Week 06

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Week 6

Organising & Motivation

Section 1 Organising

Robbins, Bergman, Stagg, Coulter: Management 4e © 2006 Pearson Education Australia

LEARNING OUTLINE ●

Defining organisational structure • Explain why organising is important • Identify the six key elements used in designing an

organisation’s structure • Discuss the traditional and contemporary view of

work specialization. • Describe each of the five forms of

departmentalization. • Explain cross-functional teams. • Differentiate chain of command, authority,

responsibility, and unity of command. • Discuss the traditional and contemporary views of

chain of command. • Discuss the traditional and contemporary views of

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L E A R N I N G O U T L I N E (cont’d) ● Defining organisational structure (cont’d) •

Describe the factors influence the amount of centralisation and decentralisation.

•

Explain how formalisation is used in organisational design.

● Organisational design decisions •

Contrast mechanistic and organic organisations.

•

Explain the relationship between strategy and structure.

•

Tell how organisational size affects organisational design.

•

Discuss Woodward’s findings on the relationship of technology and structure.

•

Explain how environmental uncertainty affects organisational design. 3

L E A R N I N G O U T L I N E (cont’d) ● Common organisational designs

• Contrast the three traditional organisational designs. • Explain team-based, matrix, and project structures. • Discuss the design of virtual, network, and modular

organisations. • Describe the characteristics of a learning organisation.

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Defining organisational structure and design ●

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Organisational structure ❍ The formal arrangement of jobs within an organisation. Organisational design ❍ A process involving decisions about six key elements: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Work specialization Departmentalization Chain of command Span of control centralisation and decentralisation Formalization

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Organisational structure ●

Work specialisation ❍ The degree to which tasks in the organisation are divided into separate jobs with each step completed by a different person. ■

Overspecialization can result in human diseconomies from boredom, fatigue, stress, poor quality, increased absenteeism, and higher turnover.

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Departmentalisation by type ●

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Functional ❍ Grouping jobs by functions performed Product ❍ Grouping jobs by product line Geographic ❍ Grouping jobs on the basis of territory or geography

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Process ❍ Grouping jobs on the basis of product or customer flow Customer ❍ Grouping jobs by type of customer and needs

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Organisation structure (cont’d) ●

Chain of command ❍ The continuous line of authority that extends from upper levels of an organisation to the lowest levels of the organisation and clarifies who reports to who.

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Organisation structure (cont’d) ●

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Authority ❍ The rights inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and to expect them to do it. Responsibility ❍ The obligation or expectation to perform. Unity of command ❍ The concept that a person should have one boss and should report only to that person.

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Organisation structure (cont’d) ●

Span of control ❍ The number of employees who can be effectively and efficiently supervised by a manager. ❍ Width of span is affected by: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Skills and abilities of the manager Employee characteristics Characteristics of the work being done Similarity of tasks Complexity of tasks Physical proximity of subordinates Standardization of tasks

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Contrasting spans of control

Figure 10.3

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Organisation structure (cont’d) ●

Centralisation ❍ The degree to which decision-making is concentrated at a single point in the organisations. ■

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organisations in which top managers make all the decisions and lower-level employees simply carry out those orders.

Decentralisation ❍ organisations in which decision-making is pushed down to the managers who are closest to the action. Employee Empowerment ❍ Increasing the decision-making,

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Mechanistic versus organic organisation

Table 10.2

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Structural contingency factors ●

Structural decisions are influenced by: ❍ Overall strategy of the organisation ■

❍

Size of the organisation ■

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Firms change from organic to mechanistic organisations as they grow in size.

Technology use by the organisation ■

❍

organisational structure follows strategy.

Firms adapt their structure to the technology they use.

Degree of environmental uncertainty ■

Dynamic environments require organic structures; mechanistic structures need stable environments.

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Common organisational designs ●

Traditional designs ❍ Simple structure ■

❍

Low departmentalization, wide spans of control, centralised authority, little formalization

Functional structure ■

Departmentalization by function ❏

❍

Operations, finance, human resources, and product research and development

Divisional structure ■

Composed of separate business units or divisions with limited autonomy under the coordination and control the parent corporation.

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Organisational designs (cont’d) ●

Contemporary organisational designs ❍ Team structures ■

❍

The entire organisation is made up of work groups or selfmanaged teams of empowered employees.

Matrix and project structures Specialists for different functional departments are assigned to work on projects led by project managers. ■ Matrix participants have two managers. ■

❍

Project structures ■

Employees work continuously on projects; moving on to another project as each project is completed.

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Organisational designs (cont’d) ●

Contemporary organisational designs (cont’d) ❍ Boundaryless organisation An flexible and unstructured organisational design that is intended to break down external barriers between the organisation and its customers and suppliers. ■ Removes internal (horizontal) boundaries: ■

Eliminates the chain of command ❏ Has limitless spans of control ❏ Uses empowered teams rather than departments ❏

■

Eliminates external boundaries: ❏

Uses virtual, network, and modular organisational structures to get closer to stakeholders.

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Week 6

Organising & Motivation

Section 2 Motivation

Robbins, Bergman, Stagg, Coulter: Management 4e © 2006 Pearson Education Australia

LEARNING OUTLINE ●

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What is motivation? 

