUXFWXUDOHRSXQkQGROLPERFODVGHOLPEL DOWHLDDOWRUD LQGHSHQGHQWGHRULJLQHD HYROX LD úL GLVWULEX LD VSD LDO D OLPELORU ÌQ OLPELOH GH WLS L]RODQW FXYLQWHOH QX-úL PRGLILF IRUPD vQ SURFHVXO FRPXQLFULL HOH VXQW LQWHJUDO QHIOH[LELOH $FHVW WLS VH subdivide în subtipul radical-L]RODQW GHMD PHQ LRQDW vQ FDUH vQ DIDUD SDUWLFXODULW LL GHDQXIOH[LRQDFXYLQWHOHVHUHGXFVWUXFWXUDOODXQLW LRPRORJHUGFLQLORUGLQDOWH WLSXULGHOLPELúLvQVubtipul tematic-L]RODQWvQFDUHUPkQkQGQHIOH[LELOHFXYLQWHOH DXWRWXúLRVWUXFWXUSX LQPDLFRPSOH[VFKL kQGX-VHDLFLIHQRPHQXOGHULYULLVXQW SRVLELOHvQDVWIHOGHOLPELFXPHVWHLQGRQH]LDQDFXYLQWHIRUPDWHGLQUGFLQLODFDUH VH DWDúHD] SUHIL[H  6XQW SRVLELOH DOWH WUHL WLSXUL GH OLPEL QHL]RODQWH úL DQXPH IOH[LRQDU vQ FDUH XQHOH FXYLQWH vúL VFKLPE IRUPHOH JUDPDWLFDOH SULQ IOH[LXQH – GHFOLQDUH FRQMXJDUH FKLDU FRPSDUD LH DGMHFWLYDO vQ FXUVXO FRPXQLFULL YHUEDOH  aglutinant (în care VXQW SRVLELOH IRUPD LL OH[LFDOH ÄOXQJL´ FX DWDúDUHD D QXPHURDVH DIL[HSHOkQJUGFLQL vQVIkUúLWLQFRUSRUDQWvQFDUHFHHDFHFRUHVSXQGHGLIHULWHORU SU L GH SURSR]L LH GLQ OLPELOH GH FHOH GLQWkL WLSXUL VH FRPELQ vQ VWUXFWXUL OH[LFDOH complexe, în DúD IHO vQFkW XQ FXYkQW GH WLS LQFRUSRUDQW SRDWH IL HFKLYDOHQW FX R SURSR]L LHXQHRULFKLDUFXRIUD]GLQOLPELOHGHFHOHODOWHWLSXUL  7LSXULOH IOH[LRQDU úL DJOXWLQDQW VH VXEGLYLG vQ VXEWLSXULOH VLQWHWLF vQ FDUH IOH[LXQHD VH UHDOL]HD] SULQ DIL[H úL GHVLQHQ H FD URP WDWOXL (genitiv sau dativ),

24

FkQWDVHUPPDLPXOWFDSUHIHFW HWF úLDQDOLWLFvQFDUHFXYLQWHOHDúD-zise flexibile nu-úLVFKLPEIRUPDFDvQOLPELOHL]RODQWHGDUFDWHJRULLOHJUDPDWLFDOHVHH[SULPvQ ORF GH DIL[H úL GHVLQHQ H SULQ LQVWUXPHQWH JUDPDWLFDOH VDX FXYLQWH DMXWWRDUH SUHSR]L LL FRQMXQF LL YHUEH DX[LOLDUH DGYHUEH GHOH[LFDOL]DWH SHQWUX H[SULPDUHD JUDGHORU GH FRPSDUD LH FD vQ IU du père (genitiv), au père (dativ) sau nous avions chanté (mai mult ca perfect etc.). În secolul al XIX-OHD  D DSUXW R UDPXU VSHFLDO D OLQJYLVWLFLL tipologia, având ca obiect de studiu tipurile structurale de limbi. La conturarea ei au contribuit OLQJYLúWLL JHUPDQL :LOKHOP YRQ +XPEROGW IUD LL 6FKOHJHO úL $XJXVW 6FKOHLFKHU 2 QRX FODVLILFDUH WLSRORJLF PDL GHWDOLDW úL LQkQG VHDPD QX QXPDL GH VWUXFWXUD FXYLQWHORUFLúLGHSDUWLFXODULW LDOHXQLW LORUGLQFHOHODOWHFRPSDUWLPHQWHDOHOLPELL DSURSXVvQHSRFDLQWHUEHOLFOLQJYLVWXODPHULFDQ(GZDUG6DSLU &ODVLILFDUHD WLSRORJLF FODVLF QXPLW úL PRUIRORJLF  D OLPELORU UHGXV OD OLQLLOHHLPDULSRDWHILSUH]HQWDWFDvQDFHDVWGLDJUDP

Tipuri de limbi

izolant

neizolant

radical tematic flexionar aglutinant H[YLHWQDPH] H[LQGRQH]LDQ sintetic analitic sintetic analitic incorporant (ex.: (ex.: (ex.: (ex.: (polisitetic) ODWLQ IUDQFH] PDJKLDUD WLEHWDQD H[OLPELOH amerindiene)

FONETICA – Studiul sunetelor vorbirii )RQHWLFD HVWH R GLVFLSOLQ OLQJYLVWLF DYkQG FD RELHFW VXQHWHOH YRUELULL 3ULQ VXQHW DUWLFXODW VH vQ HOHJH HPLVLXQHD YRFDO PLQLPDO FDSDELO FD vPSUHXQ FX DOWH ÄSURGXVH´ VLPLODUH DOH YRFLL V IRUmeze corpuri fonetice (complexe sonore). &RUSXULOH IRQHWLFH DOFWXLHVF ODWXUD VRQRU D FXYLQWHORU VLQWDJPHORU SURSR]L LLORU frazelor. )RQHWLFD D IRVW LQL LDW vQ DQWLFKLWDWH vQ YHFKHD *UHFLH úL vQ YHFKHD ,QGLH vQ special în India ajungând la rezultateUHPDUFDELOHYHFKLLLQGLHQLDXGDWRDGPLUDELO FODVLILFDUH D VXQHWHORU SURSULL URVWLULL VDQVNULWH OLPED GH FXOWXU D ULL ORU vQ Antichitate). Ea s-a dezvoltat în Europa, mai ales în secolul al XIX-OHD OD VIkUúLWXO FUXLD D DSUXW PHWRGD GH FHUFHWDUH QXPLW IRQHWLF H[SHULPHQWDO SULQ FDUH VH UHFXUJHODXQQXPUGHDSDUDWHGHPVXUDSDUWLFXODULW LORUDUWLFXOULLGHHPLWHUH úL DFXVWLFHGHUHFHSWDUH DOHVXQHWHORU/HJDWGHDFHDVWDHVWHIRQHWLFDLQVWUXPHQWDOR PHWRGGHSUHGDUHDURVWLULLOLPELORUVWULQHFXDMXWRUXODSDUDWXULLHOHFWURQLFH $OWH GLVFLSOLQH OLQJYLVWLFH DSURSLDWH GH IRQHWLFVXQWFHOHQRUPDWLYHRUWRHSLD DQVDPEOXOUHJXOLORUGHSURQXQ DUHFRUHFWvQOLPEDOLWHUDU úLRUWRJUDILDDQVDPEOXO

