The Archimedes Forest Schools Model.pdf
This document was uploaded by user and they confirmed that they have the permission to share it. If you are author or own the copyright of this book, please report to us by using this DMCA report form. Report DMCA
Overview
Download & View The Archimedes Forest Schools Model.pdf as PDF for free.
More details
- Words: 41,954
- Pages: 172
The Archimedes Forest Schools Model All rights reserved; unauthorised reproduction of any part of this work in any medium is strictly prohibited. The right of Sarah Blackwell to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. The views expressed in this book are those of the author, not necessarily those of the publisher. Published by: Archimedes Earth Press 109 Winn Grove Sheffield S6 1UN Tel: 0114 2834062 E-‐mail:
[email protected]
Website:
www.archimedes-‐earth.com
Distributed by Archimedes Earth Order E-‐mail:
[email protected]
Website:
www.forestschools.com
Photo Acknowledgements: Forest Schools Kindergarten; Focal Sheffield and Middlewood Nature Nursery. Illustrations: Alan Cree
For Joe, Aaron, Elly and Euan With all my love
Preface Forest school as an educational concept was introduced into the UK from its origins in Scandinavia in 1994. Since those humble beginnings, the Forest Schools concept has blossomed throughout the UK and as I write there are at least 300 training organisations that train practitioners in Forest School education with over 11,500 practitioners who are delivering Forest School programmes and sessions to a range of audiences. Archimedes was set up in 2001 as one of the first organisations that could deliver Forest Schools sessions and train practitioners in order to develop the concept of Forest Schools in a UK setting and develop the applications of their particular model for a range of purposes. The rapid development of the concept in the UK is evidence in itself of the value of this means of education, which at its heart recognises the value of the natural world as a direct educational resource. There are many ways to use the Forest School concept in a range of settings, with a range of audiences and which will deliver an equally diverse set of outcomes. The wide variety of Forest School experiences being offered reflects this opportunity for different applications. Archimedes from the outset has recognised the ultimate potential of this educational concept is that it can be highly effective in creating positive transformational behavioural changes in the participants who experience it. As the years have passed, the evidence to support the positive impacts of Forest School has amassed through our experience in the field, through observation and measurement of the
outcomes of the programmes we have run, and through the reports of beneficial impacts not just on the participants themselves, but on their families, the education system and the wider community. The experience of practitioners has only reinforced our understanding of the transformational aspect of this form of education and over many years we have developed a model for applying Forest School education that delivers measurable outcomes. This book is about communicating a roadmap for others, which highlights the critical aspects involved, not just in delivering successful and transformative Forest School programmes, but the various facets that make a capable and skilled practitioner of Forest Schools Education and one who can deliver effective sessions which make those programmes the finest possible to meet the individual needs of each precious child or young person, or adult, because after all, we can only strive to be the best we can be! In recent years we have had the opportunity to apply our model and methodology in a range of locations around the world and have found it to be successful regardless of geographical or cultural boundaries.
As I write, 30 independent training organisations training forest school practitioners in the United Kingdom are delivering training using the Archimedes Forest School Model. Similarly over 50% of the 11,500 Forest School practitioners who are in the field delivering sessions to many and varied audiences have themselves been trained using this model. We estimate that at a conservative estimate, as a result of the butterfly effect, over 1½ million children, families and communities have been touched in some way as a result of the various opportunities provided and for many a significant benefit has been felt from the Forest School experience that our practitioners, trainers and model offers.
Table of Content FOREWORD
1
INTRODUCTION
4
Chapter 1: Outdoor Education and Forest Schools
9
1.1.
Concepts and Practices in Outdoor Education:
9
1.2.
Forest Schools for Outdoor Education:
10
1.3.
Learning Experience through the Archimedes Forest Schools Model:
11
1.4.
Outcome of Forest Schools
11
Chapter 2: Development of Educational Theories and Practices
11
2.1. Early Life in Nature
11
2.2. Evolution of Educational System and Practices:
11
2.3. Evolution of Education Theories:
11
2.4. Development of Archimedes Earth
11
2.4.1. Definition of Forest Schools:
11
2.4.2. The Ethos:
11
2.4.3. Archimedes Earth Forest Schools
11
2.4.4. Typical Days at Forest Schools:
11
2.4.4.1. Health and safety checks:
11
2.4.4.2. Preparation of Forest School sites:
11
2.4.4.3. Development of Children:
11
2.4.4.4. Thematic Sessions:
11
2.4.4.5. Use of Tools:
11
2.4.4.6. Reflection and Transfer:
11
CHAPTER 3: Archimedes Earth Practitioner Training
11
3.1. Training of Practitioners – Pedagogy, and Woodland Environment
11
3.2. Neurological Development in Natural Environment
11
3.3. Benefits of Tools and Fire in Forest Schools:
11
3.3.1. Stages in Competence Development in Tools Use and Safety Practices: 11 3.3.2. Tools Use and Care:
11
3.3.3. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
11
3.3.4. Fire Circle Guidelines:
11
CHAPTER 4: Risks, Safety Measures and Benefits
11
4.1. Risks and Safety IN Forest Schools:
11
4.2. Tools, Fire and Food Hygiene:
11
4.3. Archimedes Earth and Risks-Benefit Assessment:
11
4.3.1. Woodland Site:
11
4.3.2. First aid requirements under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974: 11 CHAPTER 5: Archimedes Schools and Holistic Development 5.1.
11
Holistic Development in Forest Schools Environments
11
5.1.1.
Personal Development
11
5.1.2.
Self-Esteem:
11
5.1.3.
Well Being:
11
5.1.4.
Resilience
11
5.2.
Environmental Identity, Forest Education and Sustainable Development:11
5.2.1.
Environmental Identity:
11
5.2.2.
Forest Education:
11
5.2.3.
Sustainable Development:
11
CHAPTER 6: Role of Forest schools in Health and Well Being.
11
6.1. Forest Bathing (Shinrin-yoku)
11
6.2. Theories of Biophilia, Attention Restoration and Stress Recovery:
11
6.3. Restoration Effect of Natural Surroundings of Forest School:
11
6.4. Health Benefits of Outdoor Learning:
11
CHAPTER 7: Careers in Forest Schools and Outdoor Education
11
7.1. Opportunities in Forest Schools Education
11
7.2. Career Opportunities in Forest Schools:
11
7.2.1. Career path for Young People.
11
7.2.2. Outdoor Learning Training courses:
11
7.2.3. ‘Get Outdoors’ Initiative:
11
CHAPTER 8: Archimedes Forest Schools Education
11
8.1. Overview
11
8.2. Development of Archimedes Earth
11
8.3. Archimedes Earth Courses:
11
8.3.1. The Archimedes covers training in all the conventional Levels-1 to Level3 and a special Woodland Skills Entry Level programme for 14 plus and a Level-4 programme:
11
8.3.2. Archimedes Earth in Other Environments and Habibtat. 11 8.3.2.1. Archimedes Earth Beach Schools
11
8.3.2.2. How Beach Schools compare with Forest Schools
11
8.3.2.3. Beach Schools Education and Career Prospects:
11
8.3.2.4. River Schools
11
8.3.2.5. Social Forestry Practitioner
11
8.4. Forest Schools Framework of Excellence and Management:
11
8.5. Forest Schools Quality Marks:
11
CHAPTER 9: Conclusion
11
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATION
11
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
11
FOREWORD Woodlands and wild spaces are the most inspirational, life affirming and radiant places on earth. They provide us with tantalizing adventures, physical challenge, visual delights, roaring orchestras of sound, olfactory explosions and gustatory banquets. Forests, trees and woodlands fill our minds with illustrious, memorable and farfetched imaginings, the anticipation of mystery and a deep sense of excitement, in some cases, fear, and at other times joy and delight. Trees are each unique, each an overcomer, a survivor, a silent but magnificent example of reaching for the heights, the sunlight, the warmth that is needed for its every existence. Each is a wonder to have the privilege of encountering, the sheer magnitude of the inner workings, the energy it converts, the air it purifies, the homes it provides, the shelter it affords, the role it plays in the very existence of humanity, and of all life on earth. Without the simple, complex, riveting, grounded, far reaching tree, we simply would not exist. It is this reason that it is surmised that the body memory, the mind’s eye, connects to the forests, woodlands and trees so closely, as we depend on their majesty for our individual life, for the air we breath, and collectively as a species for our resources, fuel, houses, energy, transportation, cars, furnaces, and aesthetic pleasures. We honour and revere the trees, the woodlands and the forest, we protect them and we seek to learn and understand how they are so wondrous. On the other hand, maybe we seek to decimate, to destroy to exploit and to ravage the woodlands and forests, we as a race can be small minded and greedy and we can seek personal power and esteem from our friends, maybe even financial benefit over the one individual or corporation. Unfortunately over the existence of our own longevity of our race, of humanity sacrificing the lives of species, some even as yet unknown, of biological relationships that can never be re-‐ established,
that forfeiting lays at the beginnings of a broken and dysfunctional world. Appreciation of the woodlands, their priceless job, their role, their purpose, their magnitude of importance, comes only with a deeply ingrained relationship with that environment. It is essential and necessary for those of us that live in the industrialized, sanitized world of bricks and mortar to stir the inner connection that over generations has been hidden in the cells of memory, the fabric of our being. In losing this relationship, there are signs that we are becoming individually sick, socially dislocated and globally destroyed.
Archimedes Forest Schools Education is centred on the proposition of the attainment of the capable Learner and their predispositions of Personal Sustainability. Though the maintenance of self, developing a clear understanding of our individual needs, how to satisfy those -‐note needs, not wants-‐ and within that, establishing a sense of place in the world through awareness of and confidence in our right to be heard, our right to exist and our right to be loved and cared for. This journey builds on strong foundations that can then weave its way into the formation of empathetic relationships with others, family, siblings, extended family, friends, colleagues, and others.
Fig 1: The Arcs of influence. The capable learner as developed through Forest School Education has a positive impact on many aspects and areas of society As we become protectors and nurturers of ourselves, our souls, spirits and bodies, our health and wellbeing will flourish; in becoming well at an individual level we are able to reach out to others and to the community and society in which we live, and further afield. Enriching the lives of others and giving to the natural environment brings personal hope and joy, not only to us, but also to those that we care for, and is indeed this very action that is identified by the New Economics Foundation as a basic necessity for wellness and wellbeing.
INTRODUCTION This publication is about the practice of a methodology of outdoor learning carried out in a woodland or wild environment. The practice evolved from Scandinavian models found in Denmark, Norway and Sweden from the 1950’s through the 1990s as Forest School in UK and now it has assumed a respectable and meaningful place within the wide variety of delivery methodologies for the overall development of children and as a significant and intentional process for improving learning in children of all ages as well as adults in and for the environment and forest education universally. The contents of this book are covered under eight chapters to give a broad view of the Archimedes Forest Schools Education Model. Archimedes Earth came into existence in 2001 and since then has worked passionately to develop the ethos and methodology of its work and provision through Forest Schools programme delivery processes and training. Archimedes Forest Schools Education have developed the model to which it applies to all facets of its work and this is embedded and threaded through the organization in the same way as unique DNA is at the core of each living cell. This understanding of our model, acts as our self-‐replicating essence containing the primary and distinctive characteristics and qualities of our ethos, principles, mission, values and vision. Chapter 1 explores outdoor education and its advantages and where Forest Schools fit in this outdoor provision. This chapter broadly covers outdoor education needs and the added value of Forest Schools as an outdoor learning process and its advantages. The chapter serves to set the background for further chapters. Chapter 2 covers a historical perspective as to why Forest Schools is needed in society. Our
ancestors evolved from living in natural environments and learnt via their experiences in nature, the open Savannah, frozen landscapes and deep forest environments. Evolution is a process of adaptation and survival. From a human perspective this implies that we share genes, historically adapted to natural living and affiliation and understanding of nature with our ancestors who have lived, over the past thousands of years as hunter-‐gatherers. In some biospheres even though many cultures have moved into industrialization and now post industrialization, many societies are still relying on these processes for survival. Hence, somewhere deep in our genetic make-‐up we need nature; we thrive in natural environments, when in contact with the elements. If this connection is not apparent then separation may perhaps manifest itself in ill effects and diseases. The Chapter explores evolution of education and education theories and the development of Archimedes Forest Schools Education and its model. Chapter 3 is the description of Archimedes Forest Schools provision in which the ethos, principles and woodland environment occupy the central position. The educational processes utilized consistently over a long period during all seasons bring about neurological changes, facilitated by the woodland environment, thus bringing about the intended outcomes of the Archimedes Forest Schools Model, that of reconnection, a sense of place in the world and personal well being. Chapter 4 investigates the role the practitioner in identifying both the benefits of the Archimedes Model for education, and learning outdoors towards risk and harm and implementation of safety measures, the importance and benefits of using tools and fires, also taking into consideration precautions, care and legal positioning. Chapter 5 examines some of the ways that Forest Schools has been found to promote
positive changes in children and adults: holistic development of children, self-‐esteem, wellbeing, resilience, and a positive relationship towards risk and with the natural environment and community as a whole. We are still investigating and researching effects and as new research is forthcoming Forest Schools will continue to blossom and grow as a truly beneficial educational process both in the UK and across the world. Chapter 6 covers the benefits of Forest Schools in terms of physical health and emotional well-‐being. Evidence from several theories are cited, in particular the scientific evidence of health benefits of forests in promoting health and wellness, theory of Biophilia which relates humans to their evolutionary relationship with nature; Attention Restoration Theory and observed scientific evidence of various benefits of outdoor activity on health and physical development. Here we also investigate the principles of neuroplasticity and the importance of challenge and the needs of children to encounter a wide variety of sensory opportunities. Chapter 7 covers the impact on education as a whole as a result of participation in Forest Schools and we explore how the model creates added value for learners and participants, for the learning environment, as well as in the development of a positive mental attitude for personal sustainability and success. The transition process is an essential part of the model and we explore the fundamental understanding of how the learner can utilise the wisdom absorbed at Forest Schools and translate that into creating an individualistic, creative and independence during the long term programme. This will lead on to or towards the understanding of career opportunities that may become open to the students because of their relationship with nature through participation in the Forest Schools model. Chapter 8 relates to Archimedes Forest School Education and its approach to
transformational pedagogy as applied to for example nursery environments, from our understanding of Transformational theory; the new Framework of Excellence and the three levels of awards for Forest Schools provision in settings identified by the Quality Mark. Archimedes Quality Marks awarded to Schools or other educational providers such as nurseries, enable setting staff, parents, potential customers, users and participants, as well as other settings and Local Authorities to be able to identify the level of practice and management team involvement in Forest Schools Provision that a setting has in relation to it’s undertaking. It will highlight the expectations of the schools depth of application and interrelationships of educational curricula delivery process and Forest Schools within that particular establishment. This gives prospective employees, parents and Ofsted an overview of expectations for children and the integration of delivery techniques when choosing a setting or school. The Archimedes Forest Schools Education Quality Mark provides a benchmark for excellence and attributes value to different delivery methodology of Forest Schools within settings. Conclusion The publication aims to present the Archimedes Forest Schools Education Model whilst providing an overview of the historical context and present provision and evolution of Forest Schools in todays practice. Any interested reader can obtain additional information from references cited at the end of the book or can visit Archimedes Forest Schools website (www.archimedes-‐earth.com and www.forestschools.com)
Chapter 1: Outdoor Education and Forest Schools 1.1.
Concepts and Practices in Outdoor Education:
The purpose of outdoor education or learning can be very different for different age groups and it also varies with the curriculum and intended outcomes. The requirements of outdoor exposure differ with age, be that for pre-‐school children, primary school children, secondary school students and adulthood, as well as taking into consideration the transitions between these groups. The most important age up to which most of human faculties develop is the age of 10 years, thus making pre-‐school and primary education one of the most important levels for exposure to outdoor experiences. This, linked to research findings by Clayton (2003) who demonstrated that creation of a positive environmental identity in childhood has impacts on beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviour that last into adulthood provides a solid foundation for the Archimedes Forest Schools programmes. Knight (2013) points out that during the post-‐industrialization era outdoor exposure of children in England declined because playing fields were sold for developmental purposes. The British obsession with inclement weather was also accounted for lesser use of education outdoors, and of course the continual pressures on finances and the perception that more time in the classroom will increase academic learning. There is now a growing concern about the poor understanding of young children about food, farming and sustainability issues (Dillon, et. al, 2005). The Education and Skills Select Committee Enquiry, 2005 and the Government Growing School Programme (DfES, 2005) all expressed concern about the need for proper outdoor education and learning opportunities for children.
DFES (2005) seeks to enable ‘schools to make better use of the outdoor classroom as a context for teaching and learning’. A research project on ‘Engaging and learning with the outdoors’ supported by National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER), King’s College London, and the University of Bath have come out with recommendations (Dillon et.al. 2005) which identify some needs for outdoor education for all children. The research supported by NFER and others have identified a wide variety of diversity of practices in planning, delivering and evaluating out-‐of-‐school learning. For the development of outdoor education in the country, the Select Committee has noted that ‘What is needed is a coherent strategy for education outside the classroom that brings together good practices from around the country, rather than a small number of limited, if worthy projects.’ The recommendations covered raising schools’ staff awareness about the opportunities offered by outdoor education, DfES and other agencies developing teachers’ confidence and capacities in outdoor context, need for enhanced participation in outdoor education, need for connecting students’ outdoor learning with the curriculum. The Archimedes Model centres on an ethos and practice that match core approaches identified by the Select Committee in regard to outdoor education and learning. 1.2.
Forest Schools for Outdoor Education:
The concept of Forest School in the UK as a way of learning and teaching children in and about natural world has its origins in both UK learning models such as Woodcraft Folk, Scouting, Outward Bound and other Outdoor Adventures and personal development programmes. Margaret Macmillan presented children and families with the opportunity to learn outdoors in the 1930’s.
Scandinavian cultures have a closer relationship with nature both for education as well as for society as a whole. It was from this cultural foundation that Skogsmule developed by Gosta Frohm in Sweden in 1957 and other programmes in European countries such as Germany have influenced and inspired the developments in the UK. It is possible to observe children’s play and learning which coexists in total harmony with the natural environment, specifically forests, woodlands and the coast. As we will discover later in the text there is a historical context that understands that where children are free to play, to lead their own investigations; influencing their own plans, self regulating risk and exploration through a wide range of play types. These include cooking with fires, listening to stories, singing songs, and climbing trees. All of these offer a more ‘complete’ picture of life and meaning in context for the child. In addition, develop the hand eye coordination to use knives to cut fruit and vegetable, whittle sticks, and then move on to using axes to chop wood for the fire. The child can understand so many life skills, the gifts of the earth and how they can participate, cohabit and harmoniously enjoy the abundance that the world has to offer, this will inevitably enrich and build a strong attachment to the environment as well as to the people that they are engaging with. The main focus of the approach being the investigation and exploration of nature, the development of self through the participation, and the setting of foundational learning that is relevant for a child’s future. This way of working with children in woodlands and forests, developed through the introduction of outdoor kindergartens in Copenhagen where the demand for early years provision outstripped the places available. In Denmark in 1980s as part of the Scandinavian tradition of being close to nature, children would jump onto the coach in the morning, and return to their parents in the evening after a grand day out in the wilds. Inspired by
this experience, similar sessions were offered for nursery children in the UK and after developing an Early Years provision, a facility in the woodland was developed and Forest School was offered to older students with more complex learning needs. This Forest School provision was found to be useful to students’ self-‐esteem, confidence and well-‐being; those same outcomes shared by and advocated in the Every Child Matters agenda (DfES, 2004). The concept of Forest School picked up in the United Kingdom with nearly 200 trained practitioners by 2001. Schools, Children’s Centres and other Early Years settings in England and Wales started offering Forest School programmes. Local authorities such as Oxfordshire and Worcestershire understood the application and benefits to the Early Years age group and this created demand for trained practitioners. In Wales, through the work of the Forestry Commission and Forest School Wales, the prevalence of Forest Schools for children increased substantially with some of the first research coming from schools adopting the approach here. As the work of Archimedes grew, an increased demand for practitioners to work within the company created it’s shift into training to support this need to facilitate the Archimedes Programmes aimed predominately, though not exclusively for young people and those with specialist and additional needs and living in urban settings. Archimedes was established to deliver to young people and children and moved into training practitioners in 2002 due to these ever increasing demands across the country. Forest School was observed to support and provide positive impacts within the Early Years sectors and the new outdoor learning provision for young people was also becoming more established. Burnworthy in the South West, was providing many opportunities for young people to thrive and flourish and this was being replicated further north in many towns and cities by Archimedes though the long term Forest Schools Education model.
Archimedes founding leadership team were indeed trained by Gordon Woodall, who was then the lead trainer and had been instrumental in the course training developments and success up to this time. Woodall, an inspirational and talented individual, was passionate about the deeper neurological aspects, the fundamentals of wellbeing and lifelong learning that the Forest School process supported. It was dedicated to how this process could utilise this knowledge for maximum benefits for the children and young people who participated. The development of a new programme of study through Archimedes based on the Archimedes Forest Schools provision across the North of England and in pockets further south utilised much of this understanding of the time. As more and more is being learnt about the brain, how we respond and react to situations and differences in gender over the past 20 years it was inevitable that new changes and understandings would impact on the foundations of the emerging Archimedes Forest Schools Model and application of theory and thus the course development and structure. This understanding is growing year on year as more research is being undertaken both in the field of Forest School as well as areas that are directly influential on it. Archimedes is keen to monitor and incorporate this new leaning into its teaching, as it inevitably encourages robust learning and educational processes according to the research findings. Our ethos is focused on supporting Personal Sustainability through transformational pedagogy and new scientific knowledge is paramount to our focus. It supports children and enables practitioners to understand and adapt their methodology for the maximum benefits of the end user, children, and ultimately for society as a whole. It will be these children, as they grow into adulthood and positions of responsibility and independence themselves that will inevitably influence policy decision-‐making, and innovation. This emerging brand of Forest Schools,
supported by experienced practitioners from a range of differing fields such as the environmental sciences, outdoor education, play, health and indeed, special needs such as Autism and models used in the corporate industries such as Kolb, Tannerbaum and Schmitt and Rogers have added a wealth of facets extending the Early Years focused process initiated in the 1990’s in the UK. The work of Woodall outlined desires to seek a deeper understanding of emotional literacy, brain function and how woodlands can impact, irrespective of age on wellbeing and health. Industry experiences gained by the Archimedes urban Forest Schools programmes, observations and reflections of practice with disaffected young people, special needs groups and those with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) enabled an emergent perspective, as well as new insights and depth supported by the evolving academic research and findings from those fields. The Archimedes Forest Schools Model is based on an understanding that participation occurs over all the seasons and that there is clear vision, that of supporting the development of the ‘Capable Learner’. There is as a foundation a planned intention of the practitioner, clear outcomes and goals, and the adaptive and flexible provision gained and gleaned through observations utilised to maximise learning possibilities. The skilled practitioner, or ‘Informed Leader’ is able to plan for the individual child, without removing any notion of self-‐initiation, following of interests and motivations through discovery, exploration with the support of the supportive adult as far as is reasonably possible, with regard to safety and boundaries of behaviour. It is this expertise that creates a positive impact through the Forest Schools Programme when firmly woven into a diverse and beautiful natural woodland setting. Although serendipity plays an immense part, it is this conscientious process that sets foundations for and constructs change. For example Forest Schools cannot take place in its true or
core form as a holiday club. The theoretical underpinning would nullify the association. However, it is possible that some of the theoretical underpinnings may play a part in the practitioners way of working, and the process of day or session provision will apply some of that methodology.
The Archimedes Forest Schools Model illustrates how the child and the practitioner come together at the beginning of the programme. How they interrelate over the course of the baseline assessment phase – the 6 initial weeks of interaction. This then informs the leader of the overall programme aims for that child in attending the Forest Schools programme. This extended developmental phase of the programme occurs in nature, ideally woodlands, through all the seasons, using the ‘Plan, Do, Reflect and Preview’ cycle. Transition is the point by which children move away from Forest Schools, this can take up to 6 weeks of sessions, similar to the Baseline Assessment period at the beginning of the programme. Careful planning is essential in order to support the child back into a life without Forest Schools. As with any process, programme or relationship, for the child there could be a time
of mourning or grieving at its absence from their lives and could be perceived as immense. This needs careful planning and management by the Pracitioner. The transition is the point at which the Skilled Practitioner is undertaking to ensure that all the concepts and skills and understanding learnt within and through the Forest Schools Programme are available in transferable form in and to the child, young person or ‘Capable Learner’ It is remembering the purpose of your Forest School, and specifically the aims and objectives of the Forest Schools programme for this group and for this specific child. It is that which will enable you to assess the achievement of the developmental goals during the programme. Assessing each week is essential tool of Forest School; listening to or seeing the child’s reflections on their own learning, monitoring your own observations and then adapting and planning to extend the child’s learning, increase ability and maturity in all the holistic areas each session. Therefore, based on the evaluation of their holistic development profiles accrued at the beginning through the baseline assessment, it is a simple matter of assessing progress and ensuring that this learning is then transferred into their everyday lives at home as well as at school. It is this transference that is consistently developing the ability for the child to become a ‘Capable Learner’. The Capable Learner increases their own capacity for ‘Personal Sustainability’ The Archimedes Forest Schools Model focuses on this as its main aim – Inspiration, Aspiration, Transformation.
