Theory Of Learning - Introduction

KPLI – Education Studies

THEMES

Theme 1 Philosophy of Education, curriculum and role of teacher

Theme 2 Student development, Process of teaching and learning and its effects

Theme 3 Profesionalisme of Teachers

KPLI – Education Studies Theme 2

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Theories of learning – 6 hrs - Behaviourism - Cognitive - Humanistic - Constructivism Models of teaching – 5 hrs - Expository - Inquiry - Discovery - Discussion Method of Teaching- 7 hrs - Discussion - Demonstration - Problem-solving - Group teaching - Simulation - Project - Team Teaching Lesson Planning – 3 hrs

Theme 3

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Reflective teaching – 5 hrs - Meaning of reflective practioner - Process of reflective teaching - Follow- up actions

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Teacher in the new millennium – 5 hrs Relationship with society - Teachers’ Code of Ethnics - Accountability Educational changes - Smart School education - Globalisation of education - The knowledge worker

INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING THEORIES  What

is learning?  What are the learning theory?  What are the learning theories?  Why educators need to know learning theories?

INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING THEORIES

What to cover in each theories?      

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Definition of learning theory? What is learning according to the mentioned learning theories? What are the assumptions underlying the mentioned learning theories? What are the principles of the mentioned learning theories? What are the major learning concepts highlighted in mentioned learning theories? What are some of the instructional application of behavorist learning theories or implication on classroom teaching learning? ( Focus on major learning concepts in each learning theories What are your personal comment on applicablity and the limitations of the mentioned learning theories?

Before advent of behaviorism Structuralism – look inside their mind and describe what people think (introspection) More objective approach which focus on observable phenomena called behaviorist approach Behavoirism investigate the observable behavior of organisms ( humans, animals) resulting from exposure to different stimuli (reinforcement, punishment, conditioning)

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There many ways that learning can take place Learning theories can be grouped into behavioral, cognitive, humanistic and constructivist. Behavioral – learning as change in form or frequency of observable behavior. Cognitive – learning as a mental activity that entails internal acitivity and structuring Humanistic – Learning is influenced by individual differences – needs and attitude towards learning. Constructivist – Learning is creating meaning from experience

LEARNING THEORISTS

LEARNING THEORIES

BEHAVOIRIS PAVLOV WATSON SKINNER THORNDIKE NEOBEHAVOIRIS (SOSIAL) BANDURA

KOGNTIF MAX WERTHEIMER KOFKA & KOHLER BRUNER GAGNE AUSUBEL PIAGET

HUMANIS CARL ROGERS ABRAHAM MASLOW COMBS

CONSTRUCTIVIST PIAGET (COGNITIVE) VYGOTSKY (SOCIAL)

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY Assumption – equipotentiality between human and animals, termed organism - Blank slate organism not predisposed to behave in particular ways - We are biological machines and do not consciously act rather we react to stimuli - Emphasis on observable and measurable behaviors (behavioral objective, criterion-reference assessment) Study – generalized but naturalistics Primary Focus – Observable behavior - Stimulus-response connections Learning is a result of environmental forces - learner is stimulated by environment and passively adapts to the circumstances

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY Learning Learning

is nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour Learning is is acquisition of new behaviour without referring to mental process Learning is a result of environmental forces Learner is stimulated by environment and passively adapts to the circumstances

BEHAVIORIST THEORIST 

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Classical Conditioning (Respondent) Ivan Pavlov Operant Conditioning (Instrumental) Edward L.Thorndike Burrhus Frederic Skinner John B Watson Social Learning (Observational) Bandura

BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF LEARNING  

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Learning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior Learning is explained without referring to the mental process but depend on investigations of relationship among stimuli, responses and the consequences of behavior Knowledge base – declarative knowledge in the form of rules, concepts and discrimination Principles of learning reflect relationship between stimulusresponse, hence behaviorism is sometimes called S-R psychology Behaviourism focusses on objectively observable behaviors and discount mental activities Refer learning as conditioning. Our behavior is the product of our conditioning Criterias of observation and measurement ie stimuli (s) within the environment and response (R) by an organism

BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF LEARNING    

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Behaviourism focusses on objectively observable behaviors and discount mental activities Refer learning as conditioning. Our behavior is the product of our conditioning Criterias of observation and measurement ie stimuli (s) within the environment and response (R) by an organism Principles of learning reflect relationship between stimulusresponse, hence behaviorism is sometimes called S-R psychology The environment presents an antecedent (A)that prompt a behavior (B) that is followed by some consequences (C) that determines whether the behavior will occur again

BEHAVIORIST THEORY OF LEARNING Refer learning as conditioning. Our behavior is the product of our conditioning Learning is explained without referring to the mental process but depend on investigations of relationship among stimuli, responses and the consequences of behavior Learning is viewed as adapting to the environment and is seen largely as a passive process Assume learner is stimulated by environment and passively adapts to the circumstances Behaviourism focusses on objectively observable behaviors and discount mental activities Criterias of observation and measurement ie stimuli (s) within the environment and response (R) by an organism Principles of learning reflect relationship between stimulus-response, hence behaviorism is sometimes called S-R psychology The environment presents an antecedent (A)that prompt a behavior (B) that is followed by some consequences (C) that determines whether the behavior will occur again

Behavorism – How does learning occur?     

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Learning is change in either the form or frequency of observable performance or behaviour Learning is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus Primary concern is how the association between the stimulus and response is made, strengthened or maintained Responses followed by reinforcement are more likely to occur in the future Learner and environmental factors – the arrangement of stimuli and consequences within the environment Example Flashcard (stimulus) Answer (response)Praise (good conseqence) Promote overt performance by manipulation of stimulus material Learner – reactive to conditions in environment rather than being active Focus on the importance of the consequences of those performances – response followed by reinforcement more likely to occur in future

Behavorism – Which factors influence learning?    

Environmental conditions The arrangement of stimuli and consequences within the enironment Which point to begin instruction and which reinforcers are most effective

Behavorism – Representations of the learning process   

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Stimulus –Response Reinforced Behavior ABC - Antecendent Behavior Consequence (The environment presents an antecedent (A)that prompt a behavior (B) that is followed by some consequences (C) that determines whether the behavior will occur again) Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in logical limited steps

BEHAVIORIST- Assumption and principles     

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Assumption- equipotentiality between human and animals, termed organism Blank slate – organism not predisposed to behave in particular ways We are biological machines and do not consciously act rather we react to stimuli Emphasis on observable and measurable behaviors ( behavioral objective, criterion-reference assessment) Use cue, shaping and practice to ensure strong stimulusresponse association ( simple to complex practice, use of prompts) Use feedback to modify behavior Knowledge is mind independent and can be mapped onto a learner Learning happens when a correct response is deomonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus

Behavoirist theory – Application For Instructional and learning strategies -

Use discrimination (recalling of facts ) Use generalizations (defining and illustrating concepts) Use associations (applying explanations) Use chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure) Emphasis on observable and measurable outcomes in students (behavioral objectives, task analysis, criterion-referenced assessment) - Mastering early to complex level of performance (sequencing instructional presentation,mastery of learning) - Use of hints or cues that guide students to desired behavior( Use instructional cues to elicit correct response - Use of shaping (build fluency by getting response closer and closer to correct response) - Use of Practice (practice paired with target stimuli practice to ensure a strong stimulus-response association (simple to complex sequencing of practice, arrange practice situations,use of prompts) - Use reinforcement for correct response and to impact performance (tangible rewards,informative feedback) - Multiple opportunities/trials (Drill and practice) - Ancedent Behavior Consequence ( Use consequence to reinforce desired behavior – disipline)

Russian physiologist who develop the theory of learning called the classical conditioning When a stimulus (meat) is repeatedly presented in association with one or more other stimuli (bell), those other stimuli begin to elicit a similar response (salivation) Classical conditioning is important in the learning of emotional responses