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UHJXOLORU GH VFULHUH FRUHFW vQ DFHODúL DVSHFW DO OLPELL  &X UGFLQL vQ VHFROXO DO XIX-OHD vQ VHFROXO XUPWRU V-D GH]YROWDW IRQRORJLD VDX IRQHWLFD IXQF LRQDO VWXGLXO VXQHWHORU GLQ SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH DO IXQF LXQLL ORU vQ SURFHVXO GH FRPXQLFDUH YHUEDO într-RIRUPXODUHFRQFLVVWXGLXOIRQemelor. )RQHWLFD JHQHUDO VWXGLXO WHRUHWLF DO VXQHWHORU OLPEDMXOXL LQGLIHUHQW GH GHRVHELULOH GLQWUH OLPEL VW vQ UHOD LH FX IRQHWLFD VSHFLDO VWXGLXO VXQHWHORU GLQ YRUELUHDXQHLOLPELDQXPLWH DFHDVWDGLQXUPSRDWHILRIRQHWLFGHVFULSWLYVWXGLX al sunetelor din vorbirea unei limbi într-R HWDS GDW GLQ HYROX LD HL  VDX R IRQHWLF LVWRULFVWXGLXDOHYROX LHLVXQHWHORUSURSULLXQHLOLPELGH-a lungul istoriei acesteia). $FHDVW GLVFLSOLQ OLQJYLVWLF SUH]LQW LQWHUHV SHQWUX GH]YROWDUHD XQRU discipOLQH úL FKLDU WHKQLFL H[WUDOLQJYLVWLFH FD GLF LXQHD WHKQLFD GLF LHL XWLO SHUIHF LRQULL DUWHL GH LQWHUSUHWDUH VFHQLF  GHIHFWRORJLD DFXVWLF WHKQLFD FRUHFWULL GHIHFWHORU GH DXGL LH  ORJRSHGLD úL RUWRIRQLD WHKQLFL DOH FRUHFWULL GHIHFWHORU GH pronuQ DUH  6XQHWHOHYRUELULLVHvPSDUWvQGRXFODVHLPSRUWDQWHYRFDOHúLFRQVRDQHXQLWH SULQFODVDLQWHUPHGLDUDVRQDQWHORU 9RFDOHOH VXQW VXQHWH DUWLFXODWH vQWRWGHDXQD VRQRUH DGLF URVWLWH FX YLEUD LD FRDUGHORU YRFDOH  FDUH VH SURQXQ  IU HIRUW DUWLFXODWRULX úL VXQW FDSDELOH GH D constitui centri silabici. (OH VH FODVLILF GXS ]RQD GLQ FDYLWDWHD EXFDO vQ FDUH VH SURGXF YRFDOH DQWHULRDUH vQ SDUWHD DQWHULRDU D FDYLW LL EXFDOH  YRFDOH SRVWHULRDUH vQ SDUWHD SRVWHULRDU D DFHOHLDúL FDYLW L  úL Yocale centrale sau neutre (în zona mijlocie a FDYLW LLEXFDOH  9RFDOHOHDQWHULRDUHVXQW>0@FDîn fr. mère (m05 ÄPDP•”, [œ], ca în fr. boeuf [boef] „bou”, [e], ca în fr. gai [ge] „vesel, -´>¡], ca în fr. feu [f¡], „foc”, [y], ca în fr. lune (lyn] „OXQ´YRFDODURPkQHDVF>H@GLQSOHFGHH[HPSOXVHVLWXHD]GHIDSW vQWUH>H@úL>0@GLQIUDQFH]QHILLQGDWkWGHvQFKLVFDIU>H@QLFLDWkWGHGHVFKLVFDIU >0@  Vocale posterioare sunt: [λ], ca în engl. son [sλQ] „fiu”, [ã], ca în engl. dog [dãg] „câine”, [ò], ca în vietnam. òt [ò t] „piper”, [o], ca în engl. bone [boun] „os”, [m], ca în japon. mizu [mim}@ÄDS´>X@FDvQJHUPNXQG>NXQG@ÄFXQRVFXW´YRFDOD >R@ GLQ URVWLUHDURPkQHDVFvQMRFGHH[HPSOXVHSURQXQ PDLGHVFKLVGHFkWHngl. >R@GDUPDLvQFKLVGHFkWHQJO>ã]). Vocale centrale sunt: [è@FDvQHQJOQLQH>QDLQ@ÄQRX´>è], ca în engl. [taè] ÄVDUFLQ´>á], ca în engl. [tá p] „vârf”, [è@FDvQURPYG>÷], ca în rom. fân, [÷÷], ca în rus. ue>[÷÷ t] „a fost”. Dup JUDGXO GH DSHUWXU GHVFKLGHUH  UH]XOWDW GLQ GLVWDQ D GLQWUH PXúFKLXO OLQJXDOúLSDODWvQPRPHQWXODUWLFXOULLYRFDOHOHVHFODVLILFvQGHVFKLVH>è], [α], [á] – YH]L PDL VXV H[HPSOLILFUL VHPLGHVFKLVH >0@ >œ], [λ], [ã], cu exemple mai sus; semiînchise: [e], [øë], [ò@>R@ODIHOGHQRWDWF>è@VHVLWXHD]vQOLPELFDIUDQFH]D JHUPDQD HQJOH]D URPkQD vQWUH YRFDOHOH VHPLGHVFKLVH úL FHOH VHPLvQFKLVH vQFKLVH [i], [y], [τ], [t], [÷÷], [u]. 'XSUROXOEX]HORUvQURVWLUHYRFDOHOHVXQWODELDOHURtunjite): [è], [ã], [o], [u], [œ], [ø], [y], iar nelabiale (nerotunjite) – toate celelalte. ÌQ URVWLUHD XQRU OLPEL FD IUDQFH]D SRUWXJKH]D SRORQD úD VHGLVWLQJYRFDOH RUDOHFXH[SXO]DUHDFXUHQWXOXLGHDHUIRQDWRUH[FOXVLYSHFDOHRUDO úLYRFDOHQD]ale

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FX H[SXO]DUHD XQHL SU L GLQ FXUHQWXO GH DHU SULQ IRVHOH QD]DOH  9RFDOH RUDOH VXQW toate acelea cu care am exemplificat mai sus. Vocalele nazale sunt: [ã], ca în fr. plante ÄSODQW´ >0@ FD în fr. magasin „magazin”, [Ÿ@ FD vQ SRUW HP ÄvQ´ >v@ Fa în port. intacto „intact”, [ã], ca în fr. bon „bun”, [œ], ca în fr. un „un”, [Ê@FDvQSRUWXQÄXQ´ ÌQ URVWLUHD DOWRU OLPEL FD ODWLQD YHFKH JUHDF VDQVFULWD JHUPDQD HQJOH]D PDJKLDUD úD  VH GLVWLQJ YRFDOH OXQJL FX R GXUDW GH DUWLFXODUH XúRU SUHOXQJLW  úL vocale scurte. Exemple de vocale lungi: [α:], ca în engl. father [fα/ è@ÄWDW´>0@FD în finl. mitenkään ['mitek0Q@ÄGHORF´>H@FDîn germ. Schnee [œQH@Ä]SDG´>L@FD vQ HQJO HDW >LW@ ÄD PkQFD´ >R@ FD vQ Y JUHDF 2&. > so:ma] „corp”, [ã:], ca în germ. Ofen [ã:f ãn] „sob•”, [ø:], ca în magh. tör [t ø:r] „pumnal”, [u:], ca în engl. two >WX@ÄGRLGRX´>\@FDvQJHUPEHU> \E è r] „deasupra, peste”. 'RX YRFDOH URVWLWH vQ DFHHDúL VLODE IRUPHD] JUXSXO YRFDOLF QXPLt diftong, LDU WUHL YRFDOH URVWLWH vQ DFHHDúL VLODE IRUPHD] JUXSXO YRFDOLF QXPLW WULIWRQJ 'LIWRQJL úL WULIWRQJL DXWHQWLFL VH vQWkOQHVF vQ OLPELOH JHUPDQLFH FD JHUPDQD HQJOH]D ÌQURVWLUHDOLPELLURPkQHVHvQWkOQHVFIDOúLGLIWRQJLúLWULIWRQJLSHQWUXFvQDVWIHOGH JUXSXUL ILJXUHD] vQWRWGHDXQD FkWH R YRFDO QX FkWH GRX UHVSHFWLY WUHL  FHOHODOWH VXQHWHFDUHLQWUvQDOFWXLUHDORUILLQGVHPLYRFDOH &RQVRDQHOH VXQW VXQHWH DUWLFXODWH QX vQWRWGHDXQD VRQRUH SURQXQ DWH FX XQ oarecare efort articulatorLX úL FDUH QX VXQW vQ JHQHUDO FDSDELOH GH D IRUPD FHQWUL silabici. (OHVHFODVLILFGXSPRGXOGHDUWLFXODUHPDQLHUDGHH[SXO]DUHDFXUHQWXOXLGH aer fonator) în oclusive (cu obstacol total în calea curentului de aer fonator), fricative sau constrictive FX REVWDFRO SDU LDO vQ FDOHD FXUHQWXOXL IRQDWRU  úL DIULFDWH VDX VHPLRFOXVLYHRULSORVLYHFXREVWDFROWRWDOWUDQVIRUPDWvQREVWDFROSDU LDO  &RQVRDQHOH RFOXVLYH VXQW >E@ >S@ >G@ >W@ >J@ >N@ >J¶@ >N¶@ FHOH GRX GLQ XUPFDvQURPJKHDUúLFKLDUILLQGSDODWDOHvQUDSRUWFXSUHFHGHQWHOHGRXFDvQ URPJDUúLFDUFDUHVXQWGXUH >Jw], [kw@FDvQODWOLQJXDÄOLPE´TXLVÄFLQH´  Consoanele fricative sunt: [Ú], ca în span. cabeza [ka'ÚHD@ ÄFDS´ >@ FD în OLPEDQLJHULDQKDXVDH[ILOILOR>LOLOR@ÄIOXWXUH>Y@>I@>/@FDîn engl. then [δen] ÄDWXQFLDSRL´>@FDîn engl. there [UL@ÄWUHL´>]@>V@>!], ca în rom. joc, [œ@FDvQ URP úL >@ FD în neo-JUHF !..2 >UDPDWL NL@ ÄJUDPDWLF´ >[@ FD vQ JHUP Buch [bux@ÄFDUWH´>K@FDvQURPKDLQ Consoanele africate sunt: [p3], ca în germ. Apfel ['ap3èO@ÄPU´>G]@FDvQ LWDO]HUR> G]HUR@Ä]HUR´>WV@FDvQ kQ DU>G!], ca în rom. rogi, [tœ@FDvQURPIDFL 1RWD LD GLQWUH SDUDQWH]H GUHSWH UHSUH]HQWkQG WUDQVFULS LD IRQHWLF DSDU LQH DúDQXPLWXOXLÄDOIDEHWIRQHWLFLQWHUQD LRQDO´úLHVWHXQDÄDQDOLWLF´DGLFQRWkQGvQPRG GLVWLQFW REVWDFROXO WRWDO LQL LDO GLQ DUWLFXODUHD DIULFDWHORU SULQ S W G úL REVWDFROXO SDU LDO ILQDO GLQ DUWLFXODUHD ORU SULQ  ], s, !, œ $FHVW OXFUX QX vQVHDPQ DúDGDU F DIULFDWHOH YRU FRQVWD GLQ FRPELQD LL GH FkWH GRX FRQVRDQH ÌQ WUDQVFULHUHD IRQHWLF URPkQHDVFVHUHFXUJHODRQRWD LHÄVLQWHWLF´DDIULFDWHORU> @SHQWUX>WV@>÷@SHQWUX [d!@úL>þ@SHQWUX>Wœ@ 'XS ORFXl de articulare, consoanele pot fi: bilabiale – >@ >3@ >E@ >S@ labiodentale – [v], [f], [p3]; dentale – [d], [t], [z], [s], [dz], [ts]; interdentale –>/@>@ alveolare –>G@úL>W@GLQURVWLUHDHQJOH]HLSDODWDOH–>J @>N @úLDOWHOHSURSULLOLPbilor slave cu deosebire; velare –>J@>K@>@>[@IDULQJDOH– [h]. 'XS UROXO FRDUGHORU YRFDOH vQ URVWLUH FRQVRDQHOH SRW IL VRQRUH URVWLWH FX YLEUDUHDFRDUGHORUYRFDOH úLVXUGHIUYLEUDUHDFRDUGHORUYRFDOH &RQVRDQHVRQRUH