Fig 2: The Archimedes Recipe. Illustrates the development of both participant and forest school practitioner from their base line state to transition state and improved outcome for both over a natural cycles of a year
Research by Nawaz and Blackwell (2014) on the perceptions of Archimedes Forest Schools reveal that due to the structured and observational tools and the in depth theoretical base employed at Forest Schools has led to a higher degree of environmental identity and respect for nature in those taking part as well as personal, social and academic associations in children attending, compared to those who do not. The research showed that children who attended the Forest Schools Education programmes over a long period were much more likely to encourage their parents and families to visit woodlands to play at weekends and holidays, than those that did not. As mentioned, the concepts underpinning Forest Schools derives from a range of
theoretical foundations from various fields of outdoor education and learning, play, environment, social wellbeing, emotional literacy, neuroscience and others from a range of interesting sources. The roots of which, however can be traced to early day educational thinkers; Ogilvy, Kurt Hahn, Karl Rohnke, Joseph Cornell; John Dewey; Jean-‐Jacques Rousseau, Roger Greenaway, Colin Mortlock and Carl Rogers to name but a few. Froebel and Pestalozzi have laid out the importance on play for children’s development and Margaret McMillan and her sister Rachel (Cunningham, 2006) recognised the effect of lack of fresh air and freedom of movement on young children’s development and founded their outdoor nurseries for poorer, less privileged children. Later Susan Isaacs set up an outdoor nursery for more privileged children. Subsequently, the 1944 Education Act made access to education compulsory for children up to 14, which subsequently rose to 16 and is now up to 17 years and in 2015 extended to age 18 years. At this time physical education in the form of outdoor sports, playtimes in open air acquired importance. The last quarter of the twentieth century saw a decline in outdoor opportunities as playing fields were sold for developmental purposes. In many countries of northern Europe, children were allowed to develop socially and environmentally without exerting pressure of academic achievements in the first phase of their lives. Scandinavia is a well documented baseline of educational excellence which bases its ‘playful’ beginnings in early childhood as a standard concept which recognizes that ‘Haptic Perception’, the process through which a child recognises objects through the sense of touch, is fundamental to children’s healthy attitudes to learning and indeed the success of children’s learning. (Lederman & Klatzky, 2009) suggest that Haptics is a perceptual system and that understanding is processed kinaesthetically
and cutaneously, i.e. it is through touch and movement that objects are perceived and understood, processed and information stored for future use and application. It is this process that supports schema (Piaget) and sensory input in young children. The recognition of objects occurs through a number of sensors and it is through this process that a child develops environmental recognition as well as other important concepts such as body image and body control. With the increase of the use of technology and the ‘regularising of surfaces and shapes’ from natural to manufactured, textured to smooth and plastic, there can be a decrease in the development of fully functioning haptic realities which can lead to a wide range of problems: conceptual misinterpretations later in life, misplaced symbolic representations and distorted perceptions of the world. Through the management of tactile interactions with natural objects and body movements that allow interactions with the natural world, memories and experiences can be stored in the brain allowing children to more readily sort out problems both in the here and now and in their future encounters. Thus, children visualise a range of concepts and become more able to read and write, thus aiding and supporting academic success during the education process. Physical engagement has been shown to create stronger memories than simply looking at something – Confucius said ‘I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand’ Through the rapid and accurate identification of three-‐dimensional objects by touch through exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the stick, leaf, earth, flower or holding the entire object in the hand Gibson defined the haptic process as "The sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body". If a child or adult loses their sense of touch, or in fact has limited opportunity to experience a wide range of
textures and shapes and qualities of materials then this has impacts such as losing the ability to walk with confidence and also to lose other skills like holding tools or objects such as pencils and pens, thus their ability to manipulate those materials in order to process symbols, such as the alphabet. Research shows that many children who are made to walk in shoes too early, can affect not only their ability to read and write later, but also due to the lack of sensory input directly relating to the connection with the receptors on the soles of the children’s feet, social behaviour and learning is adversely affected also. Health and Safety has become such a monster that the fear of harm through a mighty array of both physical, social, emotional and therefore psychological impacts has reduced the freedom of children by parents, carers and educationists to allow children to explore, touch, manipulate, experiment and discover natural objects such as mud, dirt, water, leaves, and as such a detrimental impact on children’s holistic development in so many areas. The natural environment, with relation to Haptics is, therefore, of fundamental importance to children’s learning. The understanding of teachers and senior management in creating opportunities for kinaesthetic experiences involving a wide range of physical movements involving gross and fine motor skills is essential. It is this closely related physical dimension of experience that enables the effective creation of neuron connections enabling a richer learning experience that is fully felt in a physical being as well as at a cognitive level. Experiences create memories, and memories enable future understanding and support problem solving skills in children, an essential aspect of learning and development. Research in the area of Haptics has been shown to support the concept that if a stick, for example, has been held, played with, manipulated and used in a great variety of ways, then later in their development
phases the child will be able to transfer knowledge of the specific associated resources currently at hand and the perceptual experience is ‘transparently transferred’. Tools are used in all sorts of activities in education and greatly in subjects such as design and technology and also in physical sports such as tennis, cricket and hockey. The more proficient a child is in this ability to use their fine and gross motor skills effectively the more associated they will be with the learning task in the classroom as well as out of it, the more able they will be to apply themselves, the higher their own sense of self worth in adding to the discussions and their own self image and confidence increases and learning will be reflected in application of themselves to the problem solving process. It has been reported that young adults are commencing university in subjects that require the use of tools many students have never once in their past experience had access to simple tools such as hammers, saws and nails. As the unconscious competency, and the ability to transfer is dependent on the young persons past experiences, this is adversely impacting on their ability to physically coordinate and create precise hand eye movements. At an archaeology undergraduate course for example, tutors are not expecting to have to teach adults how to use tools for the first time, but this is in fact the case, and getting more pronounced each year which inevitably leads to delayed development. 1.
1.3.
Learning Experience through the Archimedes Forest Schools Model:
In traditional outdoor education, one off outdoor visits are organised to support or extend classroom teaching for fun, play or learning. Forest Schools is different in its approach as the programmes are worked out in some detail through collaboration and consultation between school and Forest Schools practitioner, and child, depending on their ages and capacity. The processes are integrated within the curriculum of individual children’s needs through a process of
baseline assessments of holistic development phases. The teaching theory is quite different though, as, within the educational programme big picture – i.e. the agreed outcomes to facilitate the development of the Capable Learner -‐ the child is at the centre of the learning experience and time is essential in allowing the exploration and self-‐discovery to occur most successfully.
In Forest Schools, the outdoor opportunity is provided consistently over a period of seasons. Neuroscience supports the presupposition that to create opportunities for the myelination of neural pathways and for neural development, consistent and sustained exposure is required in a relaxed and positive learning environment. This consistent exposure to positive experiences that are relaxed, nurtured, supported and role modelled by key adults and peers are in the same key for the development of empathy, time, space, experience, compassion and love to grow from its small seed of potential in the brain into a positive and life enhancing empathetic vision of self, others and the world indeed takes time. This repetition and consistent attendance leads to a foundation of stable and consistent experiences, in nature, with adults and with peers, usually over the course of an academic year will reap its rewards. This long-‐term approach is essential for the development and hardwiring of
neurons to react to situations that may in the past have, or could well become predisposed to unsociable or unacceptable ways of behaving, or indeed absent due to the child experiencing high levels of cortisol in the brain, due to stress or trauma, inhibiting the development of neuron connection and maturing of the brain areas. If these responses are indeed unsociable they will lead to exclusion, either by peers or by the social group, society and community, and the immediate or indirect school environment. Archimedes proposes that the basic objective of the Forest Schools programme is that of supporting the holistic development of an individual, nurtured through connection with the outdoor woodland environment and open spaces in order to facilitate the notion of a ‘capable learner’ who is able to became ‘Personally Sustainable’. Fig 3: The Forest School Participant-‐What goes in. The key elements affecting the participants learning experience
The opportunity and freedom for a child or learner to choose, experience, and learn from the natural surroundings sits at the heart and centre of the Archimedes Forest Schools ethos, principles and process and is balanced around the needs of the individual, group and development of a ‘capable learner’ The environment offers opportunities for development of physical, mental, sociological, sensory, and communication abilities, self-‐esteem and confidence, the ability to manage hardships, to be mindful. It also offers opportunities to appreciate self, others and the environment leading to a more altruistic and empathetic perspective with an ability to make independent decisions taking care of personal welfare and to positively influence the world as we pass through it, now or later in life. 1.
1.4.
Outcome of Forest Schools
In contrast to the more traditional outdoor exposure offered to children, Forest Schools Education provides a very comprehensive and broad-‐base experience for overall development. Some very positive developments observed in children attending Forest Schools are: self-‐esteem, (to include increase in levels of self worth, a rethinking of actual self and ideal self, a more realistic self image) self-‐confidence, new skills, ability to make independent decisions, ability to take care of self, communication abilities and social linkages. Among these developments in children, the most distinguishable aptitudes are in relation to the nature and environment, the environmental identity and the longer-‐term respect towards it. Such an experience is very distinct and highly advantageous from the point of view that these children are learning the foundation of sustainable development.
The understanding and love for nature that children can develop in Forest Schools through the long term process is most marked as compared to some other outdoor programmes. In the past researchers such as Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) have suggested that simply being in nature will develop a positive identity with it, though there is growing research from researchers such as Dutcher et al., 2007; Hinds & Sparks, 2008 that it is an emotion that children are developing regarding their affiliation with nature that would be called Environmental Identity. It is during childhood that this appreciation occurs. Hinds and Sparks (2008) suggests that through a study of both urban and rural children, those with the highest scores on pro-‐environmental activity in adolescence and adulthood came from those who were able to benefit from a more rural immersion during childhood.
Fig 4: The Forest School Participant –What comes out. The key outcomes for the participant at a personal level
It is also suggested that it is not only the presence of the child in nature for prolonged periods can also be significantly enhanced in the company of an enthusiastic adult, who shares to some extent their own passion and values. It is the experimentation and exploration through the seasons and the ability to some degree to be independent and self determinate in the learning process that has enabled children to develop and attribute a deeper value to nature through direct association, as opposed to those who did not have the opportunity or that the experience was disassociated, for example through books or the television. This advantage of Forest Schools Education can be amplified if such exposures continue at secondary and other levels of education and even extend beyond the national boundaries to acquire international dimensions.
The Government in the UK is encouraging and supporting educational organisations to engage in learning outdoors and establish close links between ‘haptic perception’ for exploration and learning. Outdoor learning provides a unique opportunity to achieve and influence positively on academic and holistic development. Nawaz and Blackwell, (2014), have demonstrated that Forest Schools exposure leads to increased physical activeness, memory improvement, and increased self-‐confidence in children. These outcomes are the result of long-‐term duration of programmes and challenge to children and young people for problem solving during the programmes. Though some parents avoided sending their children to Forest School on grounds that it involved risks, none among those children who attended programmes cited a single incidence to support that these fears were grounded on reality and therefore the benefits significantly outweighed the negative perceptions.
The decline in outdoor education may have been due to perceptions of high risk and therefore associated harm occurring during participation. The House of Commons, (2005) associated this perception with learning outside the classroom, but the current thinking is in favour of outdoor exposure in a situation of managed risks. Thus, children need certain levels of risk to be physically active and to understand the world through touch, experience and personal discovery in order to be more realistic, empathetic and social in relationship with the society in which they live. ‘For the past 30 years at least, childhood prior to adolescence has been marked by shrinking freedom of action for children, and growing adult control and supervision.’ (No Fear, Growing Up in a Risk Averse Society Tim Gill)
Chapter 2: Development of Educational Theories and Practices 2.1. Early Life in Nature Thousands of years ago, our ancestors lived the life of the hunter-‐gatherer, of forager and scavenger. These human beings (Homo sapiens) lived in total harmony and so very close to nature, collecting all food and nutrition from wild plants and animals and lived what can be expected to have been a harsh and difficult life. These practices endured through ninety percent of our human history. Following on from this process, indicated by small and simple steps leading to a more secure and agrarian way of living; from harvesting wild seeds, later collecting, cultivating, growing and harvesting in small clearings closer to sleeping spaces, thus increasing the likelihood of survival. The life of most hunter-‐gatherers was either displaced by husbandry or farming as this new physically economical and predictable process was adopted to supplement the traditional and historical foraging activities. In contemporary societies, few hunter-‐gatherers are present in our diverse cultures, though still found in sparse pockets across the globe. It is true to say that this skill is regaining its place in certain fields and a sense of romance and nostalgia and a desire for a more simplistic lifestyle drives the demands and more and more companies and individuals are offering instruction, courses and training. Identification books such as those by Richard Mabey also supplement interesting and relevant information to help us in post industrialized society to revisit our basic desires for self-‐sufficiency and supplementation of our diets. Primitive Living books also outline foraging such as Fyona Campbell’s ‘The Hunter Gather Way’. This is to some extent in much the same move as our ancestors, however conversely, theirs through the adoption of cultivation and husbandry of animals, moved towards what is thought to
be a more civilized but less balanced way of living with the earth. Thus, through living a more natural way of life, humans have an ancient ‘nature-‐forest-‐animal linkage’ and this link is associated with our evolution and adaptation. This linkage, is the predisposition and driving factor that is forming this enduring journey to return to the way things were, to search for our roots, to learn again to live from the land, to commune with it and to learn by instinct to trust it. As the stresses of society and culture, work, responsibility and other consumer pressures push us in one direction, there is without a doubt a movement to reconnect with our genetic history, our inner being, our need for an interrelationship with nature on many levels. It is perhaps interesting to note that is only the hunter-‐gatherer societies that live a truly environmentally sustainable lifestyle. The Aborigines in Australia and the Hadza of Tanzania, for example have lived for tens of thousands of years in total harmony with nature without destroying or decimating the natural balance of ecosystems and life processes within them. According to some archaeologists and some scientists, hunting and gathering traditions evolved in the region of 1.8 million years ago by Homo erectus and continued by Homo sapiens through their evolutionary period 200,000 years ago. The hunter gathering process sustained existence through to the Mesolithic period around 10,000 years ago. It has been documented that agricultural practices began to develop 12,000 years ago and as such, this period from forest gardening to current times of universally agriculture dependent societies has not taken such a comparatively long time in our ticking historical clock. It is reported that even up until 1500 AD one third of the world’s population were still hunter-‐gatherers. It is possible to only survive and endure and participate in this type of culture and society, when land is not required, needed, developed, cleared or otherwise modified. As such, most hunter-‐gatherer communities live in
deserts, mountains and jungles. Our current phase of human life; the result of the industrial revolution in the second half of eighteenth century resulting in the invention of steam engines and machines to make life quicker, more predictable, less dependent on human frailty and error has led to an increasingly pressured, fast, socially isolating and consumer led culture. It is apparent that in hunter gather societies it is the culture, not the human soul that stimulates the desires for more and more commodities. It is also necessary to state that in hunter gather societies there is less disease, more leisure time, less environmental destruction, more equality, higher levels of wellbeing, shorter working lives (from mid twenties to mid forties only) the rest is spent in a way that we in ‘civilized society’ would attribute to the rich and affluent, i.e., spending time with friends, relatives and children without having to earn money for mere existence. Following the industrial revolution, the human quest for nature saw a decline, and even though all human beings, by their very biological nature always needed, enjoyed and craved the large spaces of landscapes, forests, mountains, rivers and oceans, this connection was simply and surely, socially, physically and emotionally being eroded through the generations. ‘Adventure Education is a recent phenomenon in the widespread business of teaching and learning. It’s emergence, has, ironically coincided with the decline of the wilderness resource upon which it depends. This Is not surprising since the reason people now program adventure is because it is no longer a normal part of life. Humans sought for millennia to subdue wilderness. That process was dangerous, unconformable and often fatal. Now that wilderness seems to be conquered, humans miss the challenges the struggle provided. They recognize the values provided by that struggle, values not appreciated then and not now available in the normal course of life. So in compensation, they venture for in growing numbers in adventure sports and even programmes
for their youth.’ – Miles (1990 p 327). The ancient human link with nature is responsible for pleasures associated with adventurous journeys and challenges, as Miles suggests. Besides, the beneficial effects associated with adventure education (Karl Rohnke 1931-‐) in natural spaces including Adventure Therapy had a range of positive outcomes such as improvement in self-‐concept, self-‐esteem, pro-‐social behaviour, trust, and many more are rooted in human association with our natural environment. It is through the emerging 1900’s that many religious and moral groups developed their work in wilderness environments and this took a variety of forms. The basis of all this work was a deep understanding that wilderness; wild spaces, woodlands, mountains, countryside and water had a therapeutic quality and as such could contribute to the healing of the body and mind. In the 1900’s there were a number of educational reflections that led to the provision of the Open Air Schools in the fight against Tuberculosis (TB) and other bronchial diseases. The first in London was in 1907 in Bostall Wood, Plumstead interestingly, by the London Borough Council. The Macmillan Sisters then very quickly replicated this first school in 1908. The Macmillan’s next school was residential and children not only attended for education but also slept overnight in tents at Evelyn House Deptford. It is amazing to think that by 1937 there were 96 Open Air Schools in the UK with 53 residential settings. This movement was happening in many European countries and the first Waldschule (forest school) opening in Germany in 1904 again for health and therapy with an emphasis on helping children with TB. The children here had lessons in the forest and this was probably more akin to the Forest Schools we associate or picture today, with more freedom and play designed within the programmes, than the Open Air schools in the UK where many had desks and chairs and blackboards lined up in rows, and the curriculum was simply delivered outdoors.
One of the earliest provisions of using nature came after the war. Kurt Hahn and Lawrence Holt promoted character building within their project funded by the Blue Funnel Line in the 1940’s. The concept for the participants to develop a certain aptitude and tenacity, as well as resilience in working confidently and with perseverance at sea through their continued survival of exposure to harsh conditions over a period of time. Lawrence observed that the young men at that time, who were becoming sailors were less likely to survive in war situations or if catastrophically, to encounter a ship wreck due to their lack of ability to function under these stressful conditions. He used adventure and exposure to the elements to develop certain personality traits for survival through nature. Outward Bound, still in action today with over 200,000 pupils worldwide. Also the well known Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme, that many young people take part in today. Adventure Therapy is a process that developed in the 1960’s as a concept and a practice that can be traced to many cultures such as Native American, Jewish, and Christian traditions. There is a difference though, according to Ewert, Mcormick and Voight (2001) who described adventure therapy as a process where professionals use outdoor activities involving risk for physical and emotional challenge; outdoor experiential therapy, is when leaders concentrate on physical, social and emotional development, personal and personal growth that could or may lead to rehabilitation. Wilderness Therapy on the other hand is a process through which participants are immersed in more primitive processes for survival with an emphasis on adaption to the new circumstances and a development process leading to the formulation of coping strategies. Archimedes Forest Schools Education uses a culmination of all of these processes, their
background philosophy, their ethos and underpinning process when we work with children, young people and adults. Qualified practitioners identify the needs of the individuals within the group, we monitor and create baselines of maturity and development, even when a child is for example, only 8 months old, the practitioner will look for normal ranges of development across the holistic profile, developed by educationalists, early years professionals, scientists and those in the medical profession. As such the processes we implement, metaphorical as well as literal, tools that are carefully matched to the desired and intended outcomes, that of supporting the development of a Capable Learner with Personal Sustainability traits. The Archimedes Forest Schools Model is not a simple exposure to nature in the hope that nature will ‘do its thing,’ there is a premeditated and prescribed intention, motivation and monitoring process that occurs. This is based on the expensive research, theoretical underpinning and work done by those in these many differing fields of knowledge, experience and expertise. Outdoor recreation in the form of physical activities and adventures like fishing, hillwalking, climbing, camping, ice climbing, canoeing, horse riding, mountaineering, trekking, surfing and even cave exploration are activities that produce positive effects on psychological and physical health, this we know without doubt. We are so confident in this that in the past town planners and social philanthropists have artificially created parks with trees and plants, resulting in their associated ecosystems with the sole aim of producing environments that will have socially positive effects on behaviour, health and well being. It was believed that the provision of these parks would increase family stability, increase productivity in the factories and allow those living in the industrialized centres of cities to appreciate the finer glories of life in their times out of work. Birkenhead Park was the first publically funded park in the UK and it was this park that was the inspiration for the
internationally renowned and most visited tourist attraction in the world, Central Park in New York designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux in 1857. Maybe it is the innate understanding of our evolutionary association between human and other biological life that has driven us to recreate natural environments where it has been replaced by urban sprawl. Adventures in nature with definite objectives such as field studies and scientific explorations lead to excitement, curiosity and understanding in those that take part. In addition, now that it is so easy to travel to places of historical importance, archaeological and geographical sites, biologically diverse havens and conservation or National Parks for outdoor experiences, learning and adventure. Eco-‐tourism is now a growing and booming industry and a socially conscientious way to visit places rich in biological diversity. Visits to natural environments provide a depth of opportunity to experience, learn and understand the natural ecosystems that make up our planet, and it is these educational visits that can lead to far-‐reaching learning experiences and discoveries and impact, when coordinated appropriately to the care and love of our planet into the future generations. Following the industrial revolution, human society has dramatically transformed itself into a predominately consumerist, urban way of life. This transformation caused breaks in the association with nature, diminished physical activity and a generation who are disconnected to the concepts of hard physical work for the generation of livelihood and life itself. This gradual movement and migration has lead to the currently prevailing and in many fields, worrying situation of a sedentary, comfort-‐seeking and indoor-‐confined life. Further, the current human indifference to nature and relentless exploitation of nature is a consequence of the loss of association with nature over time, if we have no affiliation for something, or no sense of value
attributed to it, then we tend not to have a desire to protect it.
Forest Schools Educational practice is a fresh view and provision of outdoor exposure and learning, increasing contact with nature through it's long term immersion links directly to the brain and the hard wiring through repeated associations and positive outcomes. It provides an opportunity to understand the integrity of human life and the nature in all its glory. Further, attendance helps in developing abilities in individuals to face challenges, build stamina, emotional wellbeing, endurance and resilience, uses more primitive processes in order to develop coping strategies and utilises the concepts of risk and adventure. Where mistakes and failures can often occur and as a result children and young people learn methods of how to overcome these and deal with them. In relation to human evolution, the educational model presented puts Forest Schools in a central and strategic position reflecting it’s important role in current post industrialised society and provides a situational perspective on the evolutionary relationship of human beings with nature and wild spaces.