Pavlov - Classical conditioning   

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Classical conditioning - a natural reflex to a stimulus Also known as respondent conditioning Learning an involuntary response to a particular stimulus eg fearful reaction to bees can be explained by classical conditioning Experiment on dog salivation and conditioned reflexes Step 1 NS (bell) (no response) Step 2 NS (bell) UCS ( Meat) UCR (salivate) Step 3 CS (bell) CR ( salivate) Change of dog behavior due to experience A form of signal learning – conditioned stimulus serves as a signal that the unconditioned stimulus is coming Useful in understanding a variety of involuntary responses Pavlov classical conditioning- a form of learning through association

Classical conditioning- Higher Order 

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

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Step 4 Example

NS (bell) UCS (meat) CS (bell) NS (light) CS (bell) CS (light)

UCR (salivate) CR (salivate) CR (salivate) CR ( salivate)

Failure ---punishment Presentation associated with failure Test another situation . Test develop anxiety, phobias

Basic concepts in Classical conditioning Extinction - Disappearance of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditoned stimulus is called extinction Spontaneous recovery - Reccurence of response after extinction Stimulus Generalization - Respond to other stimulus the same way the repond to conditioned stimuli ( eg fear of rat – all fury stuff) Stimulus discrimination -Learn a conditioned response to CS+ ( high pitch+ meat) but does not generalize to response to CS- (low pitch without meat)

Classical conditioning – application/implication      

Conditioning – disipline – bell – line up Higher Conditioning eg Pairing – Picture with words, Diagrams with formulae Generalization – Use various related examples Discrimination – Article summary Reinforcement – praises Law of Exercise – sufficient excercises and practice

Watson ‘Little Albert Experiment’ J Watson – Psychologist, founder of American behavoirism All learning is a matter of response that are selected and sequenced Emphasized the need for focussing on observable behaviors rather than nonobservable behaviors Influenced by work of pavlov - adopted the classically conditioned S-R as basic unit of learning Asserted that past experience accounts for virtually all behavior Extreme environmentalism, denied any effect on behavior by hereditary factors Experiment – Rat and 11 year old Albert Rat – Intially Albert no fear, play with it Rat pair with noise – Albert develop fear Rat and other furry things – Albert fear Principles developed - Emotional responses are conditioned to various stimuli as a result of pairings that occur between conditioned stimuli such as distinctive sound, smell, sight or anger - Emotional responses can spread to stimuli to which they have not been conditional, but that resemble conditioned stimuli ~ It is possible to condition negative emotional reactions by repeatedly pairing a stimulus oridinarily associated with some negative emotion with another distinctive stimulus

Law of frequency The more frequently a stimulus and response occur in association with each other, the stronger that S-R habit will become Law of recency The response that has most recently occurred after a particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus

Watson’s theory    

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All behaviour can be learned through conditioning – positive behaviour can be taught by using suitable stimulus To master skills of solving problems, pupil ought to relate the relationship between all responses systematically Use suitable stimulus - motivation Assert that people’s behavior can be controlled through the judiciuos and clever arrangement of stimulus and response -Lends itself to rigid prescriptions for child rearing and education as well as for training and control in the military and industry Law of frequency The more frequently a stimulus and response occur in association with each other, the stronger that S-R habit will become Law of recency The response that has most recently occurred after a particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus

TEORI WATSON - APPLIKASI Kemungkinan reaksi emosi seseorang kepada pelbagai situasi mungkin dipelajari melalui pelaziman lazim. Contohnya: Seseorang merasa gementar apabila melihat guru disiplin. Mungkin sebelum ini dia telah melakukan kesalahan dan telah didenda. Ini menyebabkan ia takut. Pembelajaran tetang emosi, sikap, idea dapat dipelajari disekolah. Kadang-kadang pembelajaran emosi dapat menganggu pembelajaran akademik.