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VXQW>@>E@>G@>]@>G]@>/@>J’@>J@>@LDUVXUGHVXQW>3@>S@>S3], [t], [s], [ts], >@>N @>N@>[@>K@ ÌQ XQHOH OLPEL FD VDQVNULWD úL OLPELOH LQGLHQH DFWXDOH YHFKHD JUHDF VXQW SRVLELOH úL FRQVRDQH DVSLUDWH URVWLWH FX H[SXO]DUHD UHODWLY SXWHUQLF D Furentului de DHU IRQDWRU GLQ FDYLWDWHD EXFDO  úL FRQVRDQH QHDVSLUDWH FX H[SXO]DUHD PDL SX LQ SXWHUQLF D FXUHQWXOXL IRQDWRU  ([HPSOH GLQ YHFKHD JUHDF FRQVRDQH QHDVSLUDWH Œ >S@2>W@úLN>N@úLFRQVRDQHDVSLUDWH3>SK@>WK@$>NK@ În alte limbi FD LWDOLDQD PDJKLDUD úL ILQODQGH]D VXQW SRVLELOH úL FRQVRDQH OXQJL UHVSHFWLY FRQVRDQH VFXUWH ([HPSOH GLQ ILQODQGH] VDQRLVLW ÄDL ]LFH´ FX W VFXUW VDQRLVLWWHÄD L]LFH´FXWOXQJ  &ODVD LQWHUPHGLDU GH VXQHWH vQWUH YRFDOH úL FRQVRDQH HVWH D Vonantelor. $FHVWHD VXQW FD úL YRFDOHOH VXQHWH vQWRWGHDXQD VRQRUH VH URVWHVF FX XQ VODE HIRUW DUWLFXODWRULXFHHDFHOHDSURSLHGHFRQVRDQHúLvQDQXPLWHOLPELSRWFRQVWLWXLQXFOHH VLODELFH 6RQDQWHOH VXQW GH GRX IHOXUL FRQVRDQH LPSURSULL FD >U@ URPânesc, [R] francez, [l] românesc, [à@VODYYHODU >@SDOHWDOFDîn ital. famiglia, span. Sevilla, port. Magelhães „Magellan”), [m], [m+@FDvQURPDvQY D>Q@GHQWDO >@QYHODU FDvQHQJOWKLQJÄOXFUX´ >@SDODWDOFDvQVSDQQL a n RÄFRSLO´ úLVHPLYRFDOHFD>M@ úL>Z@GLQHQJOH]IUDQFH]FURUDOHFRUHVSXQGLúLXVHPLYRFDOLFLGLQURPkQGDL GDXOLPEDGLQXUPDGXJkQGDOWHVHPLYRFDOHHFDvQSOHDFúLRFDvQMRDF 8QLWDWHD IRQHWLF LPHGLDW VXSHULRDU sunetului articulat este grupul de sunete YRFDOLFGLIWRQJVDXWULIWRQJUHVSHFWLYFRQVRQDQWLH $OWXQLWDWHIRQHWLFVXSHULRDU HVWHVLODEDFDUHVHGHILQHúWHFDHPLVLXQHDUWLFXODWDYRFLLXPDQH GHOLPLWDWGHGRX LPSXOVXUL VXFFHVLYH DOH PXúFKLORU LQWHUFRVWDOL 6LODEHOH VH FODVLILF GXS QXPUXO GH VXQHWHFDUHVHvQúLUvQVWUXFWXUDORUúLGXSFDUDFWHUXOVXQHWXOXLWHUPLQDO'XSSULPXO FULWHULX VH GLVWLQJ VLODEH IRUPDWH GLQ FkWH XQ VLQJXU VXQHW GH UHJXO R YRFDO FX VWUXFWXUDVLPEROL]DELOSULQ9 GLQFkWHGRXVXQHWH&9VDX9&XQGH&UHSUH]LQW FRQVRDQD GLQFkWHWUHL&9&&&9VDX9&& HWFÌQURPkQGHH[HPSOXQXPUXO FHO PDL PDUH GH VXQHWH FXSULQVH vQWUH R VLODE HVWH GH FLQFL H[ VWUkPW VWUkPE úL GDF VH FRQVLGHU VXQHW GLVWLQFW úL-L ILQDO DVLODELF FD vQ IRUPHOH GH QXPU SOXUDO DOH DGMHFWLYHORU GH PDL VXV VWUkP L VWUkPEL VH SRDWH DGPLWH F VLODEHOH URPkQHúWL ÄPD[LPDOH´ FXSULQG úDVH VXQHWH 'XS DO GRLOHD FULWHULX VH GLVWLQJ VLODEH GHVFKLVH WHUPLQDWH vQ YRFDO  FD úL V GLQ URP FDV VDX D GLQ URP DFXP úL VLODEH vQFKLVH WHUPLQDWHvQFRQVRDQ DFúLWRUGLQURPDFWRUVDXFXPGLQURPDFXP8QHOHOLPEL PDQLIHVW WHQGLQ D VSUH VLODEH GHVFKLVH DOWRUD OH VXQW VSHFLILFH QXPDL VLODEHOH GHVFKLVHFXPLFLH[FHS LLWRDWHVLODEHOHOimbii japoneze sunt deschise, închiderea lor ILLQGSRVLELOQXPDLSULQVRQDQWDQD]DOGHQWDOQFKLQH]DOLPEFXVLODEHGHVFKLVH vQPDMRULWDWHDDEVROXWDGPLWHvQFKLGHUHDORUQXPDLSULQQGHQWDO úL>@QYHODU@ În rostirea corpurilor fonetice ale cXYLQWHORUúLIRUPHORUORUJUDPDWLFDOHFDúLD SURSR]L LLORU úL IUD]HORU DX ORF DúD-numitele accidente de coarticulare. Prin FRDUWLFXODUHVHvQ HOHJHIDSWXOFVXQHWHOHXQXLFRUSIRQHWLFVDXDOHXQXLúLUGHFRUSXUL IRQHWLFHQXVHDUWLFXOHD]GLVWLQFWDGLFVWULFWVHSDUDWHXQHOHGHFHOHODOWHGLPSRWULY vQFvQDLQWHGHDVHvQFKHLDDUWLFXODUHDXQXLVXQHWvQFHSHLPHGLDWDUWLFXODUHDVXQHWXOXL XUPWRU $OWIHO VSXV PRPHQWXO ILQDO GLQ DUWLFXODUHD XQXL VXQHW VH VXSUDSXQH SDU LDO SHVWH PRPHQWXO LQL LDO GLQ DUWLFXODUHD VXQHWXOXL FDUH XUPHD] FHOXLODOW vQWU-un corp fonetic. Accidentele fonetice rezultate în urma fenomenului de coarticulare sunt: asimilarea, disimilarea, afereza, sincopa, apocopa, haplologia, proteza, epenteza, anaptixa, metateza, sinereza, diereza,VLQDOHIDHFWKOLSVDHOL]LXQHD8UPHD]GHILQLUHD ORUFXH[HPSOLILFULVXPDUH $VLPLODUHD UHSUH]LQW ÄvPSUXPXWDUHD´ XQHL WUVWXUL DUWLFXDOWRULL VDX DFXVWLFH GHODXQVXQHWODDOWXOH[FRQVRDQDVXUG>V@GLQSUHIL[XOURPGHV-, ca în derivatul

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desface, GHYLQH VRQRU >]@ VXE LQIOXHQ D FRQVRDQHL VRQRUH XUPWRDUH GLQ URP dezbate, de exemplu). 'LVLPLODUHD UHSUH]LQW ÄSLHUGHUHD´  vQ DUWLFXODUHD XQXL VXQHW D WUVWXULL SH FDUHHORDUHvQFRPXQFXDOWVXQHWGLQDFHODúLFRUSIRQHWLFH[XQDGLQWUHFHOHGRX VXQHWH YLEUDQWH >U@ GLQ URP FRULGRU GHYLQH >O@ VXE LQIOXHQ D FHOHL GH OD VIkUúLW vQ URVWLUHDQHOLWHUDUFROLGRU  $IHUH]D  UHSUH]LQW GLVSDUL LD YRFDOHL LQL LDOH D XQXL FRPSOH[ VRQRU H[ ODW exponŸUHGHYHQLWURPDVSXQH  6LQFRSDUHSUH]LQWGLVSDUL LDXQHLYRFDOHLQWHULRDUHPDLDOHVQHDFFHQWXDWHH[ în lat. calidus devenit rom., it. caldo). $SRFRSDFRQVWGLQGLVSDUL LDYRFDOHLILQDOHGLQWU-un complex sonor (ex. rom. SRSDIDU¶vQURVWLUHDvQWHPSRUDSLGvQORFGHDIDU  +DSORORJLD FRQVW GLQ HOLPLQDUHD XQHLD GLQWUH FHOH GRX VLODEH DVHPQWRDUH sau identice dintr-XQ FRUS IRQHWLF H[ URP MXPDWH GLQ MXPWDWH VDX WUDJLFRPHGLH din tragico-comedie). 3URWH]DFRQVWGLQDWDúDUHDXQHLYRFDOHLQL LDOHODXQFRUSIRQHWLFvQFHSkQGGH obicei, cu o VRQDQWH[URPSRSDPLURDVHvQORFGHPLURDVHPDJKLVNRODÄúFRDO´ din lat. schola). (SHQWH]D UHSUH]LQW GH]YROWDUHD XQHL FRQVRDQH vQLQWHULRUXOXQXLFRUSIRQHWLF H[DSDUL LDFRQVRDQHLEvQIUFKDPEUHGLQODWFDPHUD  $QDSWL[DHVWHDSDUL LDXQei vocale în interiorul unui grup de consoane ale unui FRUS IRQHWLF H[ URP UHJ D KUQL GLQ D KUQL MDSRQ EDVXNHWRERUX GLQ HQJO basketball). 0HWDWH]D HVWH VFKLPEDUHD UHFLSURF D ORFXOXL DQXPLWRU VXQHWH GLQWU-un complex sonor (ex. rom. scluptor, în loc de sculptor; span. cocodrilo, din lat. crocodylus). 6LQHUH]D HVWH FRQWRSLUHD D GRX YRFDOH vQYHFLQDWH vQWU-un diftong (ex. rom. re-gio-QDOvQORFXOVLODED LHLOLWHUDUHUH-gi-o-nal). Diereza este accidentul opus sinerezei, constând din separarea în silabe diferite D HOHPHQWHORU FRPSRQHQWH DOH XQXL GLIWRQJ H[ URP HURXO IRUP DUWLFXODW KRWUkW ID GHHURXIRUPQHDUWLFXODW  6LQDOHIDHVWHRVLQHUH]VLQWDFWLFDGLFSURGXVODOLPLWDGLQWUHGRXFRUSXUL fonetice învecinate (ex. rom. pe-aici, din pe aici). (FKWOLSVD HVWH DOW DFFLGHQW GH IRQHWLF VLQWDFWLF FRQVWkQG GLQ HOLPLQDUHD YRFDOHL LQL LDOH D FXYkQWXOXL XUPWRU vQ FRQWDFW FX YRFDOD ILQDO D FXYkQWXOXL precedent (ex. rom. ca-n, din ca în). Eliziunea este eliminarea vocalei finale a unui cuvânt, în contact cu vocala LQL LDODFXYkQWXOXLXUPWRUH[IUO¶pOève, „elevul”, în loc de *le élève). ÌQDIDUGHYRFDOHFRQVRDQHVRQDQWHFDUHVXQWHOHPHQWHIRQHWLFHVHJPHQWDOH SHQWUXFUH]XOWGLQVHJPHQWDUHDODQ XOXLIRQLFvQURVWLUHDRULFUHLOLPELVHUHDOL]HD] úLHOHPHQWHIRQHWLFHVXSUDVHJPHQWDOHvQVR LWRDUHDOHXQRUFRUSXULIRQHWLFHVHJPHQWDOH GHGLPHQVLXQLYDULDWHDFFHQWXOWRQXOúLLQWRQD LD3ULQDFFHQWVHvQ HOHJHURVWLUHDPDL HQHUJLF DFFHQW GLQDPLF  VDX PDL vQDOW DFFHQW WRQLF  a unei silabe dintr-un corp IRQHWLF SROLVLODELF /LPED URPkQ FD úL FHOHODOWH OLPEL URPDQLFH VH FDUDFWHUL]HD] SULQ DFFHQW GLQDPLF OLPELOH FHK VkUE VXHGH] GLVSXQ GH DFFHQW WRQLF 7RQXO UHSUH]LQW URVWLUHD PDL vQDOW PDL MRDV VDX FRPELQDW GLQ SXnctul de vedere al vQO LPLLDXQHLVLODEHGLQWU-XQFRUSIRQHWLFPRQRVLODELF3ULQWRQXULVHFDUDFWHUL]HD] rostirea unor limbi izolante din Extremul Orient: chineza (cu 4 sau 5 tonuri), YLHWQDPH]D FX  WRQXUL  $FFHQWXO úL WRQXO VXQW SURSULL XQLW LORU lingvistice numite cuvinte.