2.2. Evolution of Educational System and Practices: Educational practices and systems have evolved in different cultures over a period of time and have influenced overall developments in the field. Indoor teaching methodologies have been a subject of concern over many generations from Rousseau to Isaacs. Comenius (1592-‐1670) emphasised learning through play, leisure and pastimes as critical and vital to a rounded and mature adult existence, the ‘Capable Learner’ with an aptitude for both personal and societal sustainability. As educational systems have evolved since the war time era, children have become more and more confined to classrooms, forced to learn following a set curriculum and to some extent without the freedom to process and reflect on learning and experience. In recent months, on visits to a range of far eastern educational schools and experienced the curriculum in these countries, the emphasis is on repetition and rote. It is focused on obedience and discipline. Children are not expected to question, to think individually, but simply follow instruction and absorb information. Globally, children have lost the autonomy, independence and freedom that our ancestor’s children experienced when learning to become adults through the more social and contextualized processes in nature. Those who had lived thousands of years ago, and those that still live in many of the cultures we described initially in the hunter gather culture, experienced holistic learning in natural environments, from events happening within the social environment as well as how that network relate to and functioned in nature. Learning here is totally in the context of elements of nature, forests, with wildlife, the changing climates and weather conditions. This mismatch of how humans have evolved, with a direct and consequential relationship biologically and currently engagement alienated from the wider perspective is manifested and increasingly
evidenced through a range of illness, and adverse effects on the health and wellbeing of individuals through current living ad learning cultures. There were no schools in England until St Augustine arrived in 597. He and his successors created two types of educational establishments: the grammar school to teach Latin to English to priests and Song Schools to train boys to sing in cathedrals. By 1100 all the cathedrals and collegiate churches had schools, some of these developed privately and by 1100-‐1500, though there was some expansion and development in education, this was still seen largely as a Christian enterprise. The availability of work by Aristotle started finding a place in the process leading adult’s interest in logic, and the ‘Seven Liberal Arts’. In the period between 1500-‐1600, termed the period of renaissance (literally ‘rebirth’) that started in Italy in 14th Century, humanist educational reforms based on reasoning and empirical evidence took place. The movement spread across Europe in the following three centuries. In England education grew under the reign of King Henry VIII, himself, allegedly, the most educated personality in his time. In the 17th and 18th centuries developments in the field of education theory and the school curriculum began to develop into the forms we more commonly know them today. The concept of common education emerged. Comenius (1592-‐1670), a Czech teacher and educator, championed the cause of universal education. He believed in human learning as a progression from youth to maturity and from elementary to advanced knowledge. He believed that nothing should be taught to the young unless the young were committed and there was a requirement based not only on physical age but also on maturational age. He stressed the educational importance of the first six years of a child’s life and believed that there should be no pressures made to read and write but to play continuously and have life experiences with friends, mentors
and in context to the life that the child was living. This philosophy has been sustained in countries like Denmark until very recently where mainstream education did not become compulsory until children were around 7 years old. Interestingly, it was by invitation from the House of Commons that Comenius came to England with a request to establish and promote learning in Britain. During this period, there were many debates and deliberations regarding the nature and purpose of education. Samuel Hartlib fostered an approach, based in the precept that: ‘A great fault in teaching (is) that children are not made to learn themselves but are always taught’. The idea proposed originally by Comenius that children needed to play in order to learn was expanding. As a result of this the Grammar schools started teaching English, modern languages, mathematics, geography and physical sciences though it was described by Williams, (1961: p134) that for most children the education opportunities in England were a ‘haphazard system of parish and private adventure schools.’ The Charity Schools movement caused significant change, seeing developments by the end of the 17th Century. The population of Britain was in the region of seven million in 1751, rising to twenty six million in 1871. This rapid expansion in the population corresponded to large increases in the proportion living in towns and cities, with a high growth in the child population. The 19th century saw large numbers of people moving to cities and population pressures causing slum housing and a consequential reduction of playing spaces. The Peel's Factory Act of 1802 required all employers to provide lessons in reading, writing and arithmetic during at least the first four years of the seven years of any apprenticeship, as most of these were young pauper children frequently brought from distant workhouses to work as labour in the cotton mills and other factories.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-‐1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who promoted, ‘learning by head, hand and heart’ would certainly have inspired the educational principles of Rudolf Steiner and now integrated into the Waldorf educational structures. Incidentally research by Briggs, M (2014) shows how the use of the ‘hand, head, and heart’ model, when correlated to working with the resistance of materials and how it can support personal development, self awareness and emotional understanding in people with learning disability, or those with mental health issues. Friedrich Frobel (1782-‐1852) in Germany advocated kindergartens as an experimental approach to early education for pre-‐schoolers based on a foundation of playing, singing, practical activities, social skills development and as transition from home to school; As the name implies, Frobel desired that children should be nurtured like plants in a garden. It was Pestalozzi who advocated the educational worth of games and play and that children’s work was play or ‘free work’, into his pedagogy this is now established by the UN regarding rights for children. Article 31 ‘Every child has the right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts’. John Dewey (1859-‐1952) had great influence on American education and social reforms. Meanwhile in Europe Maria Montessori (1870-‐1952), an Italian physician and educator promoted scientific pedagogy and supported education for those with learning disabilities. The United States, by the 1830s had established a public school system based on a common education for all its children; England still promoted a divided school structure reflecting its class structure. The class-‐based system was intensified by three national education
commissions: the Clarendon Report (1864) which focused on the nine 'great' public (private) schools and led to the 1868 Public Schools Act; the Taunton Report (1868) by the Schools Inquiry Commission and the Endowed Schools Act of 1869 dealing with educational schools for the middle classes; the Newcastle Report (1861) and the 1870 Elementary Education Act supported a free education provision for those that could not afford the other options. During the post-‐industrialization the classroom increasingly became the main place to learn and study and acquire knowledge and skills and thus started the journey of human civilization to a new way of life where the objective was conversely opposite of what the human beings had learnt during the course of evolution: skills to fend for oneself in nature, the ability to look for right foods, physical and altruism and the abilities to save and protect, stamina and physical ability, resilience and survival skills. Traditional societies protected their natural surroundings and conserved plants and animals for food, medicine and as a mark of cultural practices, in many western societies many of these habitats have been decimated or left unmanaged or manicured them so rigidly that species are indigenous or native. Ernest Westlake established the Order of Woodcraft Chivalry in 1916 promoting a simple living ethos in association with and developing a strong relationship with nature. He initiated the curriculum at his school to include crafts and aspects self-‐discipline with the focus on outdoor learning. It is highly probable that the principles emanated by Sloyd, an educational process developing in Scandinavia at the time, based around the development and respect for self and nature through craft, paper craft and then woodcraft. The Griff Pioneers was established in Derbyshire at Shining Cliff Woods, as a result of the Woodcraft Chivalry philosophy, bringing together many young, unemployed men to offer training and support thus created a small
community living in and off the woodland. The nature preschools in Scandinavia were to some extent established to determine the connection with nature in order for those children to gain a foundational experience, knowledge and affinity for natural materials and their properties. This allowed a clear and natural flow into the educational process established once school age had been reached. The Sloyd Model is still used as a process in many schools in Scandinavia and also has a reasonable following in the US. Susan Isaacs established her nursery schools in 1924 to encourage exploration and natural nature based enquiry in a garden environment with the Chelsea Open-‐Air Nursery School in London. Her emphasis was on ‘risk and challenge as a strong ethic for children’s learning and play’. Its interesting that following the Second World War with the baby boom outside spaces became more developed and less amenable for playgroups and nursery and school and as such the open air schools fell into decline. 2.3. Evolution of Education Theories: The 19th century witnessed the beginning of education theories to deal with absorption, processing, retention of information and the consequential formation of memory. It was understood that functions such as cognitive, emotional, environmental and prior experience played a key role in acquisition, learning and retention of knowledge. Forest Schools Education employs a combination of educational theories such as Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Educational Neuroscience, Transformative Learning and Constructivism in everyday practice. The behaviourists consider learning as an aspect of conditioning dependent upon rewards and targets whereas educators employing cognitive theory focus on the learner and the complexities of human
memory. Humanists emphasise the importance of self-‐knowledge and relationships within the learning process. Constructivists understand it is through the learner’s existing knowledge and ability to learn that learning is an individually tailored process of construction, from prior knowledge to future potential. In Archimedes Earth approach to pedagogy, teaching and learning employs a combination of all these approaches to achieve the best transformational outcome dependent on the observable needs of the children. The theory of Behaviourism comes into play when learning is the acquisition of a new behaviour through conditioning, such as learning to be safe around a fire circle, or learning the safety processes required when using a new tool, developing an understanding of tools talks and safe procedures of use, or a utilising a new skill that could cause physical or psychological harm. The learner is dependent on the leader or the practitioner to act as a role model and instil the new system of behaviour. The leader’s task is to demonstrate knowledge, observe, measure and modify behaviour changes in a specified and formulated direction towards safe practice, confidence, unconscious competency and independence. The learning is a conditioned response or memorisation of facts, rules, and laws and in some cases terminology. The correct response is achieved through stimulation of the senses, the focus being on the development of visual and spatial, musical and rhythmic and bodily kinesthetic, linguistic, natural, mathematical, social and emotional intelligence. The goal of learning in this context is that of keeping self and others safe and is of a low order process aiming at factual knowledge, skill development and training.
The proponent of Behaviourism was John Watson (1878-‐1959); he insisted that psychology must focus on measurable behaviours. Behaviourists processes put into place within a school environment will ensure practitioners can elicit desired responses though behavioural objectives from competency based learning, skill development and training. This can occur through repetition, illustration, observation and demonstration. We also know that there are basic human needs that seek out this process, this habitual and ritualistic process, and for this reason these basic safety boundaries and process work at a very basic, reptilian and emotional level. The theory of Cognitivism relates to the human ability to generate knowledge and meaning through sequential development of cognitive abilities such as mental processes of recognition, recollection, analysis, application, creation, understanding and evaluation. The learning process is adoptive, such as the learning of techniques, procedures, organization and structure to develop internal cognitive structures through strengthening of synapses in the brain. The learner is dependent upon assistance in the first instance to develop prior knowledge and integrate new knowledge. This assistance could be as basic as being offered the opportunity to simply be in the natural environment and walk over uneven ground and slippery surfaces at one end of the spectrum, all the way through to using a pole lathe to make a bowl or stool leg at the other. Through education the learner develops conceptual knowledge, techniques, procedures and algorithmic problem solving abilities using verbal and linguistic, logical and mathematical intelligences. The learner is given scaffolding opportunities to develop schema and adopt knowledge from both people and the environment. The leaders’ role is pedagogical, as they must develop conceptual knowledge by managing the content of the learning opportunities or activities in order to provide for a range of possibilities and potential outcomes. Cognitive theories grew
from Gestalt psychology developed in Germany in the early 1900s. The German word ‘gestalt’ is equivalent to the English word ‘configuration’ or ‘pattern’ and underlines the whole of human experience. The cognitive theories consider learning as an internal mental process, that memory works to promote learning and that an understanding of short-‐term and long-‐term memory is as important to educators as it is for the learner. New cognitive frameworks have been emerging since the 1970s and continue to do so. The field of educational neuroscience or neuro-‐education links brain processes to education. As new information is processed in the brain, neuroscience aims to study biological changes and find out which environmental, emotional and social conditions best help in the retention and storage of new information. This is generally, though not exclusively, via the linking of neurons and what factors allow reabsorption of dendrites and the ensuing or resulting memory loss. The rapid advances in neuroscience in the 1990s designated the decade as the as “The Decade of the Brain”. In 2000, the American Federation of Teachers stated “It is vital that we identify what science tells us about how people learn in order to improve the education curriculum.” An understanding of the process of learning is being made available by using imaging techniques and other scientific methods. It means that scientists can, by studying neurological changes in the brain in each individual as a particular acquisition of learning processes progress. This will inevitably open doors for our own understanding about the process of learning. The more we understand about how children and grown ups learn, the greater potential we have to improve and support the holistic learning techniques to encourage the ‘Capable Learner’ and development of capacity for Personal Sustainability as independence increases. Neuro-‐scientific approaches can have various applications in children whose development resides within the ‘norms’ for their age
and environment, that is our mainstream children and adults, but equally well with anyone having learning disabilities or other developmental needs such as Attention Deficit, Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD), or those suffering from attachment issues and early emotional trauma. The newer fields of Educational Neuroscience use techniques of event-‐related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging for studying the brain during learning processes. At present, understanding about the workings of the brain in learning is that instead of a main and central processor or constructor of intelligence the brain in fact Is made up of ‘functional areas’ some suggestions speculate that are over seventy areas of brain activity that make learning and everyday performance possible. During cerebral activity many of these areas of brain will all work together. Different types of intelligence are the result of different combinations of these distinct functional areas. Learning for each of us is the result of a development and specific configuration of the synapses created between nerve cells or neurons. It is at this point in the time and thought configuration or continuum that knowledge is graded, ordered and categorized. As new knowledge is added to the conceptual schema, (or pattern,) the brain considers what the new information is most relevant to and as a result places the new information hierarchically with similar knowledge. Once ordered we can use this new knowledge accordingly, quickly and appropriately as the new neural pathways are linked to many existing neural networks. The current theory of learning is based on multiple intelligences in which learning is seen as an interaction between dozens of different functional areas of the brain, each with their individual strengths and weaknesses in any learner. The theory of multiple intelligence does not rely on any single general ability but a combination of specific modalities which according to the Howard Gardner model (1983) includes eight abilities: musical-‐rhythmic, visual-‐spatial, verbal-‐linguistic,
logical-‐mathematical, bodily-‐kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. The other learning theory, ‘Humanism’ is based on human generation of knowledge, meaning, expertise, through interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence; that which is formulated as a response to interactions between oneself and others and that which is formulated within a person independently. Transformative Learning relates to any change that a learner needs in preconceptions and worldview to function successfully and freely within the world. The theory investigates how practitioners can support children and adults to rethink, review and reinterpret meaning through the development of increasingly complex processes of critical thinking .It is related to how the mind and mental capacity of an individual can make sense of a situation through increased intricacy of thought based on new experiences providing new insights and a bigger picture of what was a perhaps previously a narrow frame of reference. A frame of reference is described as a perception that defines our view of the world; it is our 'map'. As we grow and develop we create a specific map that works for us and allows us to interpret the world accordingly. However as we grow older and mature, the neurons become more resilient to change having an increased tendency to discard any idea or perception that does not support our preconceived existing values, associations and models of the world Habits are routines and behaviours that through the hard wiring of associated neurons, have allowed us to become unconsciously competent at performing in the world as we see it. They are so difficult to change as they rely on perceptions and points of view commonly framed from very early childhood, even before cognitive memory systems are mature in some cases as exposure to learning experience occur during our past. These habits and frames of reference make up our values and belief systems and thus how we function in the world,
in the here and now. Roger Greenaway and others suggests that change can happen as a result of reflection and feedback, a key proponent of the Archimedes Forest Schools Education process. Transformative learning can occur when intentions or motivations are examined and reviewed with self or with others, by investigation or analysis of additional and observable confirmation of new evidence, or additional and alternative points of view. That is why reflective practice works so successfully, as it allows us to hear others points of view and facilitates increased empathy and understanding that others have an alternative 'map' to ours, and that neither is wrong or right, it is just different because our experiences have been different. This can, of course, only take place during Forest Schools when the maturational age of the child or adult allows for such sophisticated cognitive and linguistic functioning to occur. The theory of Constructivism goes some way to explaining processes of knowledge construction in all of us and at different cognitive and maturational stages. It describes the amalgamation of information as it comes in contact with our already stored and existing knowledge centres developed by our past experiences. It has its origins in cognitive psychology and biology. It is an approach by which knowledge creation, through education can be developed in order to facilitate an adaption to the personal socially functioning world. Constructivism is built on the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner and emphasizes the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for oneself. It is about building new ideas or concepts based on current knowledge and past experiences. The curriculum, it is proposed, should be built upon understanding of what children already know and should then be allowed to develop upon what is already within the constraints of the known. It is the building up of these experiences that scaffold learning and therefore the knowledge of possibility can become unending and full of opportunity.
Constructivism has implications for the theory of delivery and pedagogy at Forest Schools by the leader; The theory proposes that the leader begins by providing children with the exposure to a basic skills base in the first instance in order to go on to solve more complex problems in the future. Various practices of teaching and learning like discovery, hands-‐on, experimental, collaborative and project-‐based opportunities are all applications based on constructivism, which identifies their popularity throughout the Forest Schools process of possibility, opportunity and provision. The theories of John Dewey, Maria Montessori and David Kolb are the foundation on which constructivism is built. Constructivism: active learning, discovery learning and knowledge building can all form a basis for this process of teaching and learning, the leader acts as a facilitator and children are provided with the freedom within boundaries to construct knowledge by working to solve real problems in real situations, contextualizing their knowledge and skill acquisition. The principles of Accelerated Learning developed by Colin Rose utilises this understanding and makes proposals regarding the basic presuppositions. . In addition there are several other types of approaches to education from which Archimedes Earth does draw its inspiration. While in the past, conservatives believed in the maintenance of the objective educational standards based on testing, reformers believe that the traditional teacher-‐centred and task-‐based approaches of learning should be abandoned. John Dewey considered traditional education such as passing skills, facts and moral values, primarily based on adult view about what was good for the next generation, equal to ‘imposed from above and from sides’. In traditional education, young people are taught to obediently receive fixed answers; the teachers are instruments communicating information Traditional education, we
know, is still the modus operandi in many secondary schools across Britain and throughout its former colonies as well as many eastern Asian countries where education is a somewhat rigid framework. 2.4. Development of Archimedes Earth Many environmental and educationally focused researchers have demonstrated some linkage between nature and child development. Rousseau suggested that children were closer to nature than adults because they are free from cultural influences. Froebel recognised the importance of nature in the development of children and established the Kindergarten – literally, children’s garden -‐ movement. The other educational pioneers including the Macmillan sisters, Steiner and Malaguzzi (Reggio Emilia) advocated outdoor experiences and play as important components of their pedagogies. But, the fundamental tradition of modern child development theory in the mid 20th century has been dominated by formal teaching indoors, with the leader or teacher providing information or instruction to children, who are passive recipients and it has viewed the role of the natural world in children’s development as subsidiary (Bilton, 2002). A report by Dillon, et. al. (2005) raised concern about the poor understanding of young children about food, farming and related sustainability issues. The Education and Skills Select Committee Enquiry (2005) and the Government Growing School Programme (DfES, 2005) expressed concern about the need for proper outdoor education. DfES (2005) aimed to enable ‘schools to make better use of the outdoor classroom as a context for teaching and learning’. For the development of outdoor education in the country, the Select Committee noted ‘What is needed is a coherent strategy for education outside the classroom that brings together good practices from around the country, rather than a small number of limited, if worthy projects.’ The recommendations covered
raising schools’ staff awareness about the opportunities offered by outdoor education, DfES and other agencies developing teachers’ confidence and capacities in the context of the outdoors, along with a need for enriched participation in outdoor education along with a need for connecting children’s outdoor learning with the curriculum. It is interesting to note that the Forest School ethos and practices have been following and indeed leading the way that the approaches pointed out by the Select Committee comment on in regard to outdoor education. In summary Denmark and other Scandinavian countries have inspired many professionals by providing children an opportunity to engage in an education philosophy that permits and encourages play outside in woodland with the children setting their own vision for learning and playing, risky opportunities were allowed and encouraged, for example tree climbing was seen and was supported as a valuable and beneficial endeavour. The Scandinavian tradition of a closer association with nature is present because culturally there is a fundamental belief that ‘there’s no such thing as bad weather, only bad clothing’ and that there is a basic human need for a lifelong relationship with nature. This is now flowing more consistently into the British and worldwide educational systems through the work of those passionate about getting children outdoors. This has led to the development and an increasing awareness of an innate desire for Forest Schools Education in the UK and further aboard. The development of children globally through Forest School was initially a novel experiment and is now a revolutionary movement for children’s development. Forest School, in early research was described as ‘an inspirational process that offers children, young people and adults regular opportunities to achieve and develop confidence through hands-‐on learning in a woodland environment’. (O’Brien)
2.4.1. Definition of Forest Schools: Archimedes Earth defines Forest Schools Education as ‘an inspirational, purposeful and intended process that offers learners consistent and repeated opportunities to access woodlands throughout the course of a year or more. The opportunity to build a foundation of wellbeing, become self aware, self sufficient and confident capable learners that can operate independently and socially in times of hardship and adversity as well as times of ease and transparency. Programmes are supported and facilitated by qualified and experienced practitioners to enable individuals of any age, culture, gender or religion to achieve and develop confidence and self-‐worth through hands-‐on learning opportunities that incorporate risk and adventure as well as community and friendship. Forest Schools promotes the concept of Personal Sustainability’. The Archimedes Earth Model is a specialised learning approach within the framework of outdoor education, in a woodland setting, now with the philosophy applied to a wide range of settings, such as Beach Schools, Bush Schools, Jungle Schools, Urban Park Schools and River Schools. Archimedes brings together the participant with a skilled practitioner in the natural setting; the goal is providing constructivist and transformational opportunities that provide a possibility for a capable learner to participate, absorb, assimilate and adapt and transfer knowledge and understanding over the seasons, to become and maintain Personal Sustainability.
Fig 5: Spheres of influence. Fig 5: Spheres of influence. Archimedes Earth draws on methodologies and practices and applies these to a range of natural environments
for
transformational
development
of
children
and
adults.
2.4.2. The Ethos: The ethos of Forest Schools is now commonly based upon six guiding principles developed and proposed by the Forest School community: •
It is a long-‐term process of frequent visits and regular sessions in woodland or natural environment involving planning, adaptation, observations and reviewing as integral elements
•
It is located in woodland, or a natural environment, and supports development of relationship between the learner and the natural world
•
It promotes holistic development of all those involved fostering resilience, confidence, independent and creative learning
•
It offers the learners opportunity to take supported risks appropriate to the environment and to themselves
•
It is run by a qualified Forest School practitioner (minimum Level-‐3) who continuously maintain and develop their professional practice
•
It uses a range of learner-‐centred processes to create a community for development and learning.
•
Some of the most significant features or guiding principles of Forest School are:
•
Forest School visits are consistently over a long period preferably throughout year
•
The programme has a structure based on observation and collaborative work between
learner and practitioners devised after a baseline assessment process in the initial stages •
Forest Schools programmes constantly monitors the ecological impact and follows an approved management plan agreed between land owner, Forest School practitioner and the learners
•
Forest Schools programmes aims to develop physical, intellectual, linguistic, emotional, social and spiritual aspects of learner
•
Forest Schools are designed to build on innate motivation and positive attitudes and allows the use of tools and fire, if appropriate for the physical, cognitive and linguistic levels of the children
•
The programme is supported by a risk-‐benefit analysis.
•
Forest School is lead by a practitioner of minimum Level 3 accredited qualification.
2.4.3. Archimedes Earth Forest Schools
Forest Schools use a learner-‐centred pedagogical approach that is based on needs and
interests of the learner. The practitioner models the pedagogy and promotes it through a process of careful planning, dialogue and relationship building. Play and choice are considered very important and constitute an integral part of the learning process. The practice provides support and stimulus for all learning preferences and dispositions. At the end of each session a reflective process is involved during which learners and practitioners assess and understand achievements and plan for the future sessions. Practitioner’s observations are used to improve upon the pedagogy. Reflections are specific and appropriate in format and these will be appropriate to the
learning and cognitive abilities of the group. Because the Forest Schools process and intention regards the construction of the learning by the individual, it is part of the programme that the learner is helped to understand what it is they have learnt, acquired or assimilated. If they cannot do this, then the experience will lose a large amount of its impact and intention and can become simply an experience, as opposed to learning. Roger Greenaway states that without reflection there is no learning.
Fig 6: Making it real. Reflection makes the difference between experience and learning. If we used the analogy of baking a cake, it requires a number of ingredients to produce. It is possible to choose a range of products to fulfil the requirements of the recipe. The choice and quality of those ingredients will inevitably determine the end product. It is also then in addition possible to add in a range of spices, different types of sugar, organic flour, free range or caged hen eggs, butter or margarine. The quantity and quality of the ingredients, the way it is beaten and mixed, and in what order, the temperature of the oven and for how long we bake it will all create a variety of finished results. Each will of course still be a cake, but the nutritional and visual presentations will all be different and our choice of process and input can add to our enjoyment of
it and the benefit of eating that particular cake. Therefore, it is possible to establish a Forest School in a range of natural settings such as in school grounds and parks. Forest Schools that occur in these environments have without a doubt a fantastic impact and a long-‐term effect on participants and for some, this will have been the very first opportunity to play and learn in this way. The woodland environment, as an ingredient in the recipe provides distinctive and unique conditions for setting up a Forest School: space to organise and play; clean air and natural backdrop for the establishment of healthy affirmative feelings; the diversity of materials on offer, and the range of biodiversity for exploration, observation and encounter; opportunity to become exposed to and experience totally unique sensory stimuli (visual, sound, smell, tactile, taste); rugged and uneven ground and tougher more challenging conditions for physical development. The key elements relating to provision in woodlands is the abundance of loose parts and therefore the impact on symbolic play, deep play, communication play and the opportunity to utilise the wide variety of natural objects, resources and materials that are dropped, left, loosened, provided by the various trees, shrubs and animals and other creatures, both flora and fauna.
Fig 7: Landscape Diversity – Some of the variety of different settings in which a forest school can be run. The Emergent Curriculum Our role as Forest Schools Practitioners is to understand the child’s interests and passions and plan a curriculum that enhances, entices, motivates and engages each child in their learning. This is called an Emergent Curriculum
The Forest Schools Pracitioner will plan the whole of the curriculum based around both the educators responsibilities as well as the interests and motivations of the child. Our role as an educator using this model of curriculum provision requires a wide range of skills in order to be able to manage that process •
Observation
•
Recording
•
Monitoring
•
Analysis
•
Creativity and synthesis
•
Evaluation
The role of the educator is to offer children ways to extend their thinking and to enable them to develop strategies for Inductive reasoning, analogical reasoning and the more sophisticated process of deductive reasoning as they grow and mature. The curriculum emerges both from the ‘playfulness’ and imagination of the educator as well as the natural playfulness of the child. It s a ‘co-‐constructed’ process that emerges from the environment, in our case form nature, from the child and lastly from us as the educator, its depth and breadth comes from the educators ability to notice and consciously be present in the opportunity when a child asks a question or participates in specific experience in a particular way. We offer an intrinsically and naturally individualistic process that extends thinking and being, builds neural pathways and develops strategies for problem solving and resilience and confidence in learning.
Emergent curriculum is after a period of transformation for the educator, a most excellent and satisfying methodology, children become intrinsically motivated, children’s ideas and assumptions are catered for and challenged and the educator is able to channel and intensify learning. It is the responsibility of the educator to observe, monitor and analyse the interests and the emerging motivations of the child. It is at this point that the educator will think creatively and flexibly. The role of the educator is not to prescribe an outcome and create a formulaic
methodology to ensure an inevitable outcome; it is the role to ‘road map’ a great many opportunities and to consider a vast array of outcomes. By being able to contemplate some of the outcomes it is possible to identify appropriate materials, resources, equipment or even a vocabulary to be using with the children to develop the interest and to facilitate their journey to facilitate maximum possibility. The actual outcome of the session and learning day may be unimaginable and the resulting learning far, far more marvellous that we as planners could have hoped for. It is important to understand the role of the educator in this process. It is at times, a difficult and time consuming role, one that requires flexibility and patience. There are certain aspects to life that need to be learnt, self awareness, self regulation, respect of others and the environment, natural systems and interrelationships, mathematical reasoning and scientific enquiry, cultural influences and historical influences. As such may well have a general topic they think is important for children to study and the educator will be mindful of these whilst listening and observing the child’s natural enquiry. It is common at Nature Kindergarten that a curriculum idea or topic or theme for the children can come from a variety of simple sources such as finding bugs under a log, watching the rain make rivulets in the mud, watching the wind as it blows and makes sounds through the trees. Those who are skilled at such teaching are often unable to communicate to parents, colleagues, or the public what intuitively they are doing superbly well (Jones 1977, 4) The Emergence of Emergent Curriculum by Elizabeth Jones.
2.4.4. Typical Days at Forest Schools: 2.4.4.1. Health and safety checks:
Forest Schools programmes always start with the fulfilment of basic needs that are
described by Maslow and expanded upon by Carl Rogers, as these support the basic brain functions found in the reptilian brain, proper clothing, warmth, food, drinks and physical and emotional safety. Forest Schools practitioners carry out the daily dynamic site risk assessments and ensure the group safety; they are up to date on the newest weather forecast. The group is either asked about relevant issues relating to safety, so they can recount aspects to remember and offer advice, support to each other or briefed about safety aspects. It is ensured that all accompanying adults are aware of essential processes that the leader will employ whilst working with the children at the site, as well as how to manage the group should emergency cover be required. An example of this may be the need to access emergency services, and how they may access the evacuation point. These will be contained in the Policies, procedures, Risk Assessments and the Communication documentation given to support assistants, other leaders or parents. Depending on the maturity level, these will be taught to the children also. 2.4.4.2. Preparation of Forest School sites:
First and foremost is the preparation of the Forest School site that is unique to the needs
of the group and suits the environment. The site preparation is carried out in negotiation with the woodland owner. Normally located in a cleared area of the woodland, the site is made as safe as possible where required. However, it should provide opportunities to explore and discover other areas of more dense ground flora. The site can vary in complexity from no fixed features to a fully
constructed shelter, fire area, cooking area, tool and equipment storage, as well as coat racks, toilet facilities, art installations, play spaces, craft areas and any combination of the above.