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Proposed the principles of operant conditioning Use term reinforcer instead of reward

The consequence of behavior determine the probability that the behavior will occur again Learning is a function of change in overt behavior Humans are trainable with stimulus-response techniques Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s theory A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. Positive reinforcement – verbal praise Negative reinforcement – increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn Shaping – reinforcing sucessive approximations to the desired behavior

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Law of extinction A response that is not followed by a reinforcing stimulus is weaken and therefore less likely to occur again Acknowledge the existence of thought, reflected in verbal behavior Contended that the causes of mental events lie in the environment Application (Behavorial objectives, programmed instruction and behavior modification)

Operant conditioning  

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Learning is equated to a change in overt behavior Operant Operant or behavioral conditioning – a simple feedback system – if a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus then the stimulus becomes more probable in the future Changes in behavoir are the result of an individual responding to events in the environment (stimuli) Human are trainable with stimulus-response technique When stimulus-Response pattern is reinforced (rewarded) the individual is conditioned to respond All behavior- academic, social, psychomotor can be learned or modified Operant conditioning - we behave the way we do because this kind of behavior has had certain consequences in the past Describe associative learning- there is a contingency between response and the presentation of the reinforcer When stimulus-response pattern is reinforced (rewarded) the individual is conditioned to respond Reinforcer is anything that strengthen a response Reinforcement .. The act following a response with a reinforcer 3 conditions for operant conditioning - The reinforcer must follow the response, must follow immediately,must be contigent on the response 2 types of reinforcement – positive and negative Positive reinforcement – verbal praise Negative reinforcement – any stimulus that results in the increasd frequency of a response when it is withdrawn

Basic processes in Operant conditioning Operant – a voluntary response that has a particular effect on the environment Acquisition - Shaping- sucessive approximation to form the desired response Extinction – gradual weakening and finally dissappearance of

a response tendency by removal of positive reinforcement Stimulus generalization Primary reinforcer – statifies biological needs Secondary reinforcer – conditioned reinforcer

Positive reinforcement – presentation of a stimulus after the response Negative reinforcement – increase in response through the removal of a stimulus usually aversive or unpleasant one Punishment – presentation of aversive stimulus or removal of a stimulus

Operant conditioning- Implications 

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Skinner’s reinforcement principles are the basis of many drill and practice exercises –students receive praise or a positive image when they get correct answer Used to reward or punish students Used in treatment of human disorders such as autism and antisocial behavior Operant behavior requires a goal

Differences between Classical and operant conditioning

Occurs when

Nature of Response

Model

Classical

Operant

2 stimulis (UCS& CS) are paired

Response ® is followed by a reinforcing stimulus Voluntary emitted by organism

Involuntary elicit by stimulus

CS-CR

R- S

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Objective (Behavorial objectives, programmed instruction) Emphasis on behavior – implications - Students should be active respondents in learning process rather than recipient - Should observe student behavioral change as a result of instruction Extinction in behavior modification Emphasis in behavior, drill practice, methods for breaking habits Rewards(reinforcements) for desired behavior Behavioris define learning as a change due to experience (discriminate information)

PENGENALAN  

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Manusia belajar melalui berbagai-bagai cara. Cara belajar dibahagikan kepada mazhab behavioris, kognitif, sosial dan humanis. Mazhab behavioris menganggap pembelajaran sebagai perubahan dalam tingkahlaku. Mazhab Kognitif menganggap pembelajaran sebagai satu proses dalaman yang tidak diperhatikan secara langsung Mazhab Humanis menekankan perbezaan individu dan kehendak sikap dalam pembelajaran. Mazhab Sosial menganggap pembelajaran meliputi aspek yang lebih daripada tingkahlaku yang nyata.

Teori Pembelajaran Behavioris

Kognitif (Gestalt) Sosial (neo behavioris) Humanis

Unsur Berkaitan

Tokoh Psikologi

Tingakahlaku, Pelaziman klasik (emosi) ,(tabiat) Pelaziman Operan, cuba-ralat dan peneguhan

Pavlov Watson Guthrie Thorndike Skinner

Pemikiran, Celik akal, Penemuan, Kategori pembelajaran, Resepi

Koffka/Kohler,Br uner Gagne ,Ausuble

Prestasi Pemodelan

Bandura

Kemanusiaan ,Sempurna kendiri, Keperluan asas dan meta.