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31

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Fig. 2. Subsistemul consonantic al limbii române, semnele +, – úL ‘ DYkQG DFHOHDúLVHPQLILFD LLFDvQILJGXS(9DVLOLX  Înainte de a încheia acest capitol sunt de tratat, pe scurt, alte câteva chestiuni vQUHOD LHFXIRQRORJLDúLDQXPHUDSRUWXOGLQWUHIRQHPHúLJUDIHPHOLWHUH IRQHPHOH priviWHGLQSHUVSHFWLYLQIRUPD LRQDOúLIRQRVWDWLVWLF 7UHEXLH SUHFL]DW GLQ FDSXO ORFXOXL F vQ WLSXO GH VFULHUH OLWHUDO DOIDEHWLF  OLWHUHOH QX QRWHD] DORIRQH FL IRQHPH $ILUPD LD HVWH SHUIHFW YDOLG SHQWUX VFULHUHD OLWHUDO GRPLQDW GH SULQFLSLXO IRQRORgic în ortografie, cum este scrierea limbii URPkQH VDX D OLPELL VSDQLROH 'DF VFULHUHD OLWHUDO HVWH GRPLQDW GH SULQFLSLXO WUDGL LRQDO-istoric (sau etimologic) în ortografie, atunci raportul de 1 la 1 dintre litere úL IRQHPH HVWH ÄFDPXIODW´ ÄDVFXQV´ ÄGHQDWXUDW´ ILLQG SRVLELO FD XQXO úL DFHODúL IRQHP V ILH QRWDW SULQ OLWHUH YDULDWH úL FKLDU SULQ FRPELQD LL GH OLWHUH (VWH FD]XO RUWRJUDILLORUIUDQFH]HQJOH]úLLUODQGH]3HQWUXFDVWULQLLFDUHvQYD DFHVWHOLPEL V SRDW FLWL FRUHFW vQ DFRUG FX URVWLUHD WH[WH UHGDFWDWH vQ HOH HVWH QHFHVDU V VH UHFXUJ OD WUDQVFULHUHD IRQHWLF D WH[WHORU SULQ FDUH VH WLQGH OD UHVWDELOLUHD FRUHVSRQGHQ HORU GLQWUH JUDILL úL URVWLUL 'DU WUDQVFULHUHD IRQHWLF QRWHD] vQ VFULV rostirea, cu toate (sau aproape toate) SDUWLFXODULW LOH GH DUWLFXODUH DúDGDU R DVWIHO GH WUDQVFULHUH QRWHD] úLUXUL GH DORIRQH 2 WUDQVFULHUH GLQ SHUVSHFWLYD VLVWHPXOXL OLQJYLVWLF HVWH WUDQVFULHUHD IRQHPLF VDX IRQHPDWLF vQ FDUH ILHFDUH VHPQ JUDILF corespunde câte unui fonem realizat în comunicare. 'LQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH LQIRUPD LRQDO FRQVRDQHOH VXQW vQ PRG PDL SUHJQDQW SXUWWRDUH GH LQIRUPD LH GHFkW YRFDOHOH GDU VXQW WRWRGDW PDL YXOQHUDELOH GHFkW DFHVWHD vQ FD]XO vQ FDUH FDQDOXO GH WUDQVPLVLH D LQIRUPD LHL HVWH DIHFWDW GH IDFWRUL GH bruiaj. 9RFDOHOH SULQ QDWXUD ORU VRQRUH SRW vQYLQJH PDL XúRU GLILFXOW LOH LPSXVHGH

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un mediu de comunicare zgomotos, se percep mai lesne, dar ele nu servesc în mod LUHSURúDELO WUDQVPLWHUHD LQIRUPD LHL 'H DFHHD vQ FRPXQLFULOH WHOHIRQLFH vQ OLPED URPkQVHUHFXUJHXQHRULODvQORFXLUHDFRUSXOXLIRQHWLFOLWHUDUDOQXPHUDOXOXLúDSWH FRQIXQGDELOFXúDVHSHQWUXFJUXSXOGHFRQVRDQHptULVFVQXILHSHUFHSXWFRUHFW  FXFRUSXOIRQHWLFQHOLWHUDUUHJLRQDOúHSWH 7RWRGDW vQ VFULHUHD OLPELORU VHPLWLFH DUDE QHRHEUDLF  VXQW QRWDWH QXPDL FRQVRDQHOHGLQFRUSXULOHJUDILFHDOHFXYLQWHORUDXRPRWLYD LHVLPLODUVXV LQXWúLGH R DQXPLW SDUWLFXODULWDWH VWUXFWXUDO D DFHORU OLPEL IOH[LXQHD LQWHUQ FRQVWkQG GLQ conservarea în flexiune a unui schelet consonantic, dar varierea vocalelor în forme IOH[LRQDUH GLIHULWH DOH DFHOXLDúL FXYkQW IHQRPHQXO VH SURGXFH GH IDSW QX QXPDL vQ IOH[LXQHDVHPLWLFFLúLvQIRUPDUHDFXYLQWHORUvQOLPELOHGLQDFHDIDPLOLH  ÌQ VIkUúLW vQ VXEVLVWHPHOH IRQRORJLFH DOH RULFUHL OLPEi, consoanele sunt, în JHQHUDO PDL QXPHURDVH GHFkW YRFDOHOH 7RWXúL vQ YRUELUH HVWH SRVLELO FD vQ DQXPLWH OLPELYRFDOHOHVDSDUPDLGHVGHFkWFRQVRDQHOH/LPELOHvQFDUHIUHFYHQ DYRFDOHORU este mai mare decât aceea a consoanelor în vorbire, sunt considerate ca vocalice (cum HVWH ILQODQGH]D FX  YRFDOH ID  GH  FRQVRDQH vQ WH[WH  LDU DFHOHD vQ FDUH FRQVRDQHOH DSDU FX R IUHFYHQ  PDL PDUH GHFkW D YRFDOHORU VXQW FRQVLGHUDWH OLPEL FRQVRQDQWLFH FXP HVWH HQJOH]D DPHULFDQ FX  YRFDOH ID  GH  consoane în WH[W  /LPED URPkQ HVWH R OLPE FH SRDWH IL FRQVLGHUDW UHODWLY YRFDOLF GLQ DFHVW SXQFW GH YHGHUH FX  YRFDOH úLFRQVRDQH3HQWUXRSRVLELOFRPSDUD LHGLQ SHUVSHFWLYD IRQRORJLF V PDL SUHFL]P UDSRUWXULOH UHVSHFWLYH GLQ LWDOLDQ (48% YRFDOH  FRQVRDQH  IUDQFH]  YRFDOH  FRQVRDQH  PDJKLDU  YRFDOHFRQVRDQH úLJHUPDQYRFDOHFRQVRDQH 