There may be separate identified areas for fire, hygiene, creative art, and tool-‐use, fast games, throwing games, water collection, flora monitoring or other ideas. Though a permanent construction takes longer, it can in certain circumstances become a more rewarding proponent for some groups depending on their needs, ages and development. All site development requirements, assessment and management are covered on Archimedes Earth training courses.
2.4.4.3. Development of Children: Archimedes Earth focuses on the holistic development of children and adults of any age or ability. Separate programmes are organised for adults and for special needs groups as appropriate,
and combines all family groups for programmes too when required. Because the process is individual therefore focused and child centred according to the prerequisites of the development plan for each child, through provision for their interests, capabilities and maturity. Baseline Assessments will be carried out by the Skilled Practitioner over the first few weeks of the Forest School, becoming more detailed as the Informed Leader delivers more programmes. Through the use of agreed interventions to develop physical strength and confidence, well being, emotional literacy and social awareness within the wider realms of the appropriate curriculum (and here we take curriculum to be any programme of personal development, not restricted to educational and intellectual curricula). Children are supported to understand, build skill levels, and problem solve through the opportunities that are designed and possibilities open to them on the programme. The intended outcome of each session is to support the child as a capable learner, one with the ability to remain personally sustainable. The Baseline Assessment the Archimedes Model promotes is the use of any appropriate observational tools to measure social awareness, personal awareness, empathy, self-‐regulation and self motivation (emotional literacy in order to build up children's awareness of the natural environment, social environment and the way it affects them and how they impact others). This is how an understanding of an ability to manage individual and personal risk factors in relation to the world around them. The Skilled Practitioner then adapts processes so that the children build a strong connectedness to one another and nature, the beginnings of a positive self-‐identity, a strong sense of place as well as a positive environmental identity. A capable learner will impact on education, community, and society and to some extent the wider world through positive experience, adequate reflection, and formulation of beliefs,
values, attitude and resulting behaviours. The art of the practitioner as mentor, facilitator and coach, is to understand what is in effect a positive experience for that individual. This will come from their ability to observe, make good judgments, to provide the right level of risk, the right level of challenge and utilize those elements that intrigue and interest that child. Without the review process though the practitioner will leave the outcome to chance, they will rely solely on serendipity, and as a result the outcomes could be anywhere and everywhere. Intended learning is paramount for children to development abilities to become good citizens, socially and culturally responsible, having appropriate moral, ethical and cultural values, as well as to understand that two and two equals four and that writing their name and reading is an important life skill, that without will lead to some elements of social exclusion. Serendipity is also critical to all experiences; it is needed and necessary for learning. Without awe and wonder of the world and appreciation of the nuance, the special and unique world we live in, children can and will never come to terms with the wonders and immense value and preciousness of this planet. It is impossible for the leader to fundamentally determine or predict or anticipate the full learning picture or process of each child and it will take away from the child their part in the learning process. The best learning for the child will come via providence, chance and the finding of a certain indescribable treasure. 2.4.4.4. Thematic Sessions:
Some practitioners organise their sessions on themes and these will be based not only on
the needs of a group, but also their specific interests, passions, leads or quests for knowledge and
understanding. For some it could be the understanding of the physical process, so using schemas as a way to provide opportunities through materials and resources or places in the forest or woodland that will support this natural investigation can be as sophisticated as it comes. Others may use the Celts, or the Romans, or archaeological digs, dinosaurs, flight, geology and hard things, mud, fire, leaves, butterflies, poetry, storytelling, survival, giants, animals, living things, shelters, dens and houses of the world, cooking at festivals, rituals and rites of passage, France, Spain, Australia, the list is endless. Areas of National Curriculum Foundation to KS4 are intrinsically covered but the sessions are not necessarily curriculum led. Sessions and opportunities provided are expected to be within the capabilities of every person within a group, however there is a need for differentiation and for challenge and for risk and for the development of problem solving techniques. Opportunities are provided with different objectives: Games and group activities, for building teamwork skills; opportunities to play games like hide and seek, shelter building, develop tool skills whilst making objects, lighting fires and cooking, creativity using a range of natural materials, pigments, dyes, and environmental art are all avenues for building individual skills and heightening self-‐esteem. They are not solely the product that is created, but the development of intra and inter personal skills, as well as other intellectual understanding. 2.4.4.5. Use of Tools:
Tools are used in a traditional woodland manner and are introduced gradually after the
baseline assessment process. BY then the practitioner will have an informed idea of the ability of each child to listen and to adhere to the fundamental health and safety requirements made of them, to keep themselves and others out of harms way. The Practitioner will be qualified to use tools, with a certificate of achievement from the awarding body; to show that whilst training the
leader fine tuned their own use of tools to become unconsciously competent. Therefore we can be confident that when the tools are introduced to the child, the process of teaching will be safe, consistent and easily managed by the leader. If tools are introduced before the Baseline Assessment process carried out with the children, the practitioner has little understanding of the child’s self awareness and ability to control body movement, emotions and understanding of spatial aspects, relating to the tools themselves and other people. Once we understand the levels of maturity, and physical levels of the children, then we can put in place the required control measures to allow freedom of use, build confidence and avoid accidents or incidents, all within the boundaries that have been set. If we use the tools without ourselves being confident and self-‐ assured users we will demonstrate inconsistent use and processes to children, who will then, as imitators of other, pick these up and use the tools in the same way, which could lead to an accident and injury. Without the depth of experience, children do not have a full understanding of the consequences of using a tool in an unsafe manner. The Archimedes Model builds children’s ability to manage risk, understand challenge, but for them to build up those skills, according to the constructivist model of learning, though reflection and good role modelling practice, the practitioner must go though the same process themselves, prove competency before trying it out on the children. With reference to insurance here, tools and fires can be used independently when qualified, unqualified trainees can only utilize tools with children with a qualified practitioner in situ.
When the observations and assessments of the group members are complete, strategies are introduced in order to build up awareness of the ground rules, physical and social boundaries and safe working practices and processes. All trained and qualified practitioners deliver with a built in safety approach so that children become used to them. Use of tools promotes trust, self-‐ confidence and develops gross and fine motor skills. The qualified practitioner constantly evaluates progressions of each individual and makes adjustments to meet each child’s requirements. Tools Talks are used as strategies, Introduced by Archimedes Earth since 2001, that have their foundations in educational and learning theory. They are simple, adaptable, follow a sequence and story and are aspirational using visual, auditory and kinesthetic processes to ensure transference into the long term memory of practitioners as well as children and young people who use them. Tools talks are a requirement of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 that requires all to be trained in the safe management and use of equipment that could cause damage or harm. It is the Archimedes principle that by setting the boundaries early on reduces conflict, error, or mistakes later. And most importantly it set the boundaries and expectations for learners so that they are fully aware of how to manage themselves and others as well as the tool and protocols for well being. Tools Talk Protocols are accompanied by actions: Bow Saw •
This is my Bow Saw
•
This is the Handle
•
This is the Blade
•
This is the Blade Cover
•
I take the Blade Cover off like this
•
This is the Blade
•
This is the cutting edge
•
When I’m not using my Bow Saw; going backward and forwards, I replace the Blade Cover like this
•
I hold my Bow Saw like this
•
I walk with my Bow Saw like this
•
I pass my bow saw like this
•
When I’m not using my Bow Saw I place it on the ground next to me with the Handle facing outwards and the covered Blade facing in towards me
•
I use my Bow Saw to cut anything larger than a 50p piece
•
I use my Bow Saw two arms and an arms length away form anyone apart from my partner
•
When I have finished using the Bow Saw I replace it in the Tool Box provided with the Handle facing downwards and the Blade facing up.
•
I always use a Glove on my Helping Hand.
2.4.4.6. Reflection and Transfer:
Themes may well circumvent the intended outcome of the programme; it is therefore
essential for the leader to understand what this is for each participant, and the group as a whole. Transfer of learning is paramount to success, i.e. using learning from one place and then being able to use that skill, knowledge or understanding in another situation, location or difficulty. When parallels can be made between problem solving in Forest School, for example making a fire when the resources are wet, and then reflecting on what worked and what did not, why it didn't and what changes can be made in the future, the learner can then apply the learning made at Forest School to completing a task at home or at school. It is likely that the answers to the issues arising out of Forest Schools are not immediately apparent or there would be no difficulty in achieving a successful outcome. In the same way, when in school, with friends or family, if the answers were consciously available the child would have no issues solving the situations. Forest Schools challenges become metaphors for life and the issues and situation the opportunities and experiences encountered, throw up prospects for learning for our children. Once a child learns l to break down a problem into its constituent parts; the resources needed, the understanding or skill required, the time needed to complete and any help required from others, these strategies can then be transferred into other areas of the child’s life with maximum benefit for well being, confidence and ability to cope with stressful situations in the future. Research from McCree and others suggest that resilience can be an outcome for children who attend Forest Schools. Resilience is the ability to be strong in times of adversity, to cope with
stressful situations as they have the capacity to sort out issues arising in their lives. So if Resilience is a skill learnt at Forest schools (See Fig 4: The Forest School Participant – What comes out) for some children transference of learning processes will indeed enable children to use those skills elsewhere with very positive results. For the Practitioner who has completed their baseline assessments, they will have a clear picture on the ability of children to focus, be self motivated and to problem solve by the end of the first six sessions. With a balanced understanding of these maturity levels for each child the practitioner can facilitate a clearer and more focused vision of goals and how to provide opportunities to meet milestones on the journey during the development phase of the Forest Schools Programme, The Skilled Practitioner will understand three types of learning transfer and will use a variety of different approaches depending on the needs and requirements for each group or child. This can change both in the session and between sessions depending on the results of your assessments of observations. •
Specific Transfer
The learning of specific skills for use in a very similar situation e.g. learning knots from making a picture frame, to building the shelter or tying into a climbing harness is a perfect example as the knots serve a similar purpose though they are used in a different situation. •
Non-‐specific transfer
Learning of more generic behaviours and applying them to different situations, for example participating and developing trust during a blind fold walk to protect against physical injury can be transferred to trusting others to support in times of volunteering ideas or the
disclosure of secrets. •
Metaphoric transfer
A metaphor is an idea, object or description used in place of another idea to represent comparative similarity between the two. This type of transfer can be represented as the activities can be used to represent real life situations. If parallels can be made between the two learning environments for example problem-‐solving making a fire when the resources are wet will create specific problems, this could then be paralleled with completing a task in real life when the answers do not seem immediately apparent. Another example would be using inner strength to compose you appropriately in order to take the first step of speaking in public. This could be mirrored in having the confidence to apply for a Woodland Skills qualification, and then built up to have an interview or start a new job or start a new relationship. If the connections are startlingly clear then there will be a greater success in the transfer of information from one experience to another. Your role as practitioner is to strengthen the connection and therefore enhance the transfer through the way you use reflective practice. At the end of the day, as well as throughout the session, a review of progress made by each individual is carried out: children could be asked to shout out, draw, act or play a game to review the day they have experienced. Bringing the session back into the forefront of their minds will give them an opportunity to have a deeper reflective perspective through which they can evaluate their own learning and how to transfer that into everyday processes, for now and in the future. Children can apply so much of their learning at Forest Schools, consciously and unconsciously to the rest of their everyday lives, at home and in school. This is followed up through evaluations
carried out with school staff and parents or caregivers. Each time children leave school or nursery for home they may take something with them from the site to home to encourage parental interest and encourage communication on the day’s Forest Schools session. The main focus of this is to build attachment and a sense of value and achievement, it also allows the development of personal and emotional bonding and attachment that will enhance and facilitate a sense of significance, a deep realisation that others are interested in them as an individual. This demonstrates that these significant others in a child’s life support their learning and how they are managing their days as they grow. The Sutton Trust has released findings that 40% of children from all walks of life are experiencing attachment issues with parents and caregivers in the UK and this gap in emotional bonds can influence a child’s ability to learn and apply themselves at school. This inevitably is impacting on the levels of progression and the likelihood that they may become NEET (Not in Education Employment or Training) later in life. Archimedes Forest Schools Model concentrates its work on developing positive lifelong learning attitudes, not simply on those that are functional in the here and now. Forest Schools is there to develop positive attitudes to self, others and the environment in which we live. Positive relationships at home also enhance communication back to school. It is a continuity of process of review and reflection. Nawaz and Blackwell report in their findings (2014) that there is an increase in the numbers of child-‐initiated visits with family at weekends and holidays to woodland and green spaces as a result of participating in Archimedes Forest Schools Education programmes. The Transition state is where through positive experiences at Forest Schools, with the right ingredients, beliefs can be formulated, mostly unconsciously in the first instance, regarding education, learning, friends, adults, the outdoors, respect for others and for self. These beliefs will inform our values
and how we attribute value to those areas of our lives. As we all know, behaviours are the tip of the proverbial iceberg. By focusing on the experiences and creating positive neurology, the behaviours will be representative of those values and beliefs we hold. We all know values are developed through experiences of a wide range of aspects of our lives. We have both intrinsic as well as extrinsic values all influenced by our friends, the media, culture, school and experiences that we undertake. If, as Becker states, that after only three years of having introduced the Television into Fiji, accompanied by a process of rapid and diverse social change, it was found that girls around the age of adolescence increased their preoccupation with body image. How quickly would we at Forest Schools, be able to develop intrinsic values towards community, self, environment and education through positive experiences with exposure to caring and meaningful learning over the long term. Not only was there this increase in self image issues, but this was accompanied by eating disorders and social competitiveness. All extrinsic values and a shift away from the pre change era where intrinsic values were more highly regarded; family and community. Becker, A. E. (2004, December). Television disordered eating, and young women in Fiji: Negotiating body image and identity during rapid social change. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 28 (4), 533–559.
Fig 8: The Transition State –The process of positive thoughts and experiences that lead to positive behaviours
CHAPTER 3: Archimedes Earth Practitioner Training 3.1. Training of Practitioners – Pedagogy, and Woodland Environment Holistic development of participants attending and participating in Forest Schools programmes is based on five basic components; 1.
Intention and outcome
2.
Woodland setting
3.
Pedagogical approach
4.
Skills (practical as well as ability to carry out environmental assessments and Health and Safety)
5.
Programme design, delivery and reflection.
This reflective process applies to both the practitioner and how these are employed and utilised as well as how these skills can be and will be taught and developed within the individual learner as a part of the programme process. These are all balanced around the central pivot of training.
Fig 9: Training Elements. Critical and distinguishing elements In the Archimedes Forest Schools Model of Training Practitioners and Trainers. It is through establishing a foundation and then in understanding these components in all their facets and diverse propositions, possibilities and interrelationships, gained from initial training through post training experience and then the coming together of like minds on assessment week to share and balance and build on those initial months of experience that consolidates the knowledge, skill and understanding. The second week of training adds strategy, insight, substance and essence to the whole experience; the part that I call the ‘honey’. Honey is food, it is sustenance, it is life, and it also allows one, when spread on the past knowledge to move those elements of knowledge around much more fluidly and easily, the second week of training has at its core the binding element that supports, compounds, and then propels the individual into
independence and freedom. It is the transformational element that has been discussed, supporting a new Frame of reference and creating a strong 'map' for the practitioner of how Forest Schools can become an immersive and effective learning provision. Until that time the trainee practitioner has been the student, the learner, the processor of given information, after this point, the practitioner is free to manage, to indulge, to move, to experiment with the acquired knowledge, skills and experience that they have instilled inside themselves. They are the author of the next chapter and the accountability of that process, its highs and lows are all their responsibility and this is where the true adventure begins.
Fig 10. The Trainee Practitioner Recipe
3.2. Neurological Development in Natural Environment
There is an increasing bank of evidence demonstrating there is a correlation between the
age of a child and the corresponding formation of connections between neurons. This process is called synaptogenesis. In the UK, a collaborative research initiative, the ‘Teaching and Learning Research Programme’, under the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), has been investigating the relationship between neuroscience, psychology and education. Research shows that in adolescence a second wave of structuring and organisation occurs in the brain, hormones are racing and there are inputs of growth hormones, sex hormones, emotional hormones and those that deeply imprint on us as women or men, oestrogen and testosterone. Therefore, as the brain continues to develop and adapt, there is a need for molding and shaping in readiness for independence and adulthood, though this process of maturity. Children who are stressed do not give their neurons an opportunity for myelination, or hard wire, if they cant hard wire the synapses in the brain, then there will be a reduction in the number of available options for problem solving. It is likely that the social and emotional processes that have worked in early childhood are sill being employed; this results in a lack of self-‐regulation and self-‐ awareness. The brain continues to change and develop throughout adulthood, but the changes are less radical than during childhood. It is not a new concept to understand that as we age, our neurons die, but it is known that the hippocampus is one area that neurogenesis continues. This is known to remain an essential component of the brains function, as it is still critical in learning and memory, storage, retention and retrieval. Brain or neuroplasticity theory and research indicates that our brain is indeed designed for lifelong learning, adaption, assimilation and adaptation. Good news for those coming on training later in years!!
Evidence has shown that the woodland environment affects physiological changes in the body, which reduce tension and anxiety and increase body’s capacity to fight against infections and free radicals. If the reduction of stress creates favourable conditions for concentration and absorption, this will in turn support the formulation of neural connections. In Forest Schools the various techniques employed for providing learning opportunities in the woodland environment is based on evidence generated through research. Repeated and frequent exposure to Forest Schools during the year covering all seasons promotes the formation of neural connection and helps learning. It has been widely and significantly recorded by the Royal Society that there is an inclination to use medicinal methods to boost cognitive ability in children with a range of disabilities and difficulties. Ritalin is a well-‐known and increasingly prescribed drug for children diagnosed with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity disorders, according to the Care Quality Commission, and increase of 50% in the last 5 years; 420,000 cases in 2007 to 657,000 last year. Participating in Forest Schools Education demonstrates that though the use of nature and engaging in the consistent, repetitive and recurrent learning opportunities occurring in this space, many, not all by any means, of the behaviours that are anti social in the classroom do not cause the same impacts when at Forest Schools and do perhaps support the proposal that ‘education is the most powerful and successful cognitive enhancer of all’. http://royalsociety.org/ All experience impacts on the brain, we are a multi sensory organism that is consistently and continually firing neurons when we sleep, walk, talk, watch, reflect, interact, pay attention and learn. The brain is described as having ‘neuroplasticity’ or an immense ability to be flexible and to adapt to changing environments. Interestingly for the Forest Schools Practitioner it is
something called experience-‐dependent plasticity that is present at all stages of our lives. What this actually refers to is the understanding that neurons are strengthened and become wired together when they are fired together concurrently. Someone described this the process as ‘neurons that fire together, wire together’!! Lovden M, et al (2010). A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity, Psychol Bull 136(4), 659–76. This is very important information for us as Forest Schools Practitioner because we speak about holistic learning as a methodology, but knowing what is different helps us to understanding why this works. The Archimedes Model proposes that Forest Schools is an integrated part of the education or learning system, and that it is in a deeply sensory environment, the woodland. Research is demonstrating that by participating in opportunities that are multi sensory, discovering things and socializing, experiencing the elements of natural world, smells, textures, sounds and movement all at the same time in the Forest Schools environment that this will increase the plasticity of the brain. Research therefore is showing us how important this is to the development of children, and we can take note, and understand, because we observe it occurring when there is longevity of involvement. This neuroplasticity can not become embedded through experiences that occur on a one of occasion, they can be a trigger for it, especially where there is heightened sensitivity and emotion, this is stored in the hippocampus and can be retrieved later for use, but it will not provide for myelination and a hard wired response in the same way repeated actions and process are over a period of time will as at the long term Forest Schools programme. This research demonstrates ‘why’ it is important. If neurons are firing together, stress levels are low, (due to deep level learning contributed to by a change of brain patterns)…release of cortisol and epinephrine is reduced and therefore myelination becomes possible. Through
repetition this myelination process speeds up learning and if neurons are being wired together and strengthened this in turn impacts on the learning process for the future participation in similar situations, or ones that require problem solving to create answers. So the more experiences the more neurons; the more neurons the greater increase in resilience due to the ability to deal with adverse or potentially difficult or stressful situations. Experiences, with reflection lead to learning (Greenaway), which in turn leads to memories and a wide and varied storage of possibilities and potential as we journey through our lives. Research in brain development have shown us that there are ‘best’ times for learning some processes and also that there possibly is a decrease in the ability to retaining information the older we get, unless we keep actively learning. It is suggested that it is the hippocampus and the amygdala interestingly enough that are the two areas where this ‘pruning’ of synapses does not occur. The brain structure changes all the way through our lives and it is suggested the greatest level of synaptogenesis, or myelination happen in the brain from birth to three years, decreasing to a slightly slower rate as we pass through childhood, but still very rapid compared to other times of our lives. It is understood that there are ‘optimum periods’ for learning skills, or to simply being exposed to experiences, children who have not experienced attachment with parents and in particular their mother, and developed emotionally have been shown to have very few synaptic reactions or connections in that part of the brain. Some of this research came out of Romania where children were kept in cribs without any attention or care or love for years of their lives. Adults have been found to have difficulty in discerning some sounds if they have not heard them in the first six month of their lives. The fixed periods of sensitivity are most commonly shaped in
the individual by the environment and therefore the abilities revolving around aspects of vision movement, memory tasks which can best be learnt in the multi sensory natural environment. In adolescence, brain development in the frontal and parietal lobes are strident. The frontal lobe is that area that houses the dopamine system, that relating to short term memory, attention, planning and self motivation. Because the neurons in this lobe are the most dopamine sensitive, if there is any reduction in the production or transition of dopamine, and therefore that feeling of the ‘feel good’ factor, a sense of reward and achievement, then there can be a correlated reduction in performance and memory, impacting on problem solving and decreased brain function when completing tasks. The partial lobe is responsible for sensory and spatial sensitivity. It is highly likely that those tasks that respond to the dopamine are not necessarily those that are considered to be the most favourable by adults, parents and teachers, and this can be where great rifts appear in relationships and therefore self esteem and self confidence. These hormones and chemicals are intensely strong and overpowering and in some cases will leave the logical brain standing. Growth hormones, sex hormones, emotional hormones and those that deeply imprint on us as women or men, oestrogen and testosterone are all busy changing the way our brain works, which is intact being restructured from within. Therefore, as the brain continues to develop and adapt, there is a need for molding and shaping in readiness for independence and adulthood, though this process of maturity. Children who are stressed do not give their neurons an opportunity for myelination, or hard wired because of the cortisol levels in the blood stream, fight or flight is the agenda, not self-‐actualization. If firing neurons cant hard wire over the synapses in the brain, then there will be a reduction in the number of available options for problem solving. It is likely that the social and emotional processes that have worked in
early childhood are sill being employed; this results in a lack of self-‐regulation and self-‐awareness. As we pass puberty, and adolescence is behind us, the capacity for neurons to connect decreases. Research suggests that children with autism and Autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) have a larger brain during babyhood and early childhood and also that the hippocampus and amygdala are larger during childhood. Researchers are not entirely sure why this is or what the specific impact has but as we understand the amygdala is there to support our flight or fight and therefore survival, and this could be a contributing factor to the increase in anxiety and heightened stress levels in those with ASD, especially as these areas do not proportionally increase in size with chronological maturity, These changes in the brain impact on aspects of development closely related to the work around Emotional Literacy; self awareness, self regulation self motivation, the ability to empathise and relate to understanding others perspectives, understanding of social situation and an increase in the capacity to feel guilt and embarrassment. Blakemore S J (2008). The social brain in adolescence. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9(4), 267–277. The current research shows that self regulation -‐ and to be clear this means the ability to control and manage impulsive actions we could make that could be deemed as inappropriate or socially unacceptable -‐ develops slowly in early childhood but in normal development conditions increases in adolescence and adulthood. We are examining in reality the development of Executive Functioning and Ontogenesis, the development of the self through self-‐determination and self regulation. Without and understanding of social boundaries, and the ability to read the cues and control our behaviours accordingly to abide by these social rules, then we will find ourselves excluded and in some cases incarcerated with no freedoms what so ever. By using the woodlands highly sensory environment
for learning, we allow children to literally ‘fire on all cylinders’ all at the same time, ensuring maximum learning potential and a holistic and rounded understanding of a sense of self others and the environment as well as developing an understanding of physics, chemistry, biology, culture, language and literacy, mathematics, history, geography, music, art, design and technology to list a few curricula subjects. By looking to provide opportunities for children to function appropriately in a range of social situations, and be able to understand and adhere to the rules and boundaries of acceptable cultural behaviours, long-‐term strategies are required for myelination. They can not be embedded in a day, or a week, or indeed 6 weeks. This process needs to become neurologically hard wired in the brain, in the frontal and parietal lobes where memory and outcome are linked with other sensory input as from smells, tastes, sights, touch and feelings. The Archimedes Forest Schools Model is long term because of this research. Education improves outcomes in life and for life. A one off experience, will be just that, and may remain in the short term memory systems if reflection or revalidation is experienced, but by going over or repeating a process again and again is to facilitate the myelination process and embed in the neurological processes in the brain. Forest Schools is long term programme in the woodlands because there is multi wiring processes going on, neurons are being fired at the same time and these will be stronger and these stronger links will enable the learning to become more functional if repeated and used in a variety of different contexts, that is translated and transferred. 3.3. Benefits of Tools and Fire in Forest Schools: Learning the use of tools and fire helps develop certain attributes like self discipline, accuracy,
confidence, hand eye coordination, well being, self sufficiency and the development of muscle memory. Development of right muscle memory is very crucial in skills development. Muscle memory may be defined as ‘a type of movement with which the muscles becomes familiar over time’. An example of this is playing the guitar by using different fingers. By practicing, the fingers develop muscle memory and then it is possible to play without looking at the fret board. The same is true about the use of tools. Muscle memory is the route to unconscious competency. The muscle memory is stored in the brain but it is essential for learning complex tasks and movements such as safely using the tools and lighting fires, but equally for the leader to know how to teach those skills to others. Without unconscious competency, or at a minimum, conscious competency, then the leader is still a learner and will not have the experience to fully understand the consequences of their use, practice, or indeed how to rectify mistakes in practice. If a child gets frustrated because a method isn’t working correctly, the leader must be able to stand out of the picture, look objectively and consider solutions. Without the muscle memory and a wide variety of synaptic responses that circumvent the process, it simply is not possible to advise. Both the child and the leader are in the same experiential place, and tools and fires are not the place to be developing on the job. Brain activity is very high during the learning and achievement process, there is a highly sensitized and emotional reaction to the process and this stimulates certain chemicals and functions in the brain. When a process is repeated over time by using muscles it builds the neural pathways and as such the muscles are said to have developed their own memory patterns allowing performance unconsciously. The same is true of new movements that lead to awkward and uncoordinated efforts and mistakes. As we have seen in the
previous section during adolescence there is an increased awareness due to the numbers of synaptic connections made in the brain that relate to special awareness and those made through sensory input. There can sometimes be a lack of coordination, where this has been exemplary in the past due to the increase and rapid growth in muscle tissue, bone and ligaments that need to be re programmed and coordinated. Patience and understanding is the key here to support young people as they master skills, this can be supported through the methodical and gentle approach to introducing tools and fires taught on the Archimedes training. During the initial phase of the process of acquisition of learning, there is a quick fire learning action in the memory. This happens relatively quickly, for example, in the use of the sheath knife. The body and brain are both working out how to hold the knife, how to make effective and efficient movements with it to whittle and hone the stick into a sharp point. It is the second phase, which takes longer because the brain is aiming at the accuracy and precision of the movements required to achieve creation of beauty and balanced structure. Muscle memory is a form of procedural memory and enables the learner to become very good at something through repetition. Equally one can become very bad at something through the same number of repetitions. Trainee practitioners are required to follow the basic structure of training in order to develop muscles memories that are helpful and reduce the likelihood of harm from incorrect usage processes. Many of these training processes utilised by Archimedes have been formulated and based on the teachings of Robin Wood, master wood turner from Edale and his immense respect for tools and quality of practice. The saying ‘you can’t teach an old dog new tricks’ is not true, but it is much harder to learn to re-‐do something that has potentially taken years of practice to perfect as working practice, only
to have to change it later on. And it is this that makes muscle memory so important as a practitioner and also the process through which it has been achieved. While demonstrating a good practice and teaching children to use knives or tools correctly and with precision, it is important to have correct muscle memory or else teaching without having precision and unconscious competency will lead to imperfect actions in ourselves. Demonstrating an imperfect action will lead to an unsafe practice in children and formation of their own muscle memory. Malcolm Gladwell has suggested that it takes 10,000 hours to make someone an expert. But others suggest that it is more like 300 to 500. Irrespective of the number of hours or repetitions, if the quality is questionable, then those hours are a waste. The key to good muscle memory is quality as opposed to the quantity. 3.3.1. Stages in Competence Development in Tools Use and Safety Practices:
The steps in development of competence in the use of tools and other skills involve five
stages. The cycle is sequential in that each step must be gone through. The skill of the trainer is in making the transition from one stage to the next only as painful as is required! It is also very useful for trainers to regularly put themselves back into a state of conscious incompetence to feel the vulnerability of that Stage 2 place. Business Balls websites states: “The California-‐based Gordon Training organization, was founded by Dr Thomas Gordon. He states that their Learning Stages model 'The Four Stages for Learning Any New Skill' was developed by former GTI employee, Noel Burch over 30 years ago. •
Stage 1 -‐ Unconscious Incompetence: This stage can be best described as “blissful ignorance”. It’s the stage where learners actually don’t see the need for the particular skill
at all. And if they think about it at all, it’s to assume that it’s either way beyond them or too easy to bother with. What’s needed in this part of the cycle in order is to move onto the next stage is a pain of some sort. Learners need to find themselves in situations where they struggle and appreciate that they actually do need to learn something. Let’s use the analogy of driving. In this stage, it tends to be assumed that anyone can drive and that it’s really easy to learn. The person may not want to learn until they are faced with a situation where they have to learn how to drive. •
Stage 2 -‐ Conscious Incompetence: This is the most painful stage for learners, particularly adult learners who are used to feeling a certain level of competence in other spheres of their life. It’s a sobering experience to realise that you are not very good at this new skill. It can feel humiliating and vulnerable for the learner. Instructions and information will need to be given, repeated and delivered in several different formats: visual, auditory and kinaesthetic before even the rudiments of the new skill are acquired. It is very tempting at this stage for learners to want to give up. They need encouragement, support and practical examples of people who have successfully mastered the skill. Feedback on performance needs to be given frequently. They may also need some gentle reminders of their initial motivation. To return to the driving example, in this stage, lessons, support, encouragement and practice are crucial for successful negotiation of this stage.