Define motivation.



Explain motivation as a need-satisfying process.

Early theories of motivation 

Describe the five levels in Maslow’s hierarchy and how Maslow’s hierarchy can be used in motivational efforts.



Discuss how Theory X and Theory Y managers approach motivation.



Describe Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory.

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Explain Herzberg’s views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. 19

L E A R N I N G O U T L I N E (cont’d) ●

Contemporary theories of motivation 

Describe the three needs McClelland proposed as being present in work settings.



Explain how goal-setting and reinforcement theories explain employee motivation.

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Define job enlargement and job enrichment

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Describe the job characteristics model as a way to design motivating jobs.

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Discuss the motivation implications of equity theory.

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Contrast distributive justice and procedural justice.

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Explain the three key linkages in expectancy theory and their role in motivation. 20

L E A R N I N G O U T L I N E (cont’d) ●

Current issues in motivation 

Describe the cross-cultural challenges of motivation.



Discuss the challenges managers face in motivating unique groups of workers.

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Describe open-book management, employee recognition, pay-for-performance, and employee share purchase and ownership plans.



List some practical suggestions for motivating employees.

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What is motivation? ●

Motivation ❍ The processes that account for an individual’s willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organisational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need. Effort: a measure of intensity or drive. ■ Direction: toward organisational goals ■ Need: personalized reason to exert effort ■

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Motivation works best when individual needs are compatible with organisational goals.

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What is motivation? ●

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Need ❍ An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive. ❍ An unsatisfied need creates tension which is reduced by an individual’s efforts to satisfy the need. Early theories of motivation ❍ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ❍ MacGregor’s Theories X and Y ❍ Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

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Early theories of motivation ●

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory ❍ Needs were categorised as five levels of lower- to higher-order needs. Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before they can satisfy higher order needs. ■ Satisfied needs will no longer motivate. ■ Motivating a person depends on knowing at what level that person is on the hierarchy. ■

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Hierarchy of needs Lower-order (external): physiological, safety ■ Higher-order (internal): social, esteem, self-actualization ■

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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Figure 15.2

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Early theories of motivation (cont’d) ●

McGregor’s theory X and theory Y ❍ Theory X ■

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Theory Y ■

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Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and require close supervision. Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, desire responsibility, and like to work.

Motivation is maximised by participative decision making, interesting jobs, and good group relations.

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Early theories of motivation (cont’d) ●

Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory ❍ Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by different factors. Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that create job dissatisfaction. ■ Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job satisfaction. ■

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Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result in increased performance. ■

The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction.

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Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory

Figure 15.3

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Contemporary theories of motivation ●

Three-needs theory

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Goal-setting theory

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Reinforcement theory

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Designing motivating jobs

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Equity theory

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Expectancy theory

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Motivation and needs ●

Three-needs theory ❍ There are three major acquired needs that are major motives in work. ❍ Need for achievement (nAch) ■

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Need for power (nPow) ■

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The drive to excel and succeed The need to influence the behaviour of others

Need of affiliation (nAff) ■

The desire for interpersonal relationships

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Motivation and goals ●

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Goal-setting theory ❍ Proposes that setting goals that are accepted, specific, and challenging yet achievable will result in higher performance than having no or easy goals. Benefits of participation in goal-setting ❍

Increases the acceptance of goals.

❍

Fosters commitment to difficult, public goals.

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Provides for self-feedback (internal locus of control) that guides behaviour and motivates performance (self-efficacy).

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Motivation and behaviour ●

Reinforcement theory ❍ Assumes that a desired behaviour is a function of its consequences, is externally caused, and if reinforced, is likely to be repeated. Positive reinforcement is preferred for its long-term effects on performance ■ Ignoring undesired behaviour is better than punishment which may create additional dysfunctional behaviours. ■

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Designing motivating jobs ●

Job design ❍ The way into which tasks can be combined to form complete jobs. ❍ Factors influencing job design: Changing organisational environment/structure ■ The organisation’s technology ■ Employees’ skill, abilities, and preferences ■

❍

Job enlargement ■

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Increasing the scope (number of tasks) in a job.

Job enrichment ■

Increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth) in a job.

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Motivation and perception ●

Equity theory ❍ Proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put in (inputs) and then compare their inputsoutcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others. If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of equity (fairness) exists. ■ If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity exists and the person feels under- or over-rewarded. ■ When inequities occur, employees will attempt to do something to rebalance the ratios (seek justice). ■

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Motivation and perception (cont’d) ●

Equity theory (cont’d) ❍ Employee responses to perceived inequities: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

❍

Distort own or others’ ratios. Induce others to change their own inputs or outcomes. Change own inputs (increase or decrease efforts) or outcomes (seek greater rewards). Choose a different comparison (referent) other (person, systems, or self). Quit their job.

Employees are concerned with both the absolute and relative nature of organisational rewards.

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Equity theory

Table 15.2

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Motivation, perception, and behaviour ●

Expectancy theory ❍ States that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. ❍ Key to the theory is understanding and managing employee goals and the linkages among and between effort, performance and rewards. ■

Effort: employee abilities and training/development

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Performance: valid appraisal systems

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Rewards (goals): understanding employee needs

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Simplified expectancy model

Figure

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