Morfemul 0RUIHPXO HVWH R XQLWDWH PLQLPDO GH H[SUHVLH SXUWWRDUH GH VHQV FH corespunde, în general, valorilor graPDWLFDOHGLQJUDPDWLFDWUDGL LRQDO Criteriile de clasificare a morfemelor sunt reprezentate de:   SRVLELOLW LOH GH FRPELQDUH D DFHVWRUD FDUH GHOLPLWHD] PRUIHPH LQGHSHQGHQWHFHSRWVDSDUVLQJXUHRULFRPELQDWHFXXQPRUIHP]HURYkQWORFúL morfemHGHSHQGHQWHGHVLQHQ HVXIL[HSUHIL[H FHQHFHVLWSUH]HQ DXQXLDOPRUIHP FUXLDVLVHDWDúH]HUH– fac – e, pix-uri;   VWUXFWXUD H[SUHVLHL FDUH FODVLILF PRUIHPHOH vQ FRQWLQXH IRUPDWH GLQWU-un VLQJXUIRQHPVDXXQúLUQHvQWUHUXSWGHIRQHPHIRF-a, -L úLGLVFRQWLQXHD vQWUHUXSWH –FHOHvQLQWHULRUXOFURUDVHLQWHUFDOHD]FRUSXOIRQHWLFDOXQXLDOWPRUIHPDGHVHQD DO IUDWHOXL úL E  UHSHWDWH vQWkOQLWH vQ OLPELOH vQ FDUH H[LVW DFRUG JUDPDWLFDO FDUWH LQWHUHVDQWFU LLQWHUHVDQWH 3) natura FRQ LQXWXOXL PRUIHPHORU GHOLPLWHD] PRUIHPXO OH[LFDOH UGFLQL bun, elev, floar-, vorbe - úL DIL[H GHULYDWLYH SUH- VWU -este, -L  PRUIHPH gramaticale: sufixe: aleg – ând, desen – a – se, desinente: scri – a – m frumoasei fete, úL PRUIHPH OH[LFR-grDPDWLFDOH FDUH IRUPHD] FXYLQWH QRL GDU DX úL YDORDUH JUDPDWLFDODUKL-plin, hiper-VHFUH LHSUHIL[HOHVXQWúLPUFLDOHVXSHUODWLYXOXL   SR]L LDID GHPRUIHPXOLQGHSHQGHQWGLVWLQJHSUHIL[HDIL[HDúH]DWHvQID D morfemului independent: bi-anual, sWU-PRú UH-VFULH  VXIL[H DIL[H DGXJDWH GXS UGFLQ FDUH IRUPHD] WHPH VDX FXYLQWH QRL OXG-a-VH FV-X  IUXPXú-el), în fine DIL[H LQWURGXVH vQ UGFLQD FXYkQWXOXL UXPSL  8Q PRUIHP DSDUWH DGXJDW GXS UGFLQ úL WHP HVWH UHSUH]HQWDW GH GHVLQHQ D FDUH PDUFKHD] OD VXEVWDQWLYH QU úL

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cazul: mes-ei (sg., G-'  JHQXO QXPUXO úL FD]XO OD DGMHFWLYH EXQHL FRQGXLWH IHP sg., G-' QXPUXOúLSHUVRDQDYHUEHORUGRU-i-m (pl., pers.I);  GLVWDQ DPRUIHPHORUGHSHQGHQWHID GHDOLQGHSHQGHQWGHOLPLWHD]VXIL[HúL GHVLQHQ HOLSLWHGHUGFLQFDUHRFXSSR]L LD,FkQW-a, cit-HVFVDXDIODWHODGLVWDQ H PDLPDULID GHDFHDVWDRFXSkQGSR]L LDD,,-a: cânt-a-se, a III-a: cânt-a-se-UD,9-a: cânt-a-se-U-PSUHIL[HOHSRWRFXSDSR]L LD,FkQGVXQWSODVDWHLPHGLDWOkQJUGFLQ a-SRHWLFVDXSR]L LDD,,-a: re-în-VFXQ-a; E  QXPUXO GH PRUIHPH GHSHQGHQWH FRPELQDELOH GHOLPLWHD] PRUIHPH FDUH QHFHVLW SUH]HQ D XQXL VLQJXU PRUIHP LQGHSHQGHQW -HúWH HQJOH]-HúWH  DúFRSLO-Dú  sau a morfemului independenWúLDFkWRUYDPRUIHPHGHSHQGHQWHGHVHQ-a-se-U- L   QDWXUD H[SUHVLHL FODVLILF PRUIHPHOH vQ VHJPHQWDOH UHSUH]HQWDWH SULQ foneme propriu-zise: scoal-, -LúLPRUIHPHVXSUDVHJPHQWDOHUHSUH]HQWDWHGHDFFHQWúL LQWRQD LH Cazuri particulare de morfeme dependente sunt reprezentate de:   PRUIHPXO ]HUR XQ PRUIHP OLSVLW GH H[SUHVLH PDWHULDO IRQLF vQ]HVWUDW vQV FX FRQ LQXW SXUWWRU GH LQIRUPD LH JUDPDWLFDO IRUPD ]L UDSRUWDW OD ]LOH VDX PHUJ UDSRUWDW OD IRUPH FXP VXQW PHUJL PHUJH DX vQ VWUXFWXUD lor un asemenea PRUIHP FH PDUFKHD] vQ SULPXO FD] IHPLQLQXO VLQJXODU LDU vQ FHO GH-al doilea persoana I singular; 2) interfix – XQ VHJPHQW GH H[SUHVLH OLSVLW GH DFFHQW úL GH VHQV GH FRQ LQXW SURSULXDIODWvQWUHUGFLQúLVXIL[HOHXQRUFXYLQWHGHULYate: camarad-er-ie, jandarmer-ie. 5ROGHPRUIHPHJUDPDWLFDOHSRWDYHDúL ‡DFFHQWXOúLLQWRQD LDYpVHOYHVpOiFHOHDFpOHUHVSHFWLY9LQHEXQLFD9LQH bunica?); • reduplicarea –UHSHWDUHDSDU LDOVDXWRWDODXQXLDVDXDPDLPXOWRUIRQHPH GLQ UGFLQD XQXL FXYkQW VDX D vQWUHJLL UGFLQL WHPH VDX FXYkQW SHQWUX D-i da FXYkQWXOXL R QRX YDORDUH PRUIRORJLF RUL VWLOLVWLF VDX SRW IL FUHDWH IRUPH QRL vQ limba hausa – biri - ÄPDLPX ´ SOELULELUL vQ MDSRQH] \DPD - „munte”, pl. yamayama, rom. a da – dGXLDVWD–VWWXL ‡OXQJLUHDYRFDOHLvQOLPELOHvQFDUHH[LVWYRFDOHOXQJLúLVFXUWHSRDWHPDUFDR YDORDUHJUDPDWLFDOFXPHVWHFHDGHFD]ODWVLOYD19RFVJ VLOY—$EOVJ FHDGH timp: fÎJLWSHUIHFW IÌJLWSUH]HQW  • geminarea (dublarea saX OXQJLPHD FRQVRDQHORU  SRDWH IL úL HD PDUF D XQXL morfem gramatical: est.kapi - „al dulapulai”, kappi - „în dulap”; ‡ IOH[LXQHD LQWHUQ FRQVW vQ PRGLILFDUHD VXQHWHORU GLQ UGFLQ vQ VFRSXO PDUFULLXQRUIRUPHJUDPDWLFDOHHQJOVLQJ– sang – sung, rom. sunt, eram, fui, fusei, fost; • topica – RUGLQHD FXYLQWHORU vQ SURSR]L LH SRDWH IL LQGLFH DO IXQF LHL JUDPDWLFDOH D DFHVWRUD vQ OLPELOH OLSVLWH GH IOH[LXQH VDX FX R IOH[LXQH UHGXV 'DQ seas Mary, în care primul substantiv are valoare de subiect, iar cel de-al doilea de obiect. ‡FXYLQWHOHDX[LOLDUHSURSR]L LLFRQMXQF LLYHUEHDX[LOLDUHDUWLFROHDGYHUEH  SRW FRQWULEXL úL HOH OD UHGDUHD XQRU VHQVXUL JUDPDWLFDOH SH ELDW V vQ HOHJ DO RPXOXLDPJVLWYHLILDX]LWIRDUWHDSURDSH Morfemele (invarLDQWH  VH UHDOL]HD] SULQWU-R FODV GH HOHPHQWH FRQFUHWH FH DSDU GH UHJXO vQ SR]L LL GLQ FDUH WRDWH FHOHODOWH YDULDQWH VXQW H[FOXVH 'LIHULWH FD expresie, -e din floare, -• din student• Ø din zi, reprezint•, toate trei, alomorfele YDULDQWHOH DFHOXLDúL morfem de feminin, N.-Ac., singular).