•
Stage 3 -‐ Conscious Competence: In this stage of driving, the car has a large L plate and instructions are followed with painful accuracy. Learner drivers in this stage can be seen repeating instructions to themselves, checking manuals. Self-‐learning resources are a critical support as the learner gradually begins to gain confidence and realise that while the
skill feels unnatural and forced, there is progress. The skill can be practiced but only with a full conscious effort and full attention. Further practice is essential to move onto the next stage. One useful technique for moving onto the next stage is to teach the skill to another. •
Stage 4 -‐ Unconscious Competence: When people are at this level, the skill looks effortless. The unconsciously competent person can often do other things along with the skill. This can be a dangerous stage for trainers because what is effortless for them, for learners it is Stage 1 or 2. At this stage, trainers may need to become learners again, perhaps by attending a training course, watching other trainers at work, or going back to acquire a totally new skill.
•
Stage 5 -‐ Beyond Unconscious Competence: There is some controversy about a “fifth stage” of competency. I personally like the idea of “reflective competence”. This competence means that not only can the person practice the skill with grace and ease, but they can also step outside themselves to see what they have done and identify the steps and their underlying thought processes. They become observers of their own skill.
3.3.2. Tools Use and Care:
Irrespective of the ages of the learners, it is the responsibility of the leader (employer) in
the eyes of the Health and Safety at Work 1974 Act to teach safe use. Tools need to be managed in such a way that it will reduce the likelihood of injury, maintained appropriately and that others in the group (employees) are taught the correct manner by which they have to use it when working. It is a legal duty to do so and until the individuals within the group can demonstrate personal competency, it is the leader’s responsibility with regards to guidelines and safety
processes. Tools Talks are a requirement of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, where the equipment use, its correct usage and how to keep self and others safe are explained. All tools will be well managed and well maintained, as this will ensure that they are suitable and effective to carry out the task. 3.3.3. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
For each procedure and activity there is the correct PPE. This includes steel toecaps if
felling or carrying large items; warm underclothes and waterproofs, hats and perhaps long sleeved clothing areas where biting mosquitos or gnats are present; heat resistant gloves when using fires or Kelly Kettles; hard hats and luminous jackets if tree felling or working with overhead resources or pruning; and goggles for working with wood that may splinter and fly. The decision to wear PPE is based on competency levels and the desire to reduce the likelihood of harm, and if it is statutory and required. A practitioner could be held liable in a court of law if a learner is put into danger and the correct equipment was not provided. If a young person, who can make reasonable judgments is given PPE to wear, but chooses not to it will be the responsibility of the practitioner or leader to restrict the use of the equipment so as not to contravene the health and safety legislation. Under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 it is the responsibility of the employee – or in this case the young person to take reasonable care for their and others safety, to follow guidelines and instruction of process to keep safe. As long as this is being followed then work can continue. As soon as the safety guidelines are not being adhered to the leader will be well within their legal rights to restrict access to tools or equipment that may cause injury or harm.
3.3.4. Fire Circle Guidelines:
Archimedes Earth recommends guidelines for the fire circle construction and this will be
taught during training and assessed during the accreditation process. The process includes site assessments, risk assessments suitable to the site, investigation of the ground bedrock and soil types, the design suitable for the whole of the fire area, clearance of the area around the fire to reduce the likelihood of trip hazards and of course safety processes to avoid falling into the fire. There are requirements for construction of the site. Procedures are developed in order to maintain the safety of the group members against fire hazards and whilst the purpose of the training is to provide guidelines for competency of the leaders to be assessed. This allows those employers and parents to know that the practitioner is capable and accommodating when aspects of their personal responsibility are required. It is probably useful to note that most insurance companies do not allow or permit individuals who are going through their training to use fires, cooking or tools without the presence of another qualified Practitioner or until the assessment process has been completed. If a practitioner was to use tools and fires and a child or participant was to have an accident, of course, they would not be covered for the liability of their actions, as they have not as yet been deemed competent until assessment has taken place.
CHAPTER 4: Risks, Safety Measures and Benefits 4.1. Risks and Safety In Forest Schools:
As we have previously discussed the foundations on which the Archimedes Forest Schools
Model in the UK is based, may be traced to the works of early day philosophers, naturalists, educators and adventurists like Wordsworth, Ruskin, Dewey, Kurt Hahn, Susan Isaacs, Carl Rogers and the Macmillan sisters, to reiterate a few. They worked on varied themes ranging from a love for nature, the importance of learning outdoors and the understanding of how the inspiration of a playful childhood could motivate and expand the possibilities for learning and development. Forest School education offers freedom and opportunity to play and accept challenge through managed risks. Children’s rights to play, in line with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989, and adopted into the UK in 1991, is whilst ‘striking a balance between risks and benefits of challenging play opportunities’ advocated by the Play Safety Forum, formed in 1993 and in a Health and Safety Executive statement ‘Children’s Play and Leisure, -‐ Promoting a Balanced Approach 2012. Safety is taken seriously and thoughtful consideration is given to its management through structural foundations. This can ensure that children are able to work within their comfort zones when new to the experience, extend their participation, levels of challenge and anticipation of risk, harm and challenge, leading to increased understanding of self, their physical strength, their mental capacity to overcome and ultimately to use problem solving skills to make important decisions regarding
appropriate participation for the simple need for self preservation, in order to maintain Personal Sustainability. This self awareness and self regulation through mindfulness and a growth in the capacity for executive thinking allows adventure and all it offers without the risks of moving across the line into misadventure through accident or incident. It is the role of the practitioner to understand the social, physical and psychological boundaries of the group as a whole, but also the individuals within the group as they interact with the environment that they are in. The Archimedes Model is respectful of appropriate measures providing the skilled practitioner with a deep understanding of why these boundaries surrounding safety are undertaken, and through the development of confidence and expertise in the skilled practitioner to ensure that all participants can expect levels of acceptable safety but by balancing inevitable and necessary exposure to physical, social and personal challenges and their associated risks with the benefits of experiencing a multi sensory playful life. The ethos of Forest Schools Education and learning is not solely based on the adult view of risk. Instead, it is based on children’s innate abilities, which are allowed to grow by developing new skills and confidence. It has been observed that imposing an adult’s view of safety to children’s experiences has denied them valuable opportunities to grow normally and can contribute to a range of issues. Richard Louv in his book Last Child In the Woods identifies what he calls ‘Nature Deficit Disorder’, where the absence of a relationship correlates to many social, emotional and physical issues. Sedentary lifestyles, imposed through constraints like time availability, opportunity, fear, can contribute to a range of forms of poor health, such as obesity and related diseases; Attention Deficit Disorder, a lack of environmental identity and physical activity (Rowena Kenny, 2010).
In the last few years the concern for risks and safety to children in play environment has changed, there are individuals such as Tim Gill and others like Ball et al. and those working at the Health and Safety Executive and RoSPA. To help create a balance between the risks and the benefits of offering children challenging play opportunities, the Play Safety Forum has produced a guide by Ball et. al (2012). The document shows how play providers can replace current risk assessment practice with an approach that takes into account the benefits of challenging play experiences to children and young people. The document's approach will be useful for those who manage spaces and settings in which children play. The approach of the guide, ‘Managing Risk in Play Provision’ is very similar to the ethos and practice adopted by Archimedes Earth, which critically assesses every activity in terms of risks and benefits, based on its longevity of experience, and variety of practice; benefits to individuals as well as to the wider group and back to the Arc of Influence, are used by skilled practitioners as a basis for criteria when selecting an activity. The guide supports the view that there is need to provide children an opportunity to develop and take risks in play provision by managing risks. The national voice for learning outside the classroom, the Council for Learning outside the Classroom considers that irrespective of circumstances every child up to 19 years should be allowed to explore the world outside the classroom as an essential part of learning and personal development. The Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH) holds the view that children should be allowed to handle risks by making them ‘risk aware’ and ‘risk intelligent’ and not by making them ‘risk averse’. The council also decries ‘too much risk management’ or a ‘wrap in cotton wool’ approach. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA), while endorsing
the guide by Ball et al (2012), believes that the guide will allow children to exercise their right to play in more satisfying settings. As the children play outside and take risks, RoSPA believes that the risks ought to be managed so that unacceptable risk of death and serious injury do not occur. Agencies concerned with children’s education, development and welfare are in favour of freedom to children to allow them to take risks in play provision. It is now believed that the effective management of risk during play is ethically and legally the ultimate responsibility of the play, education and in our case Forest Schools providers. One out of six principles governing Forest School ethos is about the challenge to learners. Forest School offers learners the opportunity “to take supported risks appropriate to the environment and to themselves”. The ‘supported risks’ implies that Forest School voluntarily take due care to manage all risks themselves through proper planning and execution of programmes or sessions. In this context the Archimedes Model ensures that Health and Safety through using established methodologies, based on research about visual and kinesthetic learning processes, transference into long term memory though accurate and practiced repetition, understanding of how muscle memory works allows for easy application elsewhere. It is the appreciation of how simple rules and processes can be adopted, assimilated and adapted to similar experiences, for example, learning a tools talk for a bow saw can be accurately be applied with ease for a sheath knife. It is this understanding that has become a major thread in the education of Forest School practitioners to ensure that they have appropriate skills in risks management. 4.2. Tools, Fire and Food Hygiene:
Fire and tools are used in Forest Schools if their use is essential or the participants show
interest in them. Forest Schools can and do run in many settings without children ever using tools or fires and this is a practical and personal approach. It may be because of the age of the children, the setting or environmental considerations. Forest Schools does not need to use the more risky elements and there is extensive value in not using, as well as using the equipment to allow children to pursue their own ends, and if required to develop the skills and muscle memory to use those appropriately in their course of action, then all the good, and if not it is not essential. Archimedes promotes the notion that all experiences, Crafts of all nature, curriculum, culture, adventure, survival, exploration, skills, understanding are all a process of development and do not rely on the compulsory use of one or other piece of equipment, but on the imagination of the individual involved. The depth and essence of transformational processes and the importance of the relationships with self, others and the environment are the main issues. The Archimedes Forest Schools Model supports skilled practitioners to understand the function of the tools and fire, as a conduit or vehicle to the bigger goal and vision for each child. It trains its practitioners to apply a specific methodology of tools talks and tools use. This has been based on research of observing and collating best practice from experts, and adapted by Archimedes to reduce the likelihood of harm occurring, both to trainee practitioners as well as to children, to support positive relationships, to foster respect for the equipment and the inherent risks involved and to encourage success and therefore confidence to persevere. The use of these elements through the Archimedes Model is introduced and followed only after an evaluation of the baseline assessment has taken place during the first few weeks of the programme. This is carried out not only to assess personal awareness and regulation of emotions and movements, appreciation of others and the environment and an understanding of what is involved, but also
with respect to the potential benefit to the learners in their experience. It is common that tools are not used until it is the learners themselves who want them to be included, because they are working in a specific task or process that requires a tool to complete it. If the practitioner decides to use fire and/or tools it is the regulations of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, that will ultimately govern their introduction, training, use and maintenance. The Knife Law in the UK also covers the use of tools and it is important that the practitioner understands this legislation. If an incident was to occur as a result of a leader or practitioner not following the law, then the consequences can be very severe, and could be held vicariously responsible. Because of the introduction of these laws, the landowner’s permission is required to use tools on their land as well as to light a fire. If practitioners or learners are cooking food on fire, then the qualified leader will have awareness of appropriate food hygiene practices and training may be required. It is an employee’s legal responsibility to follow their employer’s health and safety guidelines, which will be incorporated into the procedures and policy documentation. 4.3. Archimedes Earth and Risks-‐Benefit Assessment:
Archimedes Earth offers high levels of industry focused experience, infrastructure,
expertise and resources to offer to trainees so that the development of appropriate risk-‐ management skills is well understood and appropriate for the group and for the environment. This is present through the provision of programmes as well as through the training. Risk-‐benefit analysis is undertaken before programmes commence. Risks are primarily associated with the group or individual learners, the woodland environment, the normal operating procedures including, but not exhaustively, the weather and seasonal impact, fires, tools, activities and
transport. It is essential though that it is not simply the risks that are focused upon, as in this world of fear and containment, the role of the Forest Schools Practitioner is of facilitator and enabler ensuring that the balance between the aspect of risk, i.e. the likelihood of a harm occurring to people, environment or ‘things’ is accurately balanced with the severity of any harm that may occur as a result of an encounter. This in turn is assessed against the benefits of participating in a particular process, with a particular group of people, doing particular things, and with what. So the benefits can be analysed for a particular individual, a group or environment as a whole, and whether these benefits will outweigh the sum of the severity of the risks involved. In 2013 there were 1,754 car deaths, 118 bike deaths and 3,222 serious bike injuries on Britain’s roads; Suicide is the second highest cause of death in the world amongst 15-‐19 year olds; the suicide rate for boys and men in the UK in 2011 is at its highest recorded since 2002; a total number of 5,981 recorded by the Samaritans in the 2012. Exposure to the ‘forces of nature’ caused 129 accidents whereas accidents in the home caused a whopping 2109. I think what I am trying to say is that there are some risks that in this life we simply take for granted, e.g. driving to work every day. The likelihood of a child dying in Forest Schools is very low. (Blackwell and Nawaz; Perceptions of Archimedes Forest Schools 2014) There is a significantly higher chance that a child will be injured in a car accident than be seriously hurt at Forest Schools or participating in out of the classroom activities, and the experience may just well save their life given the right transformational processes and long term interventions because of their ability to manage hard times and difficult situations. In risk-‐benefit assessment, safety is a serious concern but it is not the restricting factor because all risks, to a reasonable extent can be managed, with the right amount of experience and
understanding. A well-‐conducted risk-‐benefit assessment is the one that is properly acted upon and it will provide a sound and reasonable defence against liability claims and prosecution relating to any harm. Safety is evaluated with respect to many components at Forest Schools. 4.3.1. Woodland Site:
Sustainable site management plans are all written, and Environmental Impact Assessments
as well as dynamic daily assessments are all agreed for the entire duration of the programme between the land owner /manager, Forest Schools practitioner, teachers, or support workers and learners, as appropriate. These agreements are all followed at Forest Schools with any updates recorded and monitored accordingly. If a landowner has public liability insurance the clauses may be taken into account before signing the agreement. A detailed site risk assessment of the proposed area in use and adjoining areas is also undertaken. Remoteness of the site is assessed along with the potential risks and available systems for risks management. All lead practitioners will of course be responsible for and be aware of the access and exit points and any additional emergency equipment required are carried and made available. Communication systems are in place between the lead organisations, the staff involved, the volunteers and of course the children are also aware as much as their linguistic, cognitive and physical capabilities allow, and as appropriate and made easily accessible for use in the designated location. All staff are required to follow the employer’s guidelines or own procedures, for taking children or young adults off site or into the Forest Schools location if on the school or settings grounds.
4.3.2. First aid requirements under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974:
Archimedes advocates that all practitioners have full first aid training that is applicable to
the client group and the environment that they are working with and in. First aid kits appropriate for the number of attendees, and for the type of undertaking that may be engaged in, including a ‘happy sack.’ Is recommended. These resources include all the supporting safety and wellbeing equipment that a qualified practitioner could need to satisfy any incident or accident or procedure that inclement weather or the age of your group may throw up. Archimedes Earth has spent many years working with professional provider Andy Forsyth from ITC (Immediate Temporary Care) and have developed the first Forest Schools First Aid qualification for practitioners that meets the needs of the industry, this has been developed to support appropriate provision as opposed to offering First Aid that is not necessarily appropriate. For example, the First Aid at Work (FAW), which is designed for employees within a work place and does not cover work with children. The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 states that employers are required to provide training to employees that meets the needs of their job. It is the responsibility of the Practitioner to ensure that they meet the requirements of the law. The FAW does not provide the appropriate depth or knowledge to provide immediate and temporary care in the outdoors, when there is not the facility to keep a person warm, to immediately run to a phone, and in a remote situation that the emergency services may not even be able to access, such as a woodland. It is essential that the law is understood and that the first aid training is applicable to the environment. The majority of Forest Schools Practitioners work with children who are over 12 months, though by no means exclusively, and their practice take place away from the building and car parks and access roads and that they work not only with adults but with children too.
The Archimedes ITC developed training course covers all the essential outdoor elements as well as adults and children in that setting. If you do work with the under 1’s then according to Ofsted requirements a paediatric qualification will be required also.
CHAPTER 5: Archimedes Schools and Holistic Development 5.1. Holistic Development in Forest Schools Environments 5.1.1. Personal Development In the Forest Schools environment children connect with each other through heart, hand and head, i.e. emotionally, physically and cognitively. They are free to learn with full concentration, at a deep level, because there is in general a reduction in pressures that can be present in a classroom. Here the children are free to work at their own pace and can apply their own imaginations, discoveries and outcomes, thinking and speaking out their ideas without fear of being ridiculed or undermined by their peers or adults. There is no right or wrong answer, only investigation and reflection. This environment opens up children to learning. As a result their minds are not distracted and they focus better on the processes of learning. The impact on the brain waves at Forest Schools in the natural environment is that the length changes from predominately Beta, and highly consciously aware, to that of the Alpha waves, those that are the most positive and inductive to information transfer and assimilation and long term retention.
5.1.2. Self-‐Esteem: It is well recognised that it is not by knowledge alone that one can grow and be successful in life. Confidence building and self-‐esteem is very important for success. The Forest Schools woodland environment provides a complementary and contrasting environment to the traditional classroom and particularly supports those who might not be apt to learning by auditory (by listening) and visual (by reading) processes, and are able to learn more predominately by intrinsic and extrinsically kinaesthetic processes, learning by feeling and doing. In Forest Schools high adult-‐ pupil ratio, an environment to make things, opportunity for children to lead games songs and actions, and allowing the use of certain tools lead to specific outputs like learning of new skills,
physical evidence outputs of work, and associated trust and responsibility. In the Forest Schools environment, the learning process of ‘How to learn’ and ‘What you learn’ is integrated with the surroundings. Learning is contextualised; the environment enables individual learning at one’s own pace. This makes learning enjoyable and fulfilling, thus allowing a child to grow and gain independence, confidence in trying new things and develop an ability to speak with complete confidence. There is evidence that children who do not perform as well in traditional classroom environments have blossomed in Forest Schools. There is the work of Kolb that suggests that the traditional learning styles that we speak of here, i.e., visual, auditory and kinaesthetic are perhaps less important than the more deeply related personality types that would lead to one being reflective, action centred, conceptual or concrete experience orientated. The work of Ruth Adams, in her work with the Elements (www.in-‐your-‐element.co.uk) supported by writings and discussions by Sir Ken Robinson, is that if one is working with one’s ‘element’, then one will become more motivated, more in tune and more responsive to learning opportunities. These elements work so well with the principles of Archimedes Forest Schools Education ethos and practice, as they are linked to the elements of Fire, Water, Earth and Wind, each allowing the individual to having a propensity to approach life and the challenges that the world throws at us in a variety of distinct and discreet ways. In some manner these link to the more ancient theories (Galen AD 190) relating to the aspects of the ‘Humors’; Sanguine, Phlegmatic, Melancholic and Choleric. Here Wind would be Sanguine, Water Phlegmatic, Earth Melancholic and Fire, Choleric. In effect we have, as a human race, been looking to compartmentalize the human psyche for generations and just because we fall into one way of being, it must be categorically stated that it does not determine our futures or our outcomes, or
our successes.