Rogers Maslow

BEHAVIORIS PELAZIMAN KLASIK Pembelajaran haiwan dan Manusia yang terhasil daripada gerak balas automatik terhadap sesuatu rangsangan yang mula-mula tidak memberikan sebarang kesan.  Behaviorisme adalah perhubungan antara rangsangan (R) dengan gerak balas (G)  Tingkahlaku adalah gerakbalas yang nyata dan dapat diramalkan. 

TEORI PEMBELAJARAN BEHAVIORAL 

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Pembelajaran sebagai satu perubahan dalam bentuk atau frekuensi tingkahlaku. Dalam bentuk pendekatan behavioral, tingkahlaku pelajar dinilai sebelum memulakan pengajaran. Pembelajaran memerlukan penyususunan (stimuli) rangsangan dalam persekitaran supaya pelajar dapat respons dan diberi pengukuhan.

Pavlov mengenalpasti 3 proses lain, 1.  Generalisasi •     Anjing juga akan mengeluarkan air liur sebagai respons pada bunyi dan juga bunyi yang hampir sama. 2.  Diskriminasi •    Anjing respons pada 1 atau 2 ‘tone’ dengan memastikan makanan diberi selepas 1 ‘tone’. 3. Pemunahan •   Rangsangan lazim diberi conyohnya bunyi tapi tidak diikutidengan makanan. •  Gerak balaslazim (salivating) semakin tiada akhirnya hilang terus.

Jadual: Pelaziman klasik Pavlov Sebelum pelaziman Rangsangan tak terlazim (Makanan) Gerak balas tak terlazim (perembesan) TETAPI Rangsangan neutral (bunyi loceng) Tiada gerak balas (tiada perembesan)

Proses pelaziman Eksperimen 2.Bunyi loceng 3.Tunggu sementara 4.Diberikan makanan 5.Proses berulang-ulang

Selepas pelaziman Rangsangan tak terlazim (makanan)

Gerak balas tak terlazim (perembesan) DAN Rangsangan Terlazim (bunyi loceng) Gerak balas terlazim (perembesan)

Pavlov – Konsep yang diperkenalkan  

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Penhapusan – Gerak balas terlazim dihentikan Pembelajaran semula– Gerak balas terlazim yang dihentikan dilakukan semula Pemulihan semerta – Gerak balas terlazim di lakukan semula serta merta Generalisasi – Samakan rangsangan terlazim dengan yang lain Diskriminasi – Membezakan rangsangan terlazim

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Manusia belajar menggunakan kaedah cuba dan ralat. Ganjaran dan denda dua faktor penting bantu pembelajaran manusia. Pembelajaran manusia berlaku mengikut hubungan antara rangsangan dan gerak balas. Motivasi, ganjaran dan denda amata penting dalam proses pembelajaran. Beliau mengemukakan teori perikatan dikenali sebagai Teori R-G.(Rangsangan dan Gerak balas)

Guru memberi pujian (rangsangan tak terlazim)

Murid gembira (Gerak balas tak terlazim)

Pelaziman Kehadiran guru (rangsangan terlazim)

Murid gembira (gerak balas terlazim)

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Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses Thorndike laws of learning Law of effect Pleasurable consequences oa response strengthened a connection and annoying consequences weaken a connection Law of exercise Law of use – the strength of a connection increases when the connection is used Law of disuse – the strength of a connection diminishes when the connection is not used Law of readiness When an organism is not ready to act, forcing it to act will be annoying.