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Sintaxa ÌQ JUDPDWLFD WUDGL LRQDO FXYkQWXO HVWH FRQVLGHUDW XQLWDWHD GH ED] úL HO HVWH WUDWDW VXE VSHFLH IOH[LXQH )OH[LXQHD PRUIRORJLD  VH RFXS GH VWUXFWXUD LQWHUQ D FXYLQWHORU HD HVWH FRUHODW FX VLQWD[D FDUH vúL SURSXQH V H[SOLFH ÄPRGXO vQ FDUH FXYLQWHOHVHFRPELQSHQWUXDIRUPDSURSR]L LL´ÌQDFFHS LDOLQJYLVWLFLLPRGHUQHGLQ JUDPDWLF IDF SDUWH QXPDL IOH[LXQHD úL VLQWD[D úL VXQW H[FOXVH GHVFULHUHD IRQRORJLF VDXVHPDQWLFDFXYLQWHORUúLDSURSR]L LLORU. *UDPDWLFD WUDGL LRQDO QXPLW úL ÄQR LRQDO´ SRUQHD GH OD LSRWH]D F H[LVW categorii universale ale gramaticii - ÄSU LOH GH YRUELUH´ úL ÄFDWHJRULLOH JUDPDWLFDOH´ WLPSXO PRGXO JHQXO QXPUXO  YDODELOH SHQWUX WRDWH OLPELOH *UDPDWLFLHQLL GLQ Europa, ocupându-VH GH OLPEL LQGRHXURSHQH úL-DX ED]DW DQDOL]D JUDPDWLFDO SH VWDELOLUHDPRGXOXLvQFDUHFXYLQWHOHRSHUHD]FXVHPQHLQVWUXPHQWHSHQWUXGHVFULHUHD úL vQ HOHJHUHD UHDOLW LL  FX FODVLILFDUHD ORU FD SU L GH YRUELUH úL FX VWDELOLUHD paradigmelor (PRGHOHORU GHGHFOLQDUHúLGHFRQMXJDUH 0HWRGDJUDPDWLFLLWUDGL LRQDOHHVWHFRQVLGHUDWLQGXFWLYSHQWUXFGHVFULHUHD SOHDF GH OD SDUWLFXODU VSUHJHQHUDO(DSUH]LQWLQFRQYHQLHQWXOGHDXWLOL]DFRQFHSWH care au valoare numai în cadrul unui sistem lingvLVWLF SDUWLFXODU R OLPE SH FDUH R DYHPvQYHGHUH /+MHOPVOHYDFRQVLGHUDWFWHUPLQRORJLDIRORVLWVXIHUGHDFHDVW inadecvare la general, de exemplu, definirea categoriilor – genitiv, dativ, subjonctiv, pasiv etc. – QX SRDWH IL DSOLFDW WXWXURU OLPELlor. Alt exemplu, „imperfectul” (timp YHUEDO  HVWH GLIHULW vQ OLPED IUDQFH] vQ FDUH DFHDVW FDWHJRULH VH RSXQH XQHL DOWH FDWHJRULLÄSHUIHFWXOVLPSOX´FRPSDUDWLYOLPELOHJHUPDQVDXHQJOH]vQFDUHDFHDVW RSR]L LHQXH[LVW–H[LVWXQVLQJXUWLPSSHQWUu trecut, numit imperfectul. Sau, unele OLPELFXQRVFGRXFDWHJRULLDOHQXPUXOXLVLQJXODUúLSOXUDOvQWLPSFHDOWHOLPELDX úLDOWUHLOHDQXPUGXDOXO ÌQ WUDWDUHD PRGHUQ D WHRULHL JUDPDWLFDOH FD úL D GH]YROWULL WHRULHL VLQWDFWLFH generale s-a adopWDWFXSUHGLOHF LHRDERUGDUHSXUIRUPDO(LQDU+DXJHQDSUH]HQWDW WHQGLQ HOHFHOHPDLLPSRUWDQWHúLPHWRGHOHFHOHPDLUHFHQWHúLPDLPDWHPDWL]DWHFDUH DXGHSODVDWLQWHUHVXOOLQJYLúWLORUGHODFXWDUHDLGHQWLW LLOLPELORUVSUHGLVWULEX LDORU cu scopulGHDLGHQWLILFDUHOD LLOHGLQWUHXQLW LOHOLQJYLVWLFH 0XO LPHD WXWXURU FRQWH[WHORU vQ FDUH DSDUH R XQLWDWH OLQJYLVWLF UHSUH]LQW GLVWULEX LD DFHVWHLD $ERUGDUHD GLVWULEX LRQDO D DQDOL]HL JUDPDWLFDOH SUHVXSXQH FRQVWUXLUHDXQHLPXO LPLGHSURSR]L LLDFFeptabile, prin plasarea unor cuvinte diferite vQDFHODúLFDGUX)LHFDUHOLPESRDWHILGHVFULVvQWHUPHQLLXQHLPXO LPLGHXQLW L– IRQHPH VDX XQLW L IRQRORJLFH – VDX SRW IL VSHFLILFDWH FRPELQD LLOH DFFHSWDELOH GH FXYLQWH SURSR]L LL  &XYLQWHOH FDUH VH pot substitui unele cu altele în mai multe SURSR]L LLGLIHULWHVXQWJUXSDWHvQFODVHGLVWULEX LRQDOH 1R LXQHDSULPLWLYDXQHLJUDPDWLFLPRGHUQHHVWHHQXQ XOGHILQLWGUHSWÄRULFH SRU LXQH GLQ YRUELUHD XQHL SHUVRDQH vQDLQWH GH FDUH úL GXS FDUH XUPHD] R SDX] IFXW GH DFHD SHUVRDQ´ 7UHEXLH V DYHP vQ YHGHUH F vQWUH HQXQ  úL SURSR]L LH JUDGXOGHFRUHVSRQGHQ HVWHDOHDWRUvQJHQHUDOHQXQ XOQXHVWHLGHQWLFFXSURSR]L LD $QDOL]D JUDPDWLFDO D XQXL FRUSXV GH HQXQ XUL GHFL ÄUHFXQRDúWHUHD´ ORU vQ perVSHFWLYDIOH[LXQLLúLDVLQWD[HLGHILQHúWHJUDPDWLFDDQDOLWLFWUDGL LRQDO*UDPDWLFD JHQHUDWLY VH ED]HD] SH VLQWH] úL HVWH FRQVWUXLW GLQ ÄSURGXFHUHD SURSR]L LLORU´ 7HRULD OLQJYLVWLF DYkQG FDSDFLWDWHD GH MXVWLILFDUH D HQXQ XULORU UHDOH FD PHPEUL DL FODVHL PDL vQWLQVH D HQXQ XULORU SRWHQ LDOH HVWH QXPLW JHQHUDWLY (D VH ED]HD] SH HQXQ XO PLQLPDO GHQXPLW SURSR]L LH-QXFOHX VH XUPUHúWH DSRL GH]YROWDUHD SRVLELO SULQFHUFHWDUHDGLYHUVHORUUHJXOLGHWUDQVIRUPDUH2ULFHHQXQ HVWHFRQVWLWXLWGLQJUXS nRPLQDOGDUSRDWHILúLXQVLQJXUQXPH úLJUXSYHUEDOVDXQXPDLYHUE (QXQ XULOH FRPSOH[HGHSLQGGHFDSDFLWDWHDOLQJYLVWLFDYRUELWRUXOXL&DSDFLWDWHDHVWHQXPLWúL

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FRPSHWHQ  úL HD UHSUH]LQW ÄDQVDPEOXO GH UHJXOL JUDPDWLFDOH GH LQXWH GH RULFH vorbitoU DO OLPELL´ 3XQHUHD vQ SUDFWLF D FRPSHWHQ HL HVWH QXPLW SHUIRUPDQ  'HVFULHUHDFRPSHWHQ HLWDFLWHDYRUELWRUXOXL-DVFXOWWRUDFUXLFRPSHWHQ VWODED]D UHDO D SURGXFHULL úL SHUFHSHULL vQ HOHJHULL YRUELULL UHSUH]LQW GXS 1&KRPVN\ GHILQL LDJUDPDWLFLLJHQHUDWLYHúLWUDQVIRUPD LRQDOH *UDPDWLFDJHQHUDWLYvúLSURSXQHVUHSUH]LQWHGHVFULHUHDLQWHJUDODOLPELLFD DWDUHúLQXDXQHLDGLQWUHOLPELOHJOREXOXL(DSRDWHILFRQVLGHUDWXQÄVFHQDULX´FDUH LPDJLQHD]IHOXOvQFDUHYRUELWRUXO-DVFXOWWRULQWHUSUHWHD]vQPRGJOREDOIDFWRULLFDUH GXFGHODFRPSHWHQ ODSHUIRUPDQ  Lexematica /H[HPDWLFD HVWH R GLVFLSOLQ WkQU UDPXU D OH[LFRORJLHL (D úL-a propus VWDELOLUHD DVSHFWHORU SDUDGLJPDWLFH úL VLQWDJPDWLFH DOH YRFDEXODUXOXL GLQ OLPELOH IXQF LRQDOH 8QLWDWHD PLQLPDO HVWH GHQXPLW OH[HP GLQ FDX]D DPELJXLW LL termenului cuvânt. $6WUXFWXULOHSDUDGLJPDWLFHVXQWSULPDUHFkPSOH[LFDOúLFODVOH[LFDO E  VHFXQGDUHPRGLILFDUHDGH]YROWDUHDFRPSXQHUHDOH[LFDO  a) Câmpul lexical este o sWUXFWXU SDUDGLJPDWLF FDUH FRQVW GLQ XQLW L OH[LFDOH OH[HPH  FDUH vúL vPSDUW R ]RQ GH VHPQLILFD LH úL FDUH VH DIO vQ RSR]L LH QHPLMORFLWXQHOHFXDOWHOHÌQWUHJYRFDEXODUXOXQHLOLPELHVWHFRQVWLWXLWGLQDVWIHOGH câmpuri lexicale care sunt tangente GDU úL VHFDQWH XQHOH FX DOWHOH =RQHOH GH VHPQLILFD LH FRPXQ VH D[HD] DúD FXP OH LQGLF úL GHQXPLUHD vQ MXUXO XQHL ÄVHPQLILFD LLFRPXQH´9HUEHÄGHPLúFDUH´VDXFDUHVHPQLILFÄDPXQFL´ÄDVWULJD´ a visa”, substantive ce denumesc culori sau referitoare la „fericire”, „moarte”, DGMHFWLYHFHLQGLFWHPSHUDWXUDVXQWFkWHYDH[HPSOHDOHVHODvQWkPSODUHGHFkPSXUL lexicale (în rom. rece –UFRURVFDOGFOGX ILHUELQWHvQIUDQFH]WUDYDLOOHU– oeuvrer – bricoler – bucher – buriner – trimer – gratter – chiner – pilonner – bosser – boulonner – turbiner – PDUQHU úD vQ JHUPDQ JHKHQ – rennen – fliegen – schwiemmen – fahren etc. &ODVD OH[LFDO HVWH R FODV GH OH[HPH FDUH LQGHSHQGHQW GH VWUXFWXUDUHD FkPSXOXLOH[LFDOVXQWOHJDWHGHXQÄFODVHP´DGLFGHRWUVWXUGLVWLQFWLYFRPXQ FDUH IXQF LRQHD] vQWU-R vQWUHDJ FDWHJRULH JUDPDWLFDO UHVSHFWLY vQ DOW FODV H[LVWHQW GHMD vQ FDGUXO XQHL FDWHJRULL JUDPDWLFDOH  &ODVHOH VH HYLGHQ LD] SULQ GLVWULEX LH JUDPDWLFDO úLVDX OH[LFDO GH H[HPSOX vQ FDWHgoria substantivului, „animat” - „inanimat”, „maculin” - ÄIHPLQLQ´ UHSUH]LQW ÄFODVH´ GDF OH[HPHOH FRUHVSXQ]WRDUHFHUDQXPLWHFRPELQD LLVSHFLILFHORU Ä0RGLILFDUHD´ ÄGH]YROWDUHD´ úL ÄFRPSXQHUHD´ VXQW VWUXFWXUL VHFXQGDUH vQ VHQVXO F SUHVXSXQ VWUXFWXUDUHD FkPSXOXL OH[HPDWLF VDX D FODVHORU  OH[HPDWLFH úL FRUHVSXQG XQHL ÄJUDPDWLFDOL]UL´ D  YRFDEXODUXOXL ÌQ FDGUXO ÄPRGLILFULL´ VH LQFOXG GHULYDUHD GLPLQXWLYDO GHULYDUHD FROHFWLY úL SUHIL[DUHD YHUEDO /H[HPHOH UHDOL]DWH prin modificare fac parte dinDFHHDúLFDWHJRULHJUDPDWLFDOFXOH[HPHOHFDUHOHVWDXOD ED] ÌQ VFKLPE ÄGH]YROWDUHD´ SUH]LQW R GHWHUPLQDUH JUDPDWLFDO LDU OH[HPHOH IRUPDWH DSDU LQ DOWHL FDWHJRULL JUDPDWLFDOH GHFkW OH[HPHOH FDUH VWDX OD ED]D ORU Ä&RPSXQHUHD´LQGLFFHOSX LQDVRFLHUHDDGRXXQLW LvQWUHFDUHH[LVWRGHWHUPLQDUH JUDPDWLFDO&DWHJRULDJUDPDWLFDOHVWHWRWGHDXQDFHDDOH[HPHORUFDUHOHFRQVWLWXLH % 6WUXFWXULOH OH[HPDWLFH VLQWDJPDWLFH VXQW VROLGDULW LOH OH[LFDOH VDX FRPELQUL OH[LFDOH FRQGL LRQDWH (OH VXQW ÄDILQLW L´ ÄVHOHF LXQL´ úL ÄLPSOLFD LL´ DYkQGHOHPHQWXOFRQGL LRQDWDOFRPELQD LHLXQFODVHPVDXXQOH[HP Ä$ILQLWDWHD´HVWHRFRPELQD LHFRQGL LRQDWGHFODVHPGHH[HPSOXvQWUHERXúL D UDJH QXPDL GHVSUH DQLPDOH  DILQLWDWHD HVWH FRQGL LRQDW GH FODVHPXO lexemului