Fig 11. The Humors -‐ Development of self evaluation skills Archimedes Forest Schools recognises, that we are all different, we are all unique and we are all a combination of many personality type definitions, and that the traditional teaching process does not always cater for, or indeed tolerate the uniqueness and therefore the potential of all individuals, as it is so rigid in its delivery. In the woodlands and natural spaces, Forest Schools facilitates a freedom to explore and for those ‘types’ that like to move, to express, to talk and discuss, to experiment, to watch, to contemplate, to assimilate and process and to satisfy the innate human need for self discovery
and self evaluation and can do much more readily. With the Humors it is also suggested that we respond to the seasons also and so our perceptions and moods can be different in a range of seasons. As the Archimedes Model of Forest Schools occurs over the full year, throughout all the seasons, it can give the child, as well as the practitioner opportunities for self awareness of how the environment impacts upon them and the individuals within the group in the different quarters of the year. It is of course up to the practitioners, as with all theories to find the one that suits the best for the way of understanding and perceiving the world. However, it is interesting to read deeper into some of the work that Adams does with a wide range of individuals, from young children to diplomats and government officials around the world. She has experience of education, family and business. These may be parents, teachers, managers, employees and the unemployed, leaders and followers, artists, creative individuals and musicians, deep thinkers and philosophers as well as academics and policy makers. The Archimedes Model encourages practitioners to observe children’s own sense of self worth, sense of self-‐identity or self-‐image, aspirations and gain an understanding of a personal ‘ideal self’, as well as an empathetic view of the perceived ‘actual self’. All of these aspects of ‘self’ are suggested by Carl Rogers (1902-‐1987) in his work and he proposes that all contribute to the overall makeup of self-‐esteem. He suggests that the behaviours that we observe are too simplistic in assessing needs of children, and indeed adults, on a daily basis. It is more complex and through the Archimedes Model, and its long term programmes the results of the baseline assessments will inevitably determine the intended outcomes for the planning process by the practitioner in how to address, if appropriate any of these elements that contribute to positive attitudes to life, others and themselves. The practitioner is an enabler and alongside an individual can to begin by creating
realistic unconscious or implicit self evaluations of their own sense of worth. Over time the practitioner will introduce external – explicit – processes that through the course of the programme, begin to become unconscious and implicit for the individual. For example the practitioner may lead on discussions and reflections initially, but over time the individual will begin to offer their own thoughts and feelings as to the accomplishments and developments that they are making. For some children, their self-‐perceptions may become more forgiving, realistic and balanced due to positive outcomes of experiences, which they have encountered during the Forest Schools experience, and a result of the reflective process. This more well-‐adjusted discernment can then be applied to the relationships with peers, adults and the environment. The participation, successes and the shortcomings, at times, faced by the individual when challenged or being taken out of a comfort zone of responses or behaviours become less traumatic and more solvable. All of these processes are central to the Archimedes Forest Schools Model and are distinctive of our philosophy and ethos. Without a sound self perception, Maslow and Rogers suggest that Self actualization is not possible. 5.1.3.
Well Being:
Well being is still going through a transition from being a philosophical debate, from the works by Aristotle, to becoming a scientific research domain. As such there is really no definition of Wellbeing, although it has been defined from a more clinical perspective as being the ‘absence of negative conditions’ whilst from a psychological perspective it is defines as the prevalence of ‘positive attitudes’. Most commonly though, at present there are the six attributes that could be identifiable in a person if they were exhibiting normal levels of well being. “More than the absence of illness of pathology …subjective (self-‐assessed) and objective (ascribed) dimensions. It can be
measured at the level of individuals or society [and] accounts for elements of life satisfaction that cannot be defined, explained or primarily influenced by economic growth”. (McAllister (2005). This is supported by Shin and Johnson who in 1978 who described wellbeing as a ‘global assessment of a persons quality for life according to his own chosen criteria’. These are all the definitions being used when indicators of national well being are being assessed, and though definitions are hard to explain, the five important aspects of wellbeing, after interviews with grown ups and children by the New Economics Foundation were reported to be: the ability to connect with people, be active, take notice, keep learning and to give. All these five characteristics that contribute have been researched and have a firm foundation in their contribution to their long-‐term impact on wellbeing. Adults often draw upon their own experiences of being children and vivid memories of how they felt, when ignored, excluded or picked out by someone who did not like them. Ferre Laevers (1997) has spent many years researching how experiences affect children’s behaviour, body language, self-‐worth and sense of wellbeing. Laevers writes “for development to occur, children need to be high on emotional well being” and “high on involvement”. Laevers has identified the following “signs of well being”: openness and receptivity, flexibility, self-‐confidence and self-‐esteem, being able to defend oneself, assertiveness, vitality, relaxation and inner peace, enjoyment without restraints and being in touch with one’s self. If most of these signs are present it might be concluded that a child’s wellbeing is high, and contrarily, that their absence would indicate low levels of well being. A high level of wellbeing is identified as being in touch with your feelings and able to express them. These observational elements are key to the work that Forest Schools practitioners discern, at baseline level and throughout the programme on a weekly basis. If possible in order to correlate
trends that relate to the time of day, the activity that was being participated in, the season and sometimes as detailed as the weather or the member of staff present or absent. We have found from our in-‐house research that wellbeing can dip before we clear up for the day, or before lunch. Of course this can then be discussed with the child or young person in order to identify reasons for fears or uncertainty It shoes we care, we are observant and that the practitioner wants to make a difference and to support the young person as best they can to arrive at solutions in the best possible way, and this of course links to resilience and creating positive outcomes to difficult situations. It is important that the assessments are consistent; the same person carries them out, because to certain degree these will always be subjective. But it will create a clear and positive outlook for the child and help the practitioner in their planning and help also with the development of individual self worth, self image, or self confidence, through the utilization of the reflective practice. As children progress linguistically and conceptually then they are encouraged to articulate and to voice feelings as they become more aware of their relationships with their peers, the adults and the environment. The more aware they are the more able they are to self regulate and to function in positive and successful ways – this of course is emotional literacy and the development of emotional intelligence. There is evidence to support Forest Schools ethos and practices are able to achieve rounded personal development through the achievement of self-‐esteem and self confidence in children and improvement of ability to work cooperatively and ability to appreciate others. There is attitudinal change by development of relationship with the forest environment and respect for it, and feeling at home reflects this. The children develop increased abilities by learning skills and knowledge.
5.1.4. Resilience What is commonly identified as resilience in children and adolescents relates to the ability of individuals to respond positively to adversity, stressful, challenging and adverse conditions. The greater the resilience in children, the more adaptive they become. Resilience develops from experiences involving adversarial situations, difficulties, with or without a supporting environment. At Forest Schools, the processes employed are concerned with learning, those that create a positive absorbing and environment, creating opportunities for a propensity to absorb and assimilate concepts, skills, knowledge amongst other things and therefore to grow and mature. Emotional literacy is a fundamental facet of the Archimedes Forest Schools Model. It encourages practitioners to aim towards the development of an understanding of children’s own emotions, as well as of those around them encouraging the promotion of social relationship. R Kenny has published a report on how Forest School can support the development of resilience in children. She has identified how, through an exposure to risk and opportunities provided for the development of an independent, mindful approach to understanding situations, children can become more able to analyse the outcomes to situations. With the correct coaching, mentoring and support, children who are not necessarily naturally resilient by character or by impacts of the nurturing process can develop the skills though participation in their long term programmes and as such these can translate into later life. The longer the programme, the higher the levels of relationship with the practitioner and role model, as such a deeper and more meaningful degree of sense of value and respect can be facilitated. In this relationship it is easier to present challenges that can push children outside of their comfort zones who can then begin to understand that if and when things go wrong, then there are the support networks there to
question, critically and empirically the outcomes. Such new ways of thinking, working and behaving, will promote positive emotions and develop that motivation to work towards higher and more demanding goals. Know that making mistakes is normal and acceptable and essential in supporting resilience it becomes a normalized process, as opposed to one that creates crisis, though a lack of learnt responses. The longer the exposure during the programme the greater the personal rewards – nature is a great teacher and facilitator and it models and creates excellent metaphors for change and development and that no two seasons are the same. Actions are needed to survive and these can be dramatic at times, for example when there is little rain and trees need to lose their leaves early in the season, in order to prevent transpiration, sometimes resilience is understanding that the resources we think that we have are not enough and that we have to look deeper inside to find a solution. Also it is a lesson of life, though we are consistently developing independence, that we are a race of humans that requires community for survival and happiness. In some situations it is imperative that we have the capacity to ask for help when we become aware that we need it, not only that we need to know who to go for to get the best help we can, but also to know how to ask for it. This is all a part of the development of resilience in our daily lives 5.2.
Environmental Identity, Forest Education and Sustainable Development:
5.2.1. Environmental Identity: Forest Schools Education has an important role in development of an understanding of the woodland and natural environment among children and adults by creating environmental identity. Development of this ability assumes importance because this changes perceptions about the
environment as a necessity and thus the need to protect and safeguard it. Children as the guardians of the future begin to understand the sustainable precepts that alone can ensure protection of environment. Therefore, Forest Schools programmes have an important role in supporting the development of environment related concepts in children to allow them to understand their own roles and responsibilities relating to the natural world. Clayton (2003) proposes ‘that an environmental identity is one part of the way in which people form their self-‐concept: a sense of connection to some part of the nonhuman natural environment, based on history, emotional attachment, and/or similarity, that affects the ways in which we perceive and act toward the world; a belief that the environment is important to us and an important part of who we are. An environmental identity can be similar to another collective identity (such as a national or ethnic identity) in providing us with a sense of connection, of being part of a larger whole, and with recognition of similarity between ourselves and others. Also like a group identity, an environmental identity can vary in both definition and importance among individuals.’ 5.2.2. Forest Education: Depending upon the age of children and objective of an adult programme the Forest School may perform different roles, like initiation to nature, overall development of foundation stage (0-‐5 years), primary and school programmes, or development of suitable expertise such as training of instructors for Forest School. Forest School is now regarded as the most basic educational need of schoolchildren for outdoor education, in particular for children of 0-‐5 years age group. Out of the various objectives initiation to nature is one of the major objectives.
Forest Schools in Britain are an inspirational process that offers children, young people and adults regular, long term opportunities to achieve and develop confidence through hands-‐on learning in a woodland environment. The Forest Schools settings are characterised by five features, namely, woodland environment, a high adult to pupils ratio, learning linked to child led learning that can link to National Curriculum and Foundation-‐Stage objectives, freedom of exploration using multiple senses, and the most characteristic feature of ‘regular contact for the children’ with Forest Schools over a period of time. The benefits of learning in the Forest Schools environment as observed through research have revealed overall development: personal, social, emotional, linguistic, communication, and development of ability for problem solving and risk taking. The development of Forest Schools from inception in the 1990’s became more widespread in 2000’s due to their support by the Forest Education Initiative (FEI), Forest Schools Wales and England and training provision made available and delivered by Archimedes Forest Schools Education. This was pivotal in the growing popularity and involvement from the FEI supported forest education activities. In 2006, according to the FEI reports there were about 100 practitioners utilising Forest Schools approach in England and 20 each in Wales and Scotland. In Wales most of the successful Forest School projects were supported through Forest School Wales and the Forestry Commission. The Forest Education Initiative in Wales and Scotland, and the Forest Education Network, which is a UK-‐wide partnership of woodland, environmental and educational organisations including Forestry Commission in England, Scotland and Wales, the Field Studies Council, the Woodland Trust, Groundwork and the British Trust for Conservation Volunteers, have all been involved in funding and support of forest education activities since its creation in 1992. FEI and its
network of partners, involving schools and communities, conducts programmes to promote increased understanding of forests, and their environmental, social and economic potential. In 2009/10, 73 cluster groups operated under the FEI across Britain. About 68 percent of cluster group activity was connected to training, delivery or networking including the running of Forest School. FEI supported activities that matched with the equal, or greater funding from other sources. O’Brien & Lovell (2011) reviewed the strengths and weaknesses and future potential of the FEI’s role and contributions to forest education and the role played by FEI’s cluster groups in 2009/10. A majority (68 percent) of cluster group activity were found to be connected to Forest School either through training, delivery or networking. Therefore, Forest School played a very useful role in forest education by creating awareness about the woodland environment among pre-‐primary, primary, and secondary school students, as well through projects with focus on young adults and those with learning disabilities. 5.2.3. Sustainable Development: Forest School in the general population have involved pre-‐school children through their initiation to nature at their nursery settings. In later years this has diversified significantly to a range of client groups. Archimedes has had a wide focus from inception and there are now many who also work with a wide range of client groups including pre school through primary, NEETs and ‘in the community’. When children and adults are exposed to nature they are able to use their senses and abilities far more effectively, increasing cognitive and reasoning ability. Research by some such as Colcombe, S., and A.F. Kramer. 2003 looked at Fitness Effects on the Cognitive Function of Older
Adults: A Meta-‐Analytic Study. Psychological Science 14, 2: 125-‐130. Whereas researchers such as Taylor, A. F., F.E. Kuo, and W.C. Sullivan. 2001. Coping with ADD: The Surprising Connection to Green Play Settings. Environment and Behavior 33, 1: 54-‐77. Kirkby, M. 1989. Nature as refuge in children’s environments. Children’s Environments Quarterly 6:7-‐12.) This research is reflected in the outcomes of Forest Schools. The ethos and principles of Forest Schools are rooted in human beings’ close association with nature. In current times, sustainable development is a global issue due to indiscriminate use of natural resources, in particular forests and wildlife. There is a growing concern due to reduction of forest cover and permanent loss of several species of plants and animal life. The initiation of interest and understanding of the importance of the place of humans in and with nature among children is essential in the early stages of children’s development. An altruistic perspective, developing when children are around 4 to 8 years old (University of Oxford) is fundamental to the attitudes and relationship with the natural environment as they grow. Sustainable development promotes protection of environment and a balanced use of natural resources. It is a subject that especially concerns the interests of future generations. Forest Schools provide an opportunity to closely observe, experience and understand the natural surroundings over a long period of time when the programmes are provided across all seasons as they are intended to do. This longevity promotes a better understanding of the interactions and processes of nature and all its complex relationships, its unique independent and interconnected elements and creates a sense of personal as well as a collaborative responsibility. There are two basic requirements to promote awareness about sustainable development that have been documented; a long term connection, awareness and education about nature, with an interested and motivated adult and this leads in later years, to a more complex understanding about the
utility of nature and its conservation. Both of these play a positive role in Archimedes Forest Schools Education programmes through its practitioners education and Forest Schools programmes it is understood by the team, that there is no value to teaching children to love and protect the planet, and identify all the awful things that are happening, if there is not in the first place a foundation, of love, awe and wonder that is at the core of the child. If there is no passion for the beauty of the intricacies of the planet, then there is little identity with the pressures and problems. Without a connectedness, the responsibility will always lie with someone else. The development process of positive environmental identity is considered a major contribution of the Archimedes Model towards promoting environmental awareness and sustainable development in the long term, but it is also understood from research that without the long term intervention, and much of that through self discovery, then the awe and wonder will simply not translate into active participation in the preservation and conservation of the planet. Before a longevity of and concern for societal or global Sustainable Development to be present, an awareness of Personal Sustainability must ensue within the individual. Early childhood experiences are known to last until we mature and move through adolescence and into adulthood. Awareness of woodlands and their environment develops love and respect for nature and develops its distinct and unique identity in the mind of children. Therefore, Archimedes Earth through its in-‐depth pedagogy provides valuable experiences and education about plants, trees and animals in the woodlands to its participants through the processes of immersion and exploration. The Archimedes Earth Model sensitizes trainee practitioners about the principles of sustainable woodland management and development and the required practices to best achieve sustainable development in the Forest Schools sites through Environmental Impact
Assessment and dynamic assessments. All highly skilled, confident practitioners are able to translate their knowledge and skills to their children, young adults and others through practice during Forest Schools. Aware and informed about issues relating to the environment and the need for personal responsibility and active conservation of nature at a young age, children go on growing as adults and are more likely to occupy positions related to natural resources and as a result can be expected to play constructive roles in the future of the planet and its under laying distress.
CHAPTER 6: Role of Forest schools in Health and Well Being. 6.1. Forest Bathing (Shinrin-‐yoku) There are a great many studies emerging from the US, Japan and Scandinavian countries that make many correlations between green spaces and wellbeing and in a recent study ‘A Countryside for Health and Wellbeing: The Physical and Mental Health Benefits of Green Exercise’ by Jules Pretty, Murray Griffin, Jo Peacock, Rachel Hine, Martin Sellens and Nigel South from the University of Essex, in this finding there was significant increase in the levels of self esteem, and along with that a correlation between self esteem and body size. Body size and self esteem also impact on the desire to participate in physical activity in green spaces and so it is possible to observe or draw a conclusion that when self esteem can be raised, there is a higher desire for physical activity. We all know that there is a direct correlation between well being and physical exercise as chemicals are released in the body, such as endorphins and to some extent dopamine – the feel good factor. Non Transmittable Diseases (NTD) and illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, heart attacks and some forms of diabetes can (though not always) be related to overweight or stress. Physical activity reduces stress levels and it has been found that being able to see, be in or experience nature in a number of forms can reduce stress, increase recovery times and in some cases actually suppress the onset of illness and disease in some cases. The Archimedes Model, ethos and practices are built on the principles of outdoor learning being available in an environment created out of the synthesis of open spaces, natural surroundings of woodland, and a support infrastructure, one that is founded upon Margaret and Rachel McMillan’s nursery provision (Cunningham, 2006). However, unlike more regulated current
outdoor provisions, we have explored how children in the woodland environment have freedom to choose, experience, and learn from the natural surroundings. The presented environment offers varying levels of opportunities and possibilities for development of physical, mental, sociological, sensory, and communication abilities, self-‐esteem and confidence, and ability to learn to take independent decisions and take care of personal welfare. A large body of evidence from scientific research and other studies has proved that connection with nature, in particular with the forests, woodlands, plants and animals, leads to a lot of benefits to health and wellbeing. Forest Bathing (Shinrin-‐yoku): The woodland environment in Forest School provides an opportunity to play and learn skills. As the children move around they learn to take care of them and help each other and as such the possibilities provided can be demonstrated to be very beneficial to children’s health and wellbeing. In Japan, visits to local forests are considered to be significantly valuable for health and wellbeing. The Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries coined a term ‘Shinrin-‐ yoku’ in 1982, and it means ‘taking in the forest atmosphere, or forest bathing’. The concept has since received scientific acceptance to not only provide relaxation for participants, but also to significantly reduce stress. Park et. al (2010) after reviewing the results across 24 forests in Japan researchers have shown that exposure to a range of forest environments significantly lowers cortisol increases concentration, decreases pulse rate and as a result blood pressure. Other positive changes in human physiology from the health point of view have been observed, that is now leading a new field of forest medicine.
Kawada (2011) has reported that by visiting forest parks enhanced human Natural Killer (NK) cell activity. These Natural Killer cells are a type of lymphocyte or white blood cell, and it is this lymphcote that is an essential element of our innate immune system that help us to fight infections and infections at a cellular level. NK cells play a major role in the elimination of both tumours and virally infected cells. The increase in activity of NK cells is associated with increased anti-‐cancer proteins such as performin, granzymes A and B, and granulysin in NK cells. The visits to nature were also reported to reduce the levels of stress hormones both in male and females. The effects were found to last for up to thirty days depending on the length and nature of the immersion, suggesting a once a month visit to a forest or woodland can maintain high NK levels. The report suggests that phytoncides are released from trees and these affect changes in hormones having a cumulative effect on the production of the cells. The recent scientific evidence suggests both a preventive and cancer controlling effect of Shinrin-‐yoku. In the light of these evidences about the health advantages of forest visits, the woodland Forest School environments can be considered very beneficial to schoolchildren, parents and teachers alike from the point of health and wellbeing. But it is the association to, and physical connectedness with the trees that facilitates this wellbeing, and will be missing in the less wooded environments in which some Forest School programmes are offered. 6.2. Theories of Biophilia, Attention Restoration and Stress Recovery: These two theories explain how nature plays a very important role in reducing stress, fear and anxiety in a range of groups, it is seen to promote a life more healthy and increase well being: ‘Biophilia’ is explained as the innately emotional affiliation of human beings to other living
organisms (Wilson, 1984). This ultimately links us as humans with our natural surroundings. The theory proposition is that the existence of a genetic sequence in humans programmed over one million years of evolution can respond positively to natural environments and helps us to survive and thrive. Individuals respond to these environments by feeling more content and by functioning more effectively, whilst in them but also after immersion, more effectively. Kaplan & Kaplan, 1995 suggest that there are two types of attentions in our lives: ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’. Direct attention involves concentration on activities that are judged significant by the individual and involve hard work and are generally not considered the most interesting subjects. Indirect attention involves issues contemplated as interesting and less importance to survival and these may have to be blocked out to concentrate on the direct attention activity, and if this is the case can cause tiredness. Indirect attention or fascination holds our concentration with little or no effort. This allows our brain to be restored so that we can return to direct attention. This theory is supported by over 100 studies. By allowing children with for example ADD to be in the outdoors for a period, allows for this restoration of concentration back in a classroom environment. ‘Psycho-‐physiological Stress Recovery Theory’ is based on ‘immediate positive response’ to either immersion in or views of nature (Ulrich, 1983). Such reactions can be witnessed within minutes of this exposure to nature. The changes observed are a significant reduction in stress, measured blood pressure, reduced muscle tension, and a lowering of the pulse rate. (Ulrich, et.al, 1991). According to the theory this change is the result of an innate reflex associated with the limbic system. Ulrich et al suggests that that throughout our evolutionary period those that now possess this immediate recovery ability will have a greater opportunity for survival by remaining
mentally alert after encountering or enduring stressful situations. The ‘Biophilia’ hypothesis identifies this ‘immediate positive response’ or reflex is presumed to be a result of our deeper genetic code. These two restorative theories, ART and Psycho-‐Physiological Stress Recovery theory explain the mechanism that restoration can take place. ART is understood to be a voluntary process that affects our thought processes and is measured by psychological features however, the Psycho-‐ Physiological Stress Recovery theory is understood to be an involuntary response in the limbic system and is measured from a physiological perspective. Forest Schools outcomes in producing positive effect in learning can, to some extent be attributed to ‘Biophilia’. The restorative theories can be linked to the reduction in stress levels and the consequential improvements in learning and performance observed in children, leaders and a variety of client groups. The Archimedes Model takes into consideration the provision and care of basic needs identified by Maslow and Rogers, that are prerequisite to increased feelings of security and thus reduction of stress through the provision of a positive learning environment: the warmth, through clothing, footwear, shelter, fire; quality food, as nutrition is necessary for concentration; drinks, water intake is necessary for food digestion and availability of energy; and physical and emotional security through the development of trust and a sense of value in the group and from leaders. These conditions promote wellbeing and learning. 6.3. Restoration Effect of Natural Surroundings of Forest School: Evidence from research has shown that children playing in natural settings at Forest Schools can improve concentration; a natural environment acts as a buffer to stress (Wells and Evans,
2003). Faber Taylor and Kuo (2008) have shown reduction in the severity of symptoms of ADHD in young people engaged in activities in open green space compared to those carrying activity in urban outdoor and indoor environments. The natural environment is also known to improve children’s mood and improve self-‐discipline (Faber Taylor et al, 2002). The degree of improvement in children affected by ADHD increases with the period of exposure with nature, these improvements are observed even if this exposure incorporates journeys travelled to school are greener and if better views from windows of green space are made available. We all know that stress affects the mental capacity and health of children and when faced with highly demanding events showed lower levels of anxiety and higher levels of overall self worth if they are extensively and repeatedly exposed to nature (Wells & Evans, 2003). Further studies have shown that after increased contact with nature the brain can be restored from exhaustion caused by direct concentration and can reduce many symptoms such as impulsive behaviours, irritability and aggression, thus improving performance and the opportunity for praise and success from the teacher. Children with lower academic success rates and what is perceived to be antisocial behaviours in class are more likely to receive negative personal comments than those who are moderate or high achievers, who are more likely to receive praise for achievements. Roe (2008) investigated mental health in young people across three behavioural states: ‘no behaviour problem’, ‘significant behaviour problem’ and ‘mental disorder’. The forest setting was found to be advantageous in all behaviour groups thus reflecting restorative outcomes in natural settings. A key finding was the ability of the forest to stabilize anger across all three groups. Anger in young people is linked to the reduced physical and mental health, depression and increased anti-‐social behaviour (Kerr and Schneider, 2008). The study suggests that Forest School can help
control anger in young people at risk, opening a potential door to improved learning experiences and rehabilitation and Personal Sustainability by increasing the propensity to become a Capable Learner. By review and analysis of current research, Kenny (2010) explored the relationship of the child with the natural world and changes made in Western industrialized culture. Applying relevant child development theory, eco-‐psychology and biophilia the reviewer found evidence of growing dissociation of children from the natural environment. Exploring tensions experienced by young children between their biological drive and modern life, the reviewer concludes with an analysis of the theory of ‘Nature Deficit Disorder’ linking reduced opportunities for children to access nature with the increasing levels of mental ill health and obesity. This theory provides a compelling case for the ‘re-‐naturing’ of childhood. 6.4. Health Benefits of Outdoor Learning: Physical activity in the outdoor has direct health benefits to adults and children. Urban lifestyles do not always allow for exercise in the open, or necessarily open spaces for children to run and play. Though it has to be said that there is also a decrease in the physical activity of children who live in rural areas also, as parental concerns and fears of accidents by traffic and people have an impact on the choices that parents make for their children and their freedom to roam and explore. The sedentary lifestyle in modern life limits physical activity, leading to poor digestion and metabolism and in turn poor growth. This leads to an increasing trend of non-‐ communicable diseases (NCDs) like cardiovascular diseases, high blood pressure, diabetes, obesity, cancer and chronic respiratory disorders. The lack of physical activity and lifestyle is considered
responsible for the recent increase of NCDs in adults and children. A paper presented by Justin Sherwin et al. 2011 suggests that through their Systematic Review and Meta-‐analysis of sunlight and exposure to the outdoors increases Vitamin D production in children’s body and as such will inevitably reduce the reliance of other forms such as vitamins. Without vitamin D we will all have problems with weak bones. But it is also identified through the research that simply playing and being outdoors will help to establish good distance vision. The review has identified that in some children there has in fact been cases where children with near-‐sightedness has been improved. ‘The Association between Time Spent Outdoors and Myopia in Children and Adolescents’
CHAPTER 7: Careers in Forest Schools and Outdoor Education 7.1. Opportunities in Forest Schools Education Archimedes diversified initially by adapting from programme to delivery to training and now by offering training in various natural settings of beaches and bush lands, jungles, and rivers as well as in less diverse and complex ecosystems such as school grounds and back gardens and parks. We also provide the new Nature Kindergarten Educator’s qualification and Working with Children and Young people with Trauma by Ruth Adams. Archimedes Earth serves to provide specialised training to meet the demands of educators working in natural places and their participants from the point of view of adventure, learning, health and well being for children and adults and conservation of outdoor natural environments. In 2002 a network of practitioners held the first national level conference at which a UK definition of Forest School was formulated and key features of Forest School were identified, including the decision that Forest School will be run by qualified level 3 practitioners. In 2007 Archimedes held a Conference where the proposal was discussed with delegates regarding the establishment of an Association of Forest School Practitioners. Then in 2009 the formation of the IOL SIG meant that there was a development proposal resulting in a consultation for the establishment of the Forest School Association (FSA). The definition, principles and criteria of good practices in Forest School were reviewed and built upon. The Forest School Association (FSA) was launched on 7th July 2012 at Elvaston Castle in Derbyshire as the new professional association for Forest School.