HUKUM KESEDIAAN 

THORNDIKE MENGATAKAN BAHAWA HUKUM KESEDIAAN MERUJUK KEPADA PERSIAPAN YANG PERLU ADA PADA ORGANISMA SEBELUM IA BERTINDAK

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UNTUK MELAKUKAN SESUATU AKTIVITI YANG DIPERLUKAN, SESEORANG PERLU BERADA DALAM KEADAAN FIZIKAL YANG BAIK DAN MEMPUNYAI ARAS MOTIVASI YANG TINGGI

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APABILA PELAJAR BERADA DALAM KEADAAN BERSEDIA, DIA AKAN BERASA PUAS APABILA DIA BERTINDAK

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JIKA PELAJAR BELUM BERSEDIA UNTUK BERTINDAK, DAN GURU MENYURUH PELAJAR BERTINDAK, DIA AKAN BERASA KECEWA

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OLEH ITU, GURU PERLU MELIHAT TAHAP KESEDIAAN PELAJAR

HUKUM LATIHAN 

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PERTALIAN ANTARA RANGSANGAN DAN GERAK BALAS AKAN BERTAMBAH KUKUH JIKA LATIHAN DIADAKAN CONTOH - JIKA PELAJAR SELALU MENGULANG KAJI RUMUSAN SIFIRNYA, DIA DAPAT MENGINGATINYA DENGAN LEBIH SENANG HUKUM LATIHAN MENYATAKAN BAHAWA SATU TINGKAH LAKU AKAN DITEGUHKAN MELALUI APLIKASI DAN AKAN DILEMAHKAN TANPA PENGUKUHAN HUKUM LATIHAN SANGAT SESUAI DIGUNAKAN BAGI HAFALAN ATAU LATIHAN OTOT

HUKUM KESAN 

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SELEPAS GERAK BALAS TERHASIL, PERTALIAN ANTARA RANGSANGAN DAN GERAK BALAS AKAN BERTAMBAH KUKUH JIKA TERDAPAT KESAN YANG MENYERONOKKAN KESAN YANG MENYAKITKAN AKAN MELEMAHKAN PERTALIAN ANTARA RANGSANGAN DAN GERAK BALAS RUMUSAN THORNDIKE IALAH JIKA TINGKAH LAKU DIIKUTI DENGAN KEPUASAN IA AKAN DIULANG TETAPI JIKA DIIKUTI DENGAN KESAKITAN IA AKAN LENYAP

Teori Thorndike - Applikasi ~ ~

For learning readiness, suitable motivation must be used. To strengthen relationship between stimulus and response – increase exercise, revision ~ Reward and reinforcement for right response. ~ Give student to experience

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Menurut Skinner (1953) kajiannya menunjukkan pelaziman operan organisma bertindakbalas terhadap persekitaran dalam proses pembelajaran Pelaziman operan meningkatkan kebarangkalian pengulangan sesuatu gerak balas. Peneguhan biasanya dapat menambahkan kebarangkalian gerak balas yang akan berlaku.

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SEBELUM PELAZIMAN

 : Keadaan dalam bilik darjah

Berbagai-bagai gerak balas (pelajar) Membaca buku Komik Membaca kerja lain

Berbual-bual Berinteraksi dengan kawan dengan guru Bermain dengan sesuatu

Terdapat pelbagai gerakbalas yang ditunjukkan oleh pelaajr terhadap pengajaran guru PROSES PELAZIMAN

Gerak balas Berinteraksi dgn guru

Ganjaran Guru senyum, puji dan beri /tunjuk kasih sayang

Application of behavoirist theory in learning -

Use discrimination (recalling of facts ) Use generalizations (defining and illustrating concepts) Use associations (applying explanations) Use chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure) Emphasis on observable and measurable outcomes in students (behavioral objectives, task analysis, criterion-referenced assessment) - Mastering early to complex level of performance (sequencing instructional presentation,mastery of learning) - Use of instructional cues, shaping and practice to ensure a strong stimulus-response association (simple to complex sequencing of practice, arrange practice situations,use of prompts) - Use reinforcement to impact performance (tangible rewards, informative feedback)

Albert Bandura – Social Learning    

Trial and error – hands on exploration to taste reality Perception of object – Modelling – copying by watching someone