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ÄERX´ FODVD ÄDQLPDW´  Ä6HOHF LXQHD´ HVWH FRPELQD LD FRQGL LRQDW GH HOHPHQWXO GHWHUPLQDQW GH XQ DUKLOH[HP GH H[HPSOX vQWUH JHUP :DJHQ ÄPDúLQ YDJRQ´ úL IDKUHQÄDPHUJHFXXQYHKLFRO´FRQGL LRQDUHDRIDFH)DKU]HXJÄYHKLFXO´GHFDUH LQH lexemul Wagen. Ä,PSOLFD LD´HVWHFRPELQD LDvQFDUHOH[HPXOHVWHFRQGL LRQDWGHDOWOH[HP ÌQ FHHD FH SULYHúWH FkPSXULOH OH[LFDOH RSR]L LLOH VH VWDELOHVF vQWUH OH[HPHvQ FDGUXO XQXL FkPS GDU úL vQWUH XQ PLFURFkPS vQ WRWDOLWDWHD OXL úL XQ DOW PLFURFkPS Câmpurile lexicale sunt studiate în cadrul semanticii structurale. Tipologia câmpurilor OH[LFDOH VH ED]HD] SH FODVLILFDUHD RSR]L LLORU OH[HPDWLFH 2SR]L LLOH FD úL vQ IRQRORJLHVXQWJUDGXDOHHFKLSROHQWHúLSULYDWH Câmpurile lexicale pot fi clasificate: GXS FRQILJXUD LD ORU GXS VHQVXO ORU RELHFWLY GXS H[SULPDUHD ORU &RQILJXUD LD GHSLQGH GH QXPUXO GH GLPHQVLXQL VHPDQWLFHGHWLSXULOHIRUPDOHGHRSR]L LLvQOHJWXUFXDFHOHGLPHQVLXQLVHPDQWLFHúL GXS IHOXO vQ FDUH OH[HPHOH VH FRPELQ vQ LQWHULRUXO acestor paradigme. În cadrul VHQVXOXLRELHFWLYVHIRORVHúWHÄFULWHULXOVHPDQWLF´LDUH[SULPDUHDFkPSXOXLGLQSXQFW GH YHGHUH DO QXPUXOXL GH GLPHQVLXQL VDX FULWHULL VHPDQWLFH VH vPSDUW vQ unidimensionale; pluridimensionale. Semantica Obiectul de studiu a semanticii este sensul cuvintelor. Sensul coincide, GHVHRUL FX QR LXQHD IU FD IHQRPHQXO V ILH JHQHUDO YDODELO 2 SHUIHFW LGHQWLWDWH sens-QR LXQH VH vQWkOQHúWH OD WHUPHQLL úWLLQ LILFL úL WHKQLFL PRUIHP QDIWRO R[LGULO Toate cuvintele au sens, nu WRDWH H[SULP vQV úL GHQXPHVF QR LXQL FL QXPDL VXEVWDQWLYHOHDGMHFWLYHOHSURQXPHOHQXPHUDOHOHDGYHUEHOHúLYHUEHOHFXVHQVOH[LFDO ,QWHUMHF LLOHH[SULP–IUDGHQXPL–HPR LLVHQWLPHQWHLPLW]JRPRWHVDXVWULJWH SUHSR]L LLOHFRQMXQF LLOHDUWLFROHOHYHUEHOHDX[LOLDUHH[SULPUDSRUWXULvQWUHQR LXQLúL PDUFKHD]GLIHULWHUDSRUWXULJUDPDWLFDOHvQWUHFXYLQWH 1R LXQLOH H[SULP vQVXúLULOH FHOH PDL JHQHUDOH HVHQ LDOH úL QHFHVDUH SUHSRQGHUHQW RELHFWLYH FROHFWLYH DOH RELHFWHORU úL IHQRPHQHORU LDr sensul se poate UHIHULúLODWUVWXULSDUWLFXODUHILLQGPDUFDWXQHRULGHIDFWRULGHQDWXULQGLYLGXDO VXELHFWLYLVDXFDUHDSDU LQXQHLFROHFWLYLW LOLPLWDWH ,QGHSHQGHQWGHLQWHQ LDYRUELWRUXOXLFXYLQWHOHDXXQVHQVGHQRWDWLYFDUHDUHR valoare RELHFWLY &XYLQWHOH DX vQV úL XQ VHQV UHIHUHQ LDO GDW GH UDSRUWDUHD ORU OD UHDOLWDWHD FRQFUHW LDU XQHRUL úL XQ VHQV FRQRWDWLY FDUH OH DGDXJ QXDQ H VXELHFWLYH DIHFWLYHFVX EXQLFX  7HUPHQLL WHKQLFL úL FHL úWLLQ LILFL VXQW vQ JHQHUDO PRQRVHPDntici: elipoid, FRORGLXPGLDWH]D]RW0DMRULWDWHDFXYLQWHORUVXQWvQVSROLVHPDQWLFH–DXGRXVDX PDL PXOWH vQ HOHVXUL FDUWH –   ÄVFULHUH WLSULW VDX EURúDW vQ IRUP GH YROXP´   „diviziune mai mare decât un capitol, „într-o scriere de mari propor LL´ ÄvQY WXU úWLLQ FXOWXU´ ÄUHJLVWUX´ ÄEXFDWGHFDUWRQSHFDUHVXQWLPSULPDWHXQHOHGDWH úLFDUHDUHGLIHULWHvQWUHEXLQ UL´ ÄVFULVRDUHHSLVWRO´úD 8QHOHFXYLQWHúL-au schimbat, în timp, sensul. La baza schimburilor se pot afla FDX]H H[WUDOLQJYLVWLFH GDWRUDWH VFKLPEULL UHDOLW LL GHQXPLWH HYROX LHL JkQGLULL trecerii cuvintelor dintr-XQPHGLXVRFLDOvQDOWXOLQWHUGLF LLORUGHYRFDEXODUúD$VWIHO vQ YHFKLPH VH VFULD FX SDQ GH JkVF WHUPHQXO DFWXDO SHQL  ILLQG XQ GLPLQXtiv al FXYkQWXOXLSDQSULQWU-un transfer de sens, termenul a trecut asupra obiectului metalic IRORVLW OD VFULVXO FX FHUQHDO GHúL DWRPXO VH úWLH F QX HVWH FHD PDL PLF GLQWUH componentele materiei (a-tomos - „invizibil”) numele cuvântului s-DSVWUDW $OWH FDX]H DOH VFKLPEXULORU GH VHQV VXQW GH QDWXU OLQJYLVWLF DSURSLHUHD IRUPDOGLQWUHFXYLQWH–IRUWXLWGHSLOGSXVvQOHJWXUFXIRU DWHVWHIRORVLWXQHRUL