Fig 12: Training Progression – The different levels of training that are available in the Archimedes Forest School Model. Levels 1 to 4 are recognised throughout the industry.
7.2. Career Opportunities in Forest Schools: With the increase in number of Forest Schools in UK and elsewhere there is a growing demand for trained practitioners at different levels. Qualified staff with appropriate qualifications and experience is in demand. Opportunities are growing for those with qualifications and experience in this area of knowledge and provision
A parent or volunteer trained to Level 1 can find opportunities to support level 3 practitioners in local Forest School programmes, thus building their own experience and understanding and for some a deeper sense of self worth and provides increased confidence and aspirations. The Level 2 assistants support Forest School Level 2 leaders on a regular basis and by attaining this level of accreditation can support the number of children who then have access, can be the beginning of the journey towards a career advancement or voluntary opportunities for that individual. Above all it can provide a fulfilling and worthwhile role in the settings education and
learning programme. At Level 3 Forest School Leaders have the accreditation and certification to plan, design, deliver, manage and assess the programme, not only from the perspective of the children participating, the staff management and support, but importantly from the perspective of the benefit of the environment and its sustainability and well being. A variety of school teachers, support assistants, nurses, nursery nurses, Early Years Practitioners, youth workers and rangers attend Forest Schools training and in so doing add, through this CPD (continual professional development) to their foundation of skills and knowledge and can as a result increase employability potential in schools, colleges and Forest Schools around the world as a result. The more recognised the ethos and practice of Forest Schools becomes, the higher value will be placed on the achievement of this accreditation in a range of industries. 7.2.1. Career path for Young People. It is becoming apparent that during career advice and personal development in years 9 to 11 in schools in the UK, there can be a focus on more traditional careers and often reported that, ‘Careers advice 'is letting down girls' report by Laura Clarke August 2007, who states that ‘Sexist careers advice is damaging the job prospects of girls’ If this advice is on-‐going it can encourage some young people to underestimate the potential of their own abilities and go onto restrict, through lack of education and choices. It is evident that many end up working in the care and well being industries such as beauty and hairdressing because of a lack of favourable and more rounded advice at such an important time of their lives. Boys, to a greater extent are given information about the scientific and potentials of different Information technologies industries including those of engineering displacing them
potentially from taking up the much needed male role models in the care industry, this is a generalization of course, however ‘The quality of careers guidance available in schools in England is "nothing less than appalling", says the president of the body representing further education colleges’ according to By Sean Coughlan BBC News education correspondent It is well known that work experience can increase a realistic appreciation of an industry, and by attending a programme during childhood and attributing ones own levels of wellbeing and enjoyment and relationship with nature can then lead onto a great many alternative industries that opens opportunities for a career in Forestry silva culture, arboriculture, permaculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, farming, outdoor sports, learning and education, and that on top of opportunities for promotion of environmental awareness, sustainable development, architecture, water related industries to name a very, very few of the huge potential. Children, by developing an intimate and intrinsic interest in nature, now this affects their own local communities and build a caring association and level of responsibility for the world’s environments often start at a local level and will seep through into later life. This can all come about through experiencing the learning and freedom experienced and at the heart of their Forest Schools processes. Biophilia research suggests that this early childhood experience will indeed have this effect; It is only when a programme lasts a long period of time, where the relationship with the grownups and other significant adults in their lives support their educational journey that this can happen successfully and consistently. The longer the project, the greater the relationship with the natural world and therefore the higher and more sustained are the long term impacts on individual and collaborative wellbeing. It is demonstrated that through the development of
neurons and through the experience of positive outcomes to stressful, difficult and challenging experiences, children become more resilient and are much more likely to be able to cope with disappointment and when things do not always go right the first time. There has been observed a change in the approach to learning including a more deliberate effort in reading and writing, as children are able to express their ideas and recreate their experiences back in the classroom. Concentration and self worth and self confidence improve when children are in connection with green spaces and this is particularly prevalent when there is an identified issue with concentration, such as with children with ADD and ADHD. Archimedes Forest Schools has made processes available to individuals to move, not just to develop Forest Schools career paths, but also in other areas of natural enquiry -‐ tree work, woodland management, research, ecology, rangers, bush craft and survival, countryside managers, environmental managers, outdoor professionals and environmental sustainability -‐ all because of the development of an embedded environmental identity a an early age. This in turn has enabled certain participants to desire a better world for themselves and for the planet in which they live. A more balanced environmental stability and to seek out careers that can support the global systems of sustainability locally, nationally or globally. This is not restricted to children either. There are many individuals who have attended Archimedes Forest Schools Education training and as a result have changed career paths and desired to support children, through their new understanding and skills. We know that through transference of learning into lives through experience and reflection, as opposed to simply attending a short term forest school experience, one that is becoming increasingly familiar and popular these days, is the most significant. If theoretical content and
training is being watered down to provide what schools think they want, perhaps a token Forest School as that is a buzz word for outdoor learning, such as a forest school activity day, or couple of half day sessions, then the true impact of Archimedes Model is lost. There is no guarantee of progression or maturity of thought and understanding of nature and self as the processes of neuron development is not happening and therefore the new pathways are not myelinated. If hard wiring does not occur though continual immersion in the experience then it is likely that there will be a functional deficiency for these children to rely on in the future, as the experience is still external, as opposed to embedded. Forest schools simply becomes a trip, an activity, a nice thing to do as opposed to the intended purpose that is to make life changing opportunities possible, to support growth and development to enable children to function in as many social situations as possible, not just for the here and now, but for their future success as independent adults. Not simply to have a transient experience that gets lost in the sea of everyday life. 7.2.2. Outdoor Learning Training courses: In addition to Forest Schools the other brands of Archimedes are Beach Schools, Bush Schools River Schools, Jungle Schools and Social Forestry. In 2012 Archimedes setup the first ‘Bush Schools’ training course in Perth (Australia). The ethos and philosophy of Bush Schools are developed on the lines of the Forest Schools but the Bush Schools derive their materials and contents adapted to suit the Australian culture and environment. We are also very proud to have supported the development of the Jungle School in the mountains and highlands of Malaysia, where significant impacts have been recorded with the indigenous children attending the local schools there.
A programme called Forest Community and Adult Learning (FoCAL) provides opportunity to young adults with disabilities such as autism to learn new skills as well as supporting families and those with mental health concerns or issues. This tackles issues such as obesity, physical wellbeing through engagement in active lifestyles, cooking and food as well as generating a positive regard for the health benefits of the natural environment. We all know and understand that exercise produces endorphins, and the natural feel good factor achieved from the production of dopamine and adrenaline that in good doses motivates and encourages us to action and wellbeing. 7.2.3. ‘Get Children Outdoors’ Initiative: Archimedes Earth has been advocating outdoor experience for children as a means of providing children opportunity for development, health and wellbeing. The ‘Get Children Outdoors’ campaign uses experience of working with children in the outdoors for over three decades. It is their mission to see children develop confidence, self-‐esteem and emotional awareness through activity in the outdoors. The initiative ‘Get Children Outdoors’ was started with the objective to inspire everyone including families, teachers, policy makers in the understanding that the outdoors has immense potential in children’s overall development and their success and achievements later in life.
The Archimedes Recipe - Trainee level
Skilled Practitioner
Trainee Practitioner
Su m
EC TION
mn
n Wi
VIE P RE
W
te r
r
Natural Environment
Training week
tu Au
RE
Practitioner -Trainer
Informed Practitioner -Trainer
THE ARCHIMEDES FOREST SCHOOL MODEL Fig 13. The Trainee Recipe
Qualification
FL
g rin
me
Sp
PERIENCE EX
Fig 12 version 2 - 04-07-2014
CHAPTER 8: Archimedes Forest Schools Education 8.1. Overview Over the last 12 years, Archimedes Earth has been privileged to train more than 6500 of the estimated 11,500 practitioners in the UK. Archimedes Earth has three full time trainers and 29 trained and mentored Associate trainers. Of the 60 trainers members of the Forest Schools Trainers Network, up to half are using the Archimedes Earth Forest Schools Education Model. This means that over half of the Forest Schools Practitioners, it is safe to conclude around the world are Archimedes Forest Schools Practitioners delivering the Archimedes model, principles and ethos to children and others. Figure 10 All Archimedes Practitioners follow the same ‘Recipe’ model for the development of personal competency as the Participant (Ref Fig 2). This same process is designed on the same principles and will facilitate traits of a skilled practitioner the same seasonal and long-‐term approach applies as it does to develop the skills of a Capable Learner Some practitioners have worked with up to 20,000 children during the last 14 years; some have worked with 20 since their training. If we were to calculate a moderate view of the arc of influence of Archimedes Earth, then it would be fair to say that if each of the 6500 practitioners worked with 200 children each during their lifetime that is 1,300,000 children, if those 6500 worked with 500 children each that is 2,600,000 children, if each had worked with an average to 1,000 children that would be 6,500,000 children. Now if each child then took their mum or dad or grandma to the woods or wild spaces to play as a result, as research by Blackwell and Nawaz 2014 suggests, the breadth of that influence becomes doubled. These are of course conservative
estimates, as we do know of many who have worked with many more children and covers the UK, Malaysia, New Zealand, Australia, US, Canada, Spain, Germany, France, to name a few of the countries practitioners have emanated from or delivery has taken place in. 8.2. Development of Archimedes Earth In 2001, Archimedes Earth was established to provide education to children around the country and later for those wanting to become Forest Schools practitioners, using this progressive, constructivist approach. All the training is based on research and findings from eminent leaders in the field, introduced in the first instance by that generated by Gordon Woodall. By 2000 approximately 100 Forest Schools leaders were already trained by Gordon Woodall, a Scandinavian observed Early Years approach adapted to the British culture and simulated by Bridgewater FE college in their campus nursery. Archimedes Earth developed a Forest Schools Education model after carrying out extensive research in the writings of leaders in the field of education, outdoor industries, business, environmental conservation, youth and community as well as neuroscience to create a course that bought together knowledge, tools, models and good practices in one place, Archimedes Earth -‐ Forest Schools Leader Awards. Archimedes Earth studied the condition of education in open woodland spaces prevailing in Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Germany, their schools, kindergartens, community outdoor youth projects and environment centres as well as utilising aspects of good practice laid down by the outdoor industries’ National Governing Bodies such as the British Canoe Union, Caving and Mountain Leader Training. Having been working in the more traditional outdoor adventure activities industry for a number of years we had valuable support
from the Institute of Outdoor Learning in the UK, and with understanding of environmental management and countryside management these aspects all contributed to the emergence of the content and methodology. As a result of this research into relevant industries and prior knowledge and experience the Archimedes Earth Forest Schools Education programme model has transpired over the years incorporating theory and practice from the most relevant areas to support children in their development to adulthood. The realms of influence include environmental conservation and science, woodland management, heritage crafts and skills, the outdoor industry, practices in adult learning, programmes for young people and youth work, facilitation theory and business, adventure wilderness and outdoor industries, educational theories of Jung, Rogers, Vygotsky, Steiner and Piaget, Reggio and Macmillan to name a few, and approaches for working with those having challenging behaviour or special educational needs such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and other cognitive disabilities or disorders such as trauma and abuse. Archimedes Earth processed this knowledge and understanding from diverse fields; from play, education and learning processes and incorporated it into the evolving Archimedes Forest Schools programmes. The Practitioner and Leader training courses have followed a thoughtful monitoring and evaluative screening process for the selection of suitable learning materials and as this foundation of knowledge grows, content is adapted and utilised. Selection of educational materials was based on their effectiveness in terms of enhanced learning. In the first two years Archimedes worked in Doncaster, Sheffield, Chesterfield, Rotherham, Barnsley, and Stratford-‐ upon-‐Avon delivering programmes and projects to early years, families, parents, young people, and through experience developed more intimate models, in Forest Schools training and Forest
Schools practice. In 2002, Archimedes Earth launched its training courses based on the successful long term Forest Schools programmes and the application of the theoretical understanding identified. The aim was always simple and clear and that was to enabling others to work with young people, families and children in woodlands. Through support, we were able to develop appropriate course content based on new findings and observations that had taken place since the inception of Forest School in the UK in the mid 1990’s. The Archimedes Earth course was accredited by the awarding body and over the last 12 years, Archimedes has been privileged to train more than 6500 of the estimated 11,500 practitioners through in house and associate national trainers at all levels. As a result, the majority of Forest School practitioners around the world have been trained using the Archimedes Forest Schools Model for Practitioners who are now delivering using that Forest Schools model or adaptions to it, based in the principles and ethos for the maximum benefit to children and other client groups. The Archimedes Earth model has at its core a depth, breadth and process based not only on practical experience but also in evidence provided from other practitioners and researchers. It will always be difficult for those looking for training to know how to distinguish what makes an adequate course that meets their needs, as when looking from the outside inwards, choice is always a complex issue. Commonly in this day and age of financial constriction and pressures for time, the cheapest and closest are quite often deemed the most suitable choices. When an individual decides to attend an Archimedes Course it will not necessarily be the choice of price and distance. It is very often the particular approach that we offer, the ethos and values that are to a great extent passed on by word of mouth and experience of the qualified
practitioner and how they have been able to translate the experience into reality and though that practice been personally successful in achieving the intended goals for the programme and each child who participates in it. When Archimedes is booking prospective learners, or trainee practitioners onto courses some basic and fundamental predispositions will be required to be already in place in order for the individual to gain the most out of the training. This could be as a matter of enjoyment, engagement, motivation, transition, understanding, experience or level of ability in terms of childcare or teaching and environmental understanding, and the most important feature is the place of the child in nature.
Figure 14: The ideal traits that a learner will possess prior to attending an Archimedes Forest Schools or other course.
Archimedes Earth now runs Forest Schools programmes with young children and families in schools, with special needs children and with adults with mental health, through a number of different projects, FoCAL (Forest Community and Adult Learning), Forest Schools Kindergartens and the Dangerous Adventure Club. Archimedes Earth offers Forest School Level -‐ 1 to 3 training to become a practitioner or an assistant and the Level 4 Archimedes Forest Schools Trainers Award for becoming an Associate Archimedes Trainer and a Level 4 Archimedes Forest Schools Practitioner for those wanting to develop practical skills and knowledge, further and in more depth and expertise of that of the level 3 and will be interested in research and the gathering of analytical data form their programmes.
Fig 15. From Practitioner to Practitioner Trainer. The process of evolving from Level 3 Practitioner to Level 4 Practitioner-‐ Trainer
Archimedes Earth has grown and developed a network of Forest Schools Training Centres of Excellence® and focuses on Forest Schools Education nationally and internationally. However Archimedes Earth consistently pursues its intentions and visions maintaining its original core aims. We have not swerved from seeking to make a difference to the lives of children globally, irrespective of culture, language, heritage, gender, age or ability, or socio economics.
Fig 16. Arc of Influence Archimedes Earth We will continue to do this through providing training and education to practitioners as well as the delivery of programmes for children, young people and adults. As the Forest School movement grows and there is an increasingly diverse support for Forest
School provision, Archimedes is confident that it can identify its model of provision and development, its focus and abilities and that this will continue to emphasize the biological, physical and cognitive relevance of long term, reflective, child centred provision. The Archimedes Earth Forest Schools Education Model promotes a collective ethos, vision, values and processes for the transformation of children, young adults and adults and continually encourages programmes of delivery techniques based on the theoretical and practical foundations offered during training. It is by going back to the beginning of the story and to reiterate how Archimedes Model is concentrated on the Capable Learner, using theory and application in order to promote educational, societal and through these world change. The practitioners’ experience during training is improved and strengthened to provide a better understanding as this is developed whilst transformational skills emerge during the process of planning, preparing, delivering, observing, recording monitoring, assessing and evaluating each child, young person, or adult. Archimedes promotes a unique and transformational approach through its learning and training. It is this methodology and supportive resources that provide distinctiveness in what it offers through training and through project delivery and has let us to the significance of the Archimedes Model that can be applied at all levels of experience from child participation, to practitioner training and then replicated through the Trainer programme. The ethos is the same, the application is the same, the intended outcome is the same –though relevant for the participant-‐ and this strengthens and supports those who participate no matter the level.
8.3. Archimedes Earth Courses: 8.3.1. The Archimedes covers training in all the conventional Levels-‐1 to Level-‐3 and a special Woodland Skills Entry Level programme for 14 plus and a Level-‐4 programme: Entry Level: Woodland Skills is for young people, or adults with additional needs. Level-‐1: is an introduction to the ethos and philosophy of Forest School Level-‐2: Enables individuals to become a learning support assistant in Forest School Level-‐3: enables to set up, run and lead programmes in Forest Schools Level-‐4: Trainer -‐ enables to become an associate trainer for Archimedes Earth Level 4 – Practitioner – develops personal skills and awareness in aspects relating to the Archimedes Forest Schools Model, develops expertise in practical aspects and includes the requirement to collect analytical data for research and evaluation. See Fig 14: Training progression
All Archimedes Forest Schools qualifications are on the QCF, the Register of Regulated Qualifications, and accredited by a nationally recognised awarding body and supported by a robust moderation and verification process.
Fig 17: The Skilled Practitioner – What comes out. The key skills which a practitioner gains from the Archimedes Training Model at Level 3 8.3.2. Archimedes Earth in Other Environments and Habitat. Archimedes Earth through experience and reviewing process has been privileged to originate other practitioner training allowing learners to work and extend their practice confidently into other environments. So from the Forest Schools Education model there is now
Beach Schools, Social Forestry, River Schools, The Danger Adventure Club®, Bush Schools and Centre of Excellence for Forest Schools Training®. Settings utilising and implementing the Archimedes Forest Schools Education Model can be certified by a robust Quality Mark process; Provider settings and schools can register under three categories, namely, Gold, Silver and Bronze. Quality Marks ensure consistency of the quality provided through training and that this is sustained and supported through the governing bodies and leadership teams in settings and schools enabling them to also support parents and stakeholders in the knowledge that their children are participating in the best supporting and sustainable provision of education through the consistent and cross generational process, and for all children at Archimedes Forest Schools programmes within those settings that have been accredited (www.archimedes-‐earth.com). 8.3.2.1. Archimedes Earth Beach Schools Beaches are large open spaces in nature. Beaches vary according to their location, their physical history over millennia, as well as more recently due to urbanization or development, all influencing their ecology, their fragility or robustness, their geomorphological structure and their visual surroundings. By any comparison beaches are no less challenging an environment compared to woodland or forests and provide an opportunity to create a rich and healthy teaching and learning environment. Beaches are a virtual museum, with fossils, empty shells of molluscs, limpets, sand, pebbles, and fish skeletons. Live crabs hiding in rock pools, a live octopus or a seal left behind by the receding waters of the low tide and flocks of migrant and resident birds. There are big rocks nearby with roaring waves lashing against them. These objects speak about the environment, competition, survival, evolution, and climate change and provide one of the most
beautiful sights in nature. Given this rich diversity of resources, the open space and the physical challenge of winds, water, rocks and sand, the activities on beach require deep care thoughtfulness and attention from the programme planner. Thus the natural settings on a beach provide great opportunities for outdoor education for holistic development of children and adults by education in environmental issues, conservation and sustainable development and learning new skills. Beaches due to the exposure to the wild elements and the force and strength of water, some totally visible, like waves, but also the unseen in rip tides and the moon influencing tidal paths. It is this reason that the Beach Schools Practitioner training has come into fruition. 8.3.2.2. How Beach Schools compare with Forest Schools To make the best use of beaches for achieving safe learning the same model has been applied, but with the knowledge and understanding that simply by being confident in the woodland environment, understanding of the ecology and the ability to manage risks in that particular environment, can not equip all individuals with the knowledge and understanding of the beach and coastal environments. The course covers aspects of safety, risk management and how to plan according to seasons and tidal pattern. Children love to paddle and to play in water and to dig and to explore, but tides can be fierce and rapidly change. Developing an awareness of these environments can support this rich and diverse environment for learning. The same transformational approach and pedagogy is applied in Beach Schools, whilst at the back of our minds, keeping our children safe.
8.3.2.3. Beach Schools Education and Career Prospects: Archimedes Earth provides Beach Schools Level 3 Practitioner qualifications at level 2 for Learning Support Assistants and Level 3 for those wanting to run Beach Schools sessions and programmes. Archimedes Earth as the founders of Beach Schools training with the desire to educate individuals in the sustainable use of beaches, conservation of beach environment and its uniqueness. Our mission is to encourage the use of beaches and for education and learning and create a rich and lifelong love for coastlines and all they have to offer. 8.3.2.4. River Schools Many woodlands and wild spaces, even urban parks have streams water ways or rivers running through them. These area are immensely enticing, fun, enjoyable and due to the movement if water, sensorial and therapeutic. The sound of water running is well documented to calm the body; the visual impact of the movement creates a meditative atmosphere, focuses the eyes due to the dynamic process. Water stimulates exploration and physical immersion, to touch it, splash in it, to move it and to dam it. TO attract birds to a garden, it is well known that you place dripping or running water, we are after all no different. However rivers are also sensitive ecosystems rapidly eroded and the very sensitive to interference. They are dangerous places and this is one of the main reasons that local authorities restrict out of the classroom activities around water bodies, or ban them altogether. The River Schools practitioner level 3 training has been developed to support those who wish to use this beautiful and stimulating environment safely and protectively. It allows teachers, and practitioners to access the rivers with groups where in the past they would not have been able
to do so. 8.3.2.5. Social Forestry Practitioner Archimedes Social Forestry practitioners concentrate on the development of the core principle of ‘Personal Sustainability.’ That is the ability of a person to be self aware, self regulatory, self motivational, function socially and empathetically; Healthy in body, mind and spirit for the duration of their lifespan. Many individuals work with adults and young people in wild spaces and woodlands using a variety of different media to fulfil the same basic goals, that of wellbeing through the engagement with nature. The Social Forestry Practitioner will engage with a wide range of individuals covering as big a variety of programmes or sessional activities. Client groups include NEETS, Prolific Offenders, those with mental health issues, learning disability, brain injury, dependency issues, trauma and attachment history, Autistic Spectrum Disorders, non attenders, personal mentoring, health walks, dog walking with groups, to name but a few. The qualification is aimed specifically as the use of wood and woodlands to develop a good sense of self, a sense of place and a personal realization that they can make a contribution to society, to their families and sustain themselves. The New Economics Foundation has identified 5 main areas that contribute to high levels of well being; Connect with people; Be Active; Take notice; Keep Learning; Give something. Attending a Social Forestry programme by a trained practitioner will allow participants to engage in each of these areas and develop the skills to engage in them independently outside the programme, in order to become Personally Sustainable.