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FX VHQVXO ÄIFXW VDX LPSXV FX IRU D´ DOWHRUL VH SLHUGH OHJWXUD FX IDPLOLD GLQ FDUH provLQH FXYkQWXO SDUWLFXOHOH SRLQW SDV IRORVLWH vQ IUDQFH] SHQWUX H[SULPDUHD QHJD LHL VXQW OD RULJLQH VXEVWDQWLYH ÄSXQFW´ ÄSDV´  DOWH VFKLPEUL VH GDWRUHD] FRQWH[WXOXL GDWRULW GHVHL vQWUHEXLQ UL vQ DQXPLWH vPELQUL XQHOH FXYLQWH SUHLDX sensul cuvântului al•turat: fr. pêche provine din lat. malum persicum - ÄPU GLQ Persia”. De-D OXQJXO WLPSXOXL VHQVXO FXYLQWHORU SRDWH IL OUJLW FHUQHDO GHVHPQD vQ YHFKLPHQXPDLFHUQHDODQHDJULDUDFXPGHQXPHúWHRVXEVWDQ GHGLIHULWHFXORULFH VHUYHúWH OD VFULV VDX UHVWUkQV WHUPHQXO YDU] QXPH DO XQHL SODQWH OHJXPLFROH GHQXPHD vQ XUP FX FkWHYD VXWH GH DQL SODQWHOH YHU]L YHUGHD  vQ JHQHUDO 8QHRUL VHQVXO FXYLQWHORU D HYROXDW GH OD DEVWUDFW FWUH FRQFUHW DOWHRUL GH OD FRQFUHW OD abstract: lat. anima „sufOHWYLD ´DGHYHQLWvQURPkQLQLPUHVSHFWLYODWSHQVFLQÄJUHXWDWH FkQWULW´ D GDW vQ URPkQ SV - ÄVXSUDUH JUHXWDWH VXIOHWHDVF´ XQHOH FXYLQWHúL-au înnobilat sensul: lat. minister -ÄVHUYLWRU´VWODED]DFXYkQWXOXLPLQLVWUX DOWHOHDXFSWat un sens peiorativ: sl. prost - „simplu” e la baza românescului prost ÄOLSVLWGHLQWHOLJHQ QHURG´ Ultimele decenii au consemnat dezvoltarea unei semantici de tip sincronic, GHVFULSWLY8QDGLQWUHPHWRGHOHXWLOL]DWHGHDFHDVWDHVWHDQDOL]DVHPLFFH-úLSURSXQH GHVFRPSXQHUHDVHQVXOXLFXYLQWHORUúLDQDOL]DDFHVWXLDvQXQLW LVHPDQWLFHHOHPHQWDUH numite seme, la fel cum fonemul – IDVFLFXO GH WUVWXUL GLVWLQFWLYH – era analizat în DFHVWH WUVWXUL 6HQVXO ILHFUXL FXYkQW HVWH XQ IDVFLFXO GH VHPH GLVWLnct de alte fascicule. &XYLQWHOH FDUH SRW IL GHVFULVH JUXSDWH SH ED]D XQXL QXPU GH VHPH FRPXQH DOFWXLHVF XQ FkPS VHPDQWLF JUDGHOH GH UXGHQLH VDX JUDGHOH PLOLWDUH GHQXPLUHD FXORULORUQXPHOHGHIORULGHOHJXPHGHDQLPDOHVOEDWLFHHWF Din punct de vedere al raportului sens-IRUP FXYLQWHOH SRW IL FODVLILFDWH vQ XUPWRDUHOHFODVH • omonime –FXYLQWHFXDFHODúLvQYHOLúVRQRUGDUFXVHQVXULGLIHULWHFDOFDQÄSHúWH´ úL FDOFDQ - Ä]LG´ 2PRJUDIHOH VXQW FXYLQWH D FURU IRUP FRLQFLGH QXPDL vQ scris, dar FDUH VH SURQXQ  GLIHULW úL DX VHQVXUL GLIHULWH iULQ DUtQ KiLQKDtQ 2PRIRQHOHVXQWFXYLQWHvQJUDILHúLVHQVXULGLIHULWHGDUFDUHVHSURQXQ ODIHOHQJO dear -ÄGUDJ´úLGHHU- „cerb”; fr. vert - „verde”, verre -ÄVWLFO´YHUV-ÄFWUH´YHU„vierme”; • paronime – FXYLQWH IRDUWH DVHPQWRDUH FD IRUP vQV GHRVHELWH FD VHQV FHQ]XU–X]XUDSUHVFULH– a proscrie, distins – destins; • sinonime – cuvinte cu forme diferite, dar sensuri identice sau foarte apropiate: a compara – a confrunta, obosit –RVWHQLW UDQ–VWHDQ • antonime – FXYLQWH FX IRUPH GLIHULWH úL VHQVXUL GLDPHWUDO RSXVH SULHWHQ – GXúPDQELQH–UXDXUFD– a coborî. 3ULQ DQDORJLH FX WHUPHQLL ÄVLQRQLPLH´ úL ÄDQWRQLPLH´ QX GHPXOW D IRVW LQWURGXV vQ OLQJYLVWLF WHUPHQXO GH KLSRQLPLH VDX LQFOX]LXQH $VWIHO vQ HOHVXO FXYkQWXOXLJDURDIHVWHLQFOXVvQFHODOFXYkQWXOXLIORDUHvQ HOHVXOFXYkQWXOXLDUJLQWvQ cel de metal etc.

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IV. BIBLIOGRAFIE PENTRU ÎNTREGUL CURS a. Bibliografie obligatorie 1. Acad.Al.Graur, S.Stati, Lucia Wald (red.resp.) 7UDWDW GH OLQJYLVWLF JHQHUDO(GLWXUD$FDGHPLHL%XFXUHúWL 2. Ion Coteanu, &UHVWRPD LHGHOLQJYLVWLFJHQHUDO%XFXUHúWL 3. (XJHQ&RúHULX, ,QWURGXFHUHvQOLQJYLVWLF, Cluj, 1995. 4. Al.Graur, 6WXGLLGHOLQJYLVWLFJHQHUDO%XFXUHúWL 5. Al.Graur (coord.), ,QWURGXFHUH vQ OLQJYLVWLF, (ed. a III-a), Editura ùWLLQ LILF%XFXUHúWL E%LEOLRJUDILHIDFXOWDWLY 1. Al.Graur, Lucia Wald, 6FXUWLVWRULHDOLQJYLVWLFLL%XFXUHúWL 2. Emil Ionescu, Manual de liQJYLVWLF JHQHUDO (GLWXUD $OO %XFXUHúWL 1992.

3. Dumitru Irimia, &XUV GH OLQJYLVWLF JHQHUDO 7LSRJUDILD 8QLYHUVLW LL Ä$O,&X]D´,DúL 4. André Martinet, (OHPHQWHGHOLQJYLVWLFJHQHUDO%XFXUHúWL 5. Ferdinand de Saussure, Curs de linJYLVWLFJHQHUDO%XFXUHúWL 6. Emanuel Vasiliu, Introducere în teoria limbii%XFXUHúWL 7. Ariton Vraciu, /LQJYLVWLF JHQHUDO úL FRPSDUDW (GLWXUD 'LGDFWLF úL 3HGDJRJLF%XFXUHúWL Teme – subiecte pentru referate 1. Lingvistica prHúWLLQ LILFvQ*UHFLDDQWLF )DFWRULLFRQVWLWXWLYLDLDFWXOXLGHFRPXQLFDUHYHUEDO 3. Caracteristicile definitorii ale limbajului. 'LKRWRPLDGLVWLQF LD D[VLQWDJPDWLFD[SDUDGLJPDWLF ,PXWDELOLWDWHDúLPXWDELOLWDWHDVHPQXOXLOLQJYLVWLc.  5H]XOWDWHOH SURFHVXOXL GH LQWHUIHUHQ  OLQJYLVWLF VXEVWUDW VXSHUVWUDW adstrat). 7. Elemente caracterizante ale ariilor lingvistice. &DUDFWHUL]DUHDDFKL]L LRQULLOLPELLGHFWUHFRSLO 3ULQFLSLXOVWUDWLILFD LRQDODOOLPEDMXOXL 10. Accidentele fonetice. 5DSRUWXOGLQWUHVXQHWHúLIRQHPH 12. Criterii de clasificare a morfemelor. 13. Principiile gramaticii generative –WUDQVIRUPD LRQDOH 14. Clasificarea claselor lexicale. &DX]HDOHVFKLPEULORUGHVHQVúLFLOHGHUHDOL]DUHDDFHVWRUa. 3UHFL]UL ‡)LHFDUHVWXGHQWWUHEXLHVvQWRFPHDVFXQUHIHUDWFXXQVXELHFWDOHVGLQOLVWD de mai sus. ‡0ULPHDDFHVWXLUHIHUDWHVWHPLQLPFXYLQWHPD[LPFXYLQWH ‡ 5HIHUDWXO DUH XUPWRDUHD VWUXFWXU   WLWOXO   LQWURGXFHUH   WUDWDUHD subiectului; 4) concluzii –REVHUYD LL– propuneri; 5) bibliografie. ‡ (VWH DSUHFLDW FX vQWkLHWDWH FRQWULEX LD FkW PDL RULJLQDO D VWXGHQWXOXL SUHULOHúLFRQFOX]LLOHSURSULL vQWUDWDUHDVXELHFWXOXL

39

‡2ULFHSUHOXDUHGHLGHLFLWDWHVDXUHIHULQ HFXSULnse în referat se vor preciza la VXEVROXO SDJLQLL VDX VXE IRUP GH QRWH ELEOLRJUDILFH OD VIkUúLWXO OXFUULL vQI LúkQG exact locul de unde s-D SUHOXDW LGHHD VDX IUDJPHQWXO GH WH[W DXWRUXO WLWOXO OXFUULL ORFXOúLDQXODSDUL LHL  • Referatele tratate VLPLODU vQ DFHODúL IHO GH FWUH VWXGHQ L GLIHUL L LQVSLUDUH GLUHFW VHUHVSLQJ ‡ 5HIHUDWXO HVWH QRWDW úL FRQVWLWXLH FRQGL LH SHQWUX SURPRYDUHD H[DPHQXOXL OD GLVFLSOLQDÄ/LQJYLVWLFJHQHUDO´ ‡ 5HIHUDWHOH VH H[SHGLD] REOLJDWRULX SkQ OD GDWD  'HFHPErie 2000 prin SRúWVDXSULQH-PDLOSRúWDHOHFWURQLF RULVHGHSXQSHUVRQDOODVHGLXOIDFXOW LL TEORIA LIMBII TEST DE AUTOEVALUARE  0LMORDFHOH GH UHDOL]DUH DOH IXQF LXQLL PHWDOLQJYLVWLFH D OLPEDMXOXL FX (1,70 puncte) H[HPSOLILFULFRQFUHWHGLQOLPEDVWULQGHVSHFLDOLWDWH  3RUQLQG GH OD HQXQ XO URP &UHGH F VRUD OXL D FLWLW WH[WXO úL GH OD HFKLYDOHQ D OXL vQ OLPED VWULQ GH VSHFLDOLWDWH DUWD L vQ FH FRQVWDX GHRVHELULOH GH IRUPGLQWUHHOH (1,75 puncte)  5HFRQVWLWXL L ILH úL SDU LDO VHULLOH DVRFLDWLYH GLQ FDUH IDF SDUWH XQLW LOH OLQJYLVWLFH FRPELQDWH vQ HQXQ XO GLQ OLPED GH VSHFLDOLWDWH HFKLYDOHQW FX URP Copiii DXvQ HOHVELQHvQWUHEULOH (1,80 puncte) &RPHQWD LHYROX LDVHPDQWLFDDGMHFWLYXOXLURPPLúHO de la sensul originar, „VUFX ´, la sensul tardiv „WLFORV´, a substantivului engl. queen GH OD vQ HOHVXO originar, „femeie”ODvQ HOHVXOPRGHUQÄUHJLQ´, sau a substantivului fr. maison, de la VHQVXOLQL LDOÄFRQDF´ODVHQVXOWDUGLYÄFDV´. (1,75 puncte)  &RPSDUD L FkPSXO VHPDQWLF DO JUDGHORU GH vQUXGLUH GLQ OLPED URPkQ FX FkPSXOVHPDQWLFFRUHVSXQ]WRUGLQOLPEDGHVSHFLDOLWDWH (2 puncte)