8.4. Forest Schools Framework of Excellence and Management:
Archimedes Earth has developed a framework of excellence for schools and settings that
use the Archimedes Earth Forest Schools Education model. There can be a number of benefits to the traditional education setting, the school, the nursery and the college. Education has been delivered in classrooms for decades and centuries, with the movement away from that becoming more established since the 1930’s as explored in chapter 2. As pressures increase and more emphasis is placed on academic standards of testing and exam results, there is a greater concentration on the need for children to develop reading and writing skills and to become creative explorers of their world, but also through the achievement of the A to C grades at GCSE and A level. Cary L. Cooper state in the book ‘Teachers Under pressure’, that as our education system whilst undergoing both immense and rapid change, it is very common for teachers to be stressed at work unable to find support to deal with the changes and many are leaving. There are debates about the role of schools and teachers, The Scottish Government comment that ‘Norway is often seen as a beacon in providing high-‐quality Early Childhood Education and Care services for all children with a strong emphasis on a holistic pedagogical approach, outdoors activities and the link between play and learning in a child's development’ (http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2013/03/4564/9) The report suggests that in Norway, where there is a strong emphasis on outdoor learning, similar in some cases to those we undertake at Forest Schools, does create a strong and firm foundation and this is fully supported by the Norwegian government, Norway does have high levels of kindergarten staff who work but are in fact untrained due to the explosive numbers of kindergarten places required in the country
and new settings being opened to provide for the demand for pre school places. The lack of trained professionals can and will have impacts on quality in the long term. It is interesting that (Østrem et al. 2009) ‘bought up a number of concerns that the documentation and mapping undertaken on children up to 6 years in the kindergarten settings is raising in emphasis. Interestingly they ask whether it supports or is in conflict with the national curriculum guidelines which are clear in their limited expectation of individual documentation, and is required only for pedagogues to use to reflect and provide opportunities for learning ønsberg, Høgskolen state that ‘Norwegian kindergartens have a duty to achieve the aims set out by The governmental framework plan though the way it plans and prepares and provides its offering, the kindergarten is required to "...lay the foundations for lifelong learning and active participation in a democratic society in close understanding and collaboration with the homes of the children." I thought that it was interesting to mention here that other countries, though we like to glorify them on occasions because we want so desperately to emulate what we think is the whole picture and not necessarily the case. All teachers and educational professional teachers and pedagogues are under pressure, no matter which country they live in; ‘Life and culture and society is rapidly changing, technology is changing it, and as such the demands on children, socially as well as educationally are shifting and even the very construction and firing of the brain in response to this technology is changing to accommodate the shift in sensory input ‘ Research is emerging from a range of sources of utilising the Forest Schools Education model. There is, and always will be much anecdotal descriptions, qualitative review and speculation. Steiner suggests that in al work with nature we use the hand, the heart or the head, or all three. Working with wood he describes as a process of heart. As such we as positioners and
trainers engage fully on an emotional level and as such we simply ‘know’ that something good is coming out of the process. Research makes many generic claims, but sometimes this can be non specific and not really useful to the school setting, that is interested in a more focused approach to findings. There is an increased understanding that Forest Schools works, and the nature of the provision is so dependent on many variable, that drawing conclusive conclusions can be and is carried back into the school in terms of how has attendance at forest Schools add value to the participants in terms of its academic remit, which is to support knowledge, skills and understanding, to promote the ‘capable learner’ and to inspire an individual to be independent, resilient, provide an economic contribution Social and Emotional Aspects of learning (SEAL) ad every child matters; Being Healthy, Staying Safe, Enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution and economic wellbeing. Archimedes Forest Schools Education model would describe this as ‘Personal Sustainability’ and can describes someone who can add constructively and creatively to society as a whole, not depleting its resources, environmental, economic or from its community. Longitudinal studies do take time, but there is emerging evidence to support the implementation of Forest Schools, using the Archimedes Model. The Archimedes Framework of excellence is setting based. It recognizes that an individual or staff team can provide excellence through its Forest Schools provision, but if this is not supported within the setting at all levels, and it is an issue that rears its head on so many occasions as concern from Practitioners who have trained with us. This the most common reason that Forest Schools becomes unsustainable in schools or nurseries, irrespective of the knowledge that it make a difference to children’s life, experience and foundations for learning; if practitioners are not
understood, supported or valued, then they as individuals will always loos vision and hope, as a result the children will loose their opportunity to participate in the whole transformational experience. The Framework of Excellence is designed with the aim of supporting schools through follow-‐up standardized and that the best value for money is achieved through added value to the school as a result of Practitioner training. There are many different areas where excellence can be developed, and these are embedded in the Quality Mark process. Here is an example of the criteria for school or settings management, one aspect of the process. The Framework of Excellence is the building blocks on which the Quality Mark is awarded at each level and are covered by the following criteria: 1.
Leadership & Management
2.
Quality
3.
Student Experience
4.
Health & Safety
5.
Environment
6.
Learning Provision
7.
People & Partnerships
8.
Evaluation
8.5. Forest Schools Quality Marks:
Archimedes has developed its certified Quality Marks for Forest Schools Practitioners
working in settings. The purpose therefore of the Archimedes Forest Schools Education Quality
Mark is that it is schools or settings based and it is aimed at a strategic level to support schools to integrate and to create a sustainable approach understanding that those who attend Forest Schools using the Archimedes model will in the long term contribute back into the school or setting, education as a whole and the impact on society can only be a positive thing. It assumes that the practice is of the highest quality and there is the Quality Improvement Framework (QUIF) which was developed by the Forestry Commission and Archimedes, amongst others with experience in Forest School development and delivery helped to pilot and the QUIF was ultimately designed as a self-‐improvement assessment tool for each practitioner to participate in if they so desired. Whenever a setting displays the Quality Mark others will be aware that those trained are Forest Schools practitioners using the Archimedes Forest Schools model through attendance and certification on a course run by Archimedes. Archimedes Earth website will publish all those setting names certified by the company through using the Framework of Excellence. The details of the Quality Mark system are explained below: •
The Archimedes Earth Quality Mark is recognition that a setting meets the criteria that have been matched against the Framework of Excellence for each level established
•
The Archimedes Earth Quality mark stands for quality and safety. If a setting carries an Archimedes Forest Schools Education Quality Mark, it ensures that the setting has been verified and audited on a regular basis and that it will perform to a consistent quality over time.
•
The Archimedes Earth Quality Mark will be awarded to a setting and they can display their
award in physical, electronic and in printed form. •
Archimedes Earth regularly checks Quality Mark holders to ensure encourage them to continue to meet the appropriate standard
•
Archimedes Earth Quality Mark holders will be listed on the Archimedes Earth website.
•
The Archimedes Earth Quality Mark designation is valid for three years and is subject to the setting evidencing its continuous improvement through internal audit and self-‐assessment. These settings will participate in an Archimedes Earth continual assessment process and the designation will be upheld as long as all the conditions are maintained.
•
Archimedes Earth Quality Mark is the first in the field to recognise a setting as a holistic entity in it’s vision for Forest Schools programme delivery and how this can enhance the children as well as schools learning standards; it is assessing the setting as a whole for its support and integration or Forest Schools for children and young people and it is this that people look for and trust.
There are three levels of Quality Mark •
Forest Schools Gold Award: The highest Accolade for a setting that meets the criteria
• Forest Schools Silver Award: The developmental award for a setting that meets the required criteria • Forest Schools Bronze Award: The entry level award for a setting that meets the set criteria Gold Award Settings: These are thought leaders, advocates and people dedicated to the process
of transforming children and young adults through their interaction with woodland and wild spaces. They will demonstrate and practice their understanding of Forest Schools pedagogy, ethos and methods for working with children and young adults. They will also demonstrate that they are changing lives and communities through their Forest Schools programmes. Their setting is at the forefront and pinnacle of transformational education. Silver Award Settings: These are dedicated to becoming Gold Award Settings. They are those in transition from entry level to the premier status and those that clearly recognise and understand the benefits of transformational Forest Schools education. They will have secured access to woodland or wild spaces that can be used for Forest Schools. They will have put staff and management through Archimedes Forest Schools training courses to ensure that they have the highest level of Forest Schools practitioners. Bronze Award Settings: These organisations are those that are starting out on their Forest Schools journey. They are committed to establishing and maintaining Forest School provision and are in the process of developing their woodland or wild space into an approved educational resource. They will have at least one Archimedes trained Level 3 Practitioner who will be given the resources to champion Forest Schools provision at their setting. Benefits of Forest Schools Quality mark to Service Providers: •
Whether it’s a school, nursery, public setting, private entity or outdoor activity provider the Quality mark provides assurance that it consistently meets the requirements of the appropriate standards.
•
All parents, stakeholders and the community will be made aware of the success of the
setting and celebrate in the commitment that the setting has made to promote and provide this specialist provision for the children and as such the local community, socially and environmentally as a result. •
All successful organisations will be awarded with a plaque and certification.
•
The organisation is presented with confirmation of its achievements to use the Archimedes Forest Schools Education Quality Mark to promote how Forest Schools provision is integrated into the school or setting. To maintain this approval Forest Schools carries out regular reviews
•
Any organisation can apply online having confirmed that it has read and understood the applications standard document prior to signing up.
•
All practitioners are offered the opportunity to sign up for the Bronze Award on application for training and this is presented to the setting in which they work on qualifying at Level 3 and completing their on-‐going mentoring at the setting for the academic year.
CHAPTER 9: Conclusion
In conclusion as we have thoroughly in some places and scantily in others touched upon
the Archimedes Forest Schools model, I have attempted to put the concept into perspective. We have looked at the work that Archimedes Earth does through its practical provision of programmes and its support of practitioners through the training. We have also looked at the development of traditional and also the not so traditional formats of education and how Forest Schools fits into that. Neuroscience is emerging and our understanding of gender, age and environment is influencing many aspects of how we see children and how their brains evolve through their lives. We as teachers, facilitators who have a passion for learning and for the work that nature fulfils as the natural teacher has been explored and how nature can go many miles in developing, establishing and maintaining health and well being. We have not really explored the areas of Reggio Emilia and the atelier as part of the story, we have to some degree ignored how our own experiences influence us as practitioners and how we ended up where we are on the journey that has bought us to Forest Schools, but we have at least bought this up as a thought provoking element to the theory and to the process Archimedes does not by any stretch of the imagination profess to know it all. It would be a foolish and self destructive statement. However we are trying our best to be the best we can be. I don't think that anyone n the world could ask for more. Our hearts are and always have been in the right place; We desire great things for our world, for our selves and ultimately we desire these great things so that we can give our children the best
world to live in, the best education that they deserve, the love and joy and acceptance that is the right of all children and above all we wish to introduce them to the wonders of the natural world, the awe and wonder that is elemental in our lives and we wish to give them their childhoods in which to play and simply be. The child that worries not, that wonders greatly, that has the widest set of experiences possible, that laughs every day, that is amongst friends and adults that respect and are respected back. That each one can have a chance to know a beautiful and real relationship with the wonder, that we call our Earth. Archimedes has spent many years working towards a story that we can tell. We hope that you have enjoyed it so far, its not over yet! If you are a practitioner who has worked with us, trained with us, who has story to tell, we would sincerely love to hear it. If you are a child who has been to Forest Schools and has something to share we would love to hear it. If you are a parent or a carer and you have seen a wonder or a glimpse of the magic that comes from Forest Schools then we would like to see it. If you have a passion and a desire to change the lives of children, to develop the personal sustainability of all those you encounter and you feel moved to become a part of the story, then we would love to know about it, so we can be a part of that journey with you. Thank you for your time and your energy and your passion. This book is written for all the children around the world who have experienced the joy and passion of being at Forest Schools; to all the practitioners who have trained with us and who have committed your own time energy and experience to making a difference to the lives of so many. To my amazing team, to those of you who take phone calls, those who turn up week after week with a drive that is beyond comprehension because as trainers you want to share the Archimedes Forest Schools Model with a whole new generation. Thank you to those that have endlessly been
reading the words that are contained in this book and made diagrams of what has been growing for so long. To those of you whom I have experienced on the way who have given me hope, who have given me drive and without whom Archimedes would not be what it is, Forest Schools Education would not have been a part of something so amazing and now to the Middlewood Nature Nursery and Forest Schools Kindergarten Staff teams who believe that we can make a difference.
No matter where you are on your journey… make it a good one!
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATION Figure 1: Arch of Influence
12
26
Figure 3: The Forest School Participant-‐What goes in
33
35
Figure 2: The Archimedes Recipe Figure 4: The Forest School Participants-‐What goes out Figure 5: Sphere of Influence
61
64
Figure 7: Landscape Diversity
66
84
86
Figure 10: The Trainee Practitioner Recipe
88
115
Figure 6: Making it Real Figure 8: The Transition State Figure 9: Training Element
Figure 11: The Humors-‐Development of Self Evaluation Skills Figure 12: Training Progression
137
144
prior to Attending an Archimedes Forest Schools or other Courses
149
Figure 13: The Trainee Recipe Figure 14: The Ideal Traits that a Learner Possess
Figure 15: From Practitioner to Practitioner Trainee
150
Figure 16: Arch of Influence Archimedes Earth
151
Figure 17: The Skilled Practitioner-‐What comes out
154
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Sarah Blackwell is the CEO of Archimedes Earth, Founder of Forest Schools Education and Forest Schools Kindergarten. Sarah has researched and written accredited training programmes in Forest Schools, Beach Schools, Social Forestry, Bush Schools and the Nature Kindergarten Educators Award. Sarah was a major supporter of the Institute of Outdoor Learning Special Interest Group for Forest Schools and an elected director and treasurer for the Forest Schools Association on inception. With a First Class Honours Degree in Countryside Recreation Management and a Post Graduate Certificate in Secondary Business Teaching Education Sarah is also a qualified in Mountaineering, Climbing, Caving and an NLP practitioner Sarah has written in many magazines and appeared on radio. Sarah’s passion for children’s education and the outdoors was the main motivator for her work developing Urban Forest Schools in South Yorkshire, Derbyshire and East Riding with young people, Early Years and Adults from 2000. This passion for social change and for the well-‐being of children globally has inspired her to train Internationally and to develop her Blog ‘Get Children Outdoors’ as well as to write a book about her approach to Forest Schools and the Model that Archimedes have developed over the past 15 years
[email protected]
Website:
www.archimedes-‐earth.com
Distributed by Archimedes Earth Order E-‐mail:
[email protected]
Website:
www.forestschools.com
Photo Acknowledgements: Forest Schools Kindergarten; Focal Sheffield and Middlewood Nature Nursery. Illustrations: Alan Cree
For Joe, Aaron, Elly and Euan With all my love
Preface Forest school as an educational concept was introduced into the UK from its origins in Scandinavia in 1994. Since those humble beginnings, the Forest Schools concept has blossomed throughout the UK and as I write there are at least 300 training organisations that train practitioners in Forest School education with over 11,500 practitioners who are delivering Forest School programmes and sessions to a range of audiences. Archimedes was set up in 2001 as one of the first organisations that could deliver Forest Schools sessions and train practitioners in order to develop the concept of Forest Schools in a UK setting and develop the applications of their particular model for a range of purposes. The rapid development of the concept in the UK is evidence in itself of the value of this means of education, which at its heart recognises the value of the natural world as a direct educational resource. There are many ways to use the Forest School concept in a range of settings, with a range of audiences and which will deliver an equally diverse set of outcomes. The wide variety of Forest School experiences being offered reflects this opportunity for different applications. Archimedes from the outset has recognised the ultimate potential of this educational concept is that it can be highly effective in creating positive transformational behavioural changes in the participants who experience it. As the years have passed, the evidence to support the positive impacts of Forest School has amassed through our experience in the field, through observation and measurement of the
outcomes of the programmes we have run, and through the reports of beneficial impacts not just on the participants themselves, but on their families, the education system and the wider community. The experience of practitioners has only reinforced our understanding of the transformational aspect of this form of education and over many years we have developed a model for applying Forest School education that delivers measurable outcomes. This book is about communicating a roadmap for others, which highlights the critical aspects involved, not just in delivering successful and transformative Forest School programmes, but the various facets that make a capable and skilled practitioner of Forest Schools Education and one who can deliver effective sessions which make those programmes the finest possible to meet the individual needs of each precious child or young person, or adult, because after all, we can only strive to be the best we can be! In recent years we have had the opportunity to apply our model and methodology in a range of locations around the world and have found it to be successful regardless of geographical or cultural boundaries.
As I write, 30 independent training organisations training forest school practitioners in the United Kingdom are delivering training using the Archimedes Forest School Model. Similarly over 50% of the 11,500 Forest School practitioners who are in the field delivering sessions to many and varied audiences have themselves been trained using this model. We estimate that at a conservative estimate, as a result of the butterfly effect, over 1½ million children, families and communities have been touched in some way as a result of the various opportunities provided and for many a significant benefit has been felt from the Forest School experience that our practitioners, trainers and model offers.
Table of Content FOREWORD
1
INTRODUCTION
4
Chapter 1: Outdoor Education and Forest Schools
9
1.1.
Concepts and Practices in Outdoor Education:
9
1.2.
Forest Schools for Outdoor Education:
10
1.3.
Learning Experience through the Archimedes Forest Schools Model:
11
1.4.
Outcome of Forest Schools
11
Chapter 2: Development of Educational Theories and Practices
11
2.1. Early Life in Nature
11
2.2. Evolution of Educational System and Practices:
11
2.3. Evolution of Education Theories:
11
2.4. Development of Archimedes Earth
11
2.4.1. Definition of Forest Schools:
11
2.4.2. The Ethos:
11
2.4.3. Archimedes Earth Forest Schools
11
2.4.4. Typical Days at Forest Schools:
11
2.4.4.1. Health and safety checks:
11
2.4.4.2. Preparation of Forest School sites:
11
2.4.4.3. Development of Children:
11
2.4.4.4. Thematic Sessions:
11
2.4.4.5. Use of Tools:
11
2.4.4.6. Reflection and Transfer:
11
CHAPTER 3: Archimedes Earth Practitioner Training
11
3.1. Training of Practitioners – Pedagogy, and Woodland Environment
11
3.2. Neurological Development in Natural Environment
11
3.3. Benefits of Tools and Fire in Forest Schools:
11
3.3.1. Stages in Competence Development in Tools Use and Safety Practices: 11 3.3.2. Tools Use and Care:
11
3.3.3. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
11
3.3.4. Fire Circle Guidelines:
11
CHAPTER 4: Risks, Safety Measures and Benefits
11
4.1. Risks and Safety IN Forest Schools:
11
4.2. Tools, Fire and Food Hygiene:
11
4.3. Archimedes Earth and Risks-Benefit Assessment:
11
4.3.1. Woodland Site:
11
4.3.2. First aid requirements under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974: 11 CHAPTER 5: Archimedes Schools and Holistic Development 5.1.
11
Holistic Development in Forest Schools Environments
11
5.1.1.
Personal Development
11
5.1.2.
Self-Esteem:
11
5.1.3.
Well Being:
11
5.1.4.
Resilience
11
5.2.
Environmental Identity, Forest Education and Sustainable Development:11
5.2.1.
Environmental Identity:
11
5.2.2.
Forest Education:
11
5.2.3.
Sustainable Development:
11
CHAPTER 6: Role of Forest schools in Health and Well Being.
11
6.1. Forest Bathing (Shinrin-yoku)
11
6.2. Theories of Biophilia, Attention Restoration and Stress Recovery:
11
6.3. Restoration Effect of Natural Surroundings of Forest School:
11
6.4. Health Benefits of Outdoor Learning:
11
CHAPTER 7: Careers in Forest Schools and Outdoor Education
11
7.1. Opportunities in Forest Schools Education
11
7.2. Career Opportunities in Forest Schools:
11
7.2.1. Career path for Young People.
11
7.2.2. Outdoor Learning Training courses:
11
7.2.3. ‘Get Outdoors’ Initiative:
11
CHAPTER 8: Archimedes Forest Schools Education
11
8.1. Overview
11
8.2. Development of Archimedes Earth
11
8.3. Archimedes Earth Courses:
11
8.3.1. The Archimedes covers training in all the conventional Levels-1 to Level3 and a special Woodland Skills Entry Level programme for 14 plus and a Level-4 programme:
11
8.3.2. Archimedes Earth in Other Environments and Habibtat. 11 8.3.2.1. Archimedes Earth Beach Schools
11
8.3.2.2. How Beach Schools compare with Forest Schools
11
8.3.2.3. Beach Schools Education and Career Prospects:
11
8.3.2.4. River Schools
11
8.3.2.5. Social Forestry Practitioner
11
8.4. Forest Schools Framework of Excellence and Management:
11
8.5. Forest Schools Quality Marks:
11
CHAPTER 9: Conclusion
11
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATION
11
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
11
FOREWORD Woodlands and wild spaces are the most inspirational, life affirming and radiant places on earth. They provide us with tantalizing adventures, physical challenge, visual delights, roaring orchestras of sound, olfactory explosions and gustatory banquets. Forests, trees and woodlands fill our minds with illustrious, memorable and farfetched imaginings, the anticipation of mystery and a deep sense of excitement, in some cases, fear, and at other times joy and delight. Trees are each unique, each an overcomer, a survivor, a silent but magnificent example of reaching for the heights, the sunlight, the warmth that is needed for its every existence. Each is a wonder to have the privilege of encountering, the sheer magnitude of the inner workings, the energy it converts, the air it purifies, the homes it provides, the shelter it affords, the role it plays in the very existence of humanity, and of all life on earth. Without the simple, complex, riveting, grounded, far reaching tree, we simply would not exist. It is this reason that it is surmised that the body memory, the mind’s eye, connects to the forests, woodlands and trees so closely, as we depend on their majesty for our individual life, for the air we breath, and collectively as a species for our resources, fuel, houses, energy, transportation, cars, furnaces, and aesthetic pleasures. We honour and revere the trees, the woodlands and the forest, we protect them and we seek to learn and understand how they are so wondrous. On the other hand, maybe we seek to decimate, to destroy to exploit and to ravage the woodlands and forests, we as a race can be small minded and greedy and we can seek personal power and esteem from our friends, maybe even financial benefit over the one individual or corporation. Unfortunately over the existence of our own longevity of our race, of humanity sacrificing the lives of species, some even as yet unknown, of biological relationships that can never be re-‐ established,
that forfeiting lays at the beginnings of a broken and dysfunctional world. Appreciation of the woodlands, their priceless job, their role, their purpose, their magnitude of importance, comes only with a deeply ingrained relationship with that environment. It is essential and necessary for those of us that live in the industrialized, sanitized world of bricks and mortar to stir the inner connection that over generations has been hidden in the cells of memory, the fabric of our being. In losing this relationship, there are signs that we are becoming individually sick, socially dislocated and globally destroyed.
Archimedes Forest Schools Education is centred on the proposition of the attainment of the capable Learner and their predispositions of Personal Sustainability. Though the maintenance of self, developing a clear understanding of our individual needs, how to satisfy those -‐note needs, not wants-‐ and within that, establishing a sense of place in the world through awareness of and confidence in our right to be heard, our right to exist and our right to be loved and cared for. This journey builds on strong foundations that can then weave its way into the formation of empathetic relationships with others, family, siblings, extended family, friends, colleagues, and others.
Fig 1: The Arcs of influence. The capable learner as developed through Forest School Education has a positive impact on many aspects and areas of society As we become protectors and nurturers of ourselves, our souls, spirits and bodies, our health and wellbeing will flourish; in becoming well at an individual level we are able to reach out to others and to the community and society in which we live, and further afield. Enriching the lives of others and giving to the natural environment brings personal hope and joy, not only to us, but also to those that we care for, and is indeed this very action that is identified by the New Economics Foundation as a basic necessity for wellness and wellbeing.
INTRODUCTION This publication is about the practice of a methodology of outdoor learning carried out in a woodland or wild environment. The practice evolved from Scandinavian models found in Denmark, Norway and Sweden from the 1950’s through the 1990s as Forest School in UK and now it has assumed a respectable and meaningful place within the wide variety of delivery methodologies for the overall development of children and as a significant and intentional process for improving learning in children of all ages as well as adults in and for the environment and forest education universally. The contents of this book are covered under eight chapters to give a broad view of the Archimedes Forest Schools Education Model. Archimedes Earth came into existence in 2001 and since then has worked passionately to develop the ethos and methodology of its work and provision through Forest Schools programme delivery processes and training. Archimedes Forest Schools Education have developed the model to which it applies to all facets of its work and this is embedded and threaded through the organization in the same way as unique DNA is at the core of each living cell. This understanding of our model, acts as our self-‐replicating essence containing the primary and distinctive characteristics and qualities of our ethos, principles, mission, values and vision. Chapter 1 explores outdoor education and its advantages and where Forest Schools fit in this outdoor provision. This chapter broadly covers outdoor education needs and the added value of Forest Schools as an outdoor learning process and its advantages. The chapter serves to set the background for further chapters. Chapter 2 covers a historical perspective as to why Forest Schools is needed in society. Our
ancestors evolved from living in natural environments and learnt via their experiences in nature, the open Savannah, frozen landscapes and deep forest environments. Evolution is a process of adaptation and survival. From a human perspective this implies that we share genes, historically adapted to natural living and affiliation and understanding of nature with our ancestors who have lived, over the past thousands of years as hunter-‐gatherers. In some biospheres even though many cultures have moved into industrialization and now post industrialization, many societies are still relying on these processes for survival. Hence, somewhere deep in our genetic make-‐up we need nature; we thrive in natural environments, when in contact with the elements. If this connection is not apparent then separation may perhaps manifest itself in ill effects and diseases. The Chapter explores evolution of education and education theories and the development of Archimedes Forest Schools Education and its model. Chapter 3 is the description of Archimedes Forest Schools provision in which the ethos, principles and woodland environment occupy the central position. The educational processes utilized consistently over a long period during all seasons bring about neurological changes, facilitated by the woodland environment, thus bringing about the intended outcomes of the Archimedes Forest Schools Model, that of reconnection, a sense of place in the world and personal well being. Chapter 4 investigates the role the practitioner in identifying both the benefits of the Archimedes Model for education, and learning outdoors towards risk and harm and implementation of safety measures, the importance and benefits of using tools and fires, also taking into consideration precautions, care and legal positioning. Chapter 5 examines some of the ways that Forest Schools has been found to promote
positive changes in children and adults: holistic development of children, self-‐esteem, wellbeing, resilience, and a positive relationship towards risk and with the natural environment and community as a whole. We are still investigating and researching effects and as new research is forthcoming Forest Schools will continue to blossom and grow as a truly beneficial educational process both in the UK and across the world. Chapter 6 covers the benefits of Forest Schools in terms of physical health and emotional well-‐being. Evidence from several theories are cited, in particular the scientific evidence of health benefits of forests in promoting health and wellness, theory of Biophilia which relates humans to their evolutionary relationship with nature; Attention Restoration Theory and observed scientific evidence of various benefits of outdoor activity on health and physical development. Here we also investigate the principles of neuroplasticity and the importance of challenge and the needs of children to encounter a wide variety of sensory opportunities. Chapter 7 covers the impact on education as a whole as a result of participation in Forest Schools and we explore how the model creates added value for learners and participants, for the learning environment, as well as in the development of a positive mental attitude for personal sustainability and success. The transition process is an essential part of the model and we explore the fundamental understanding of how the learner can utilise the wisdom absorbed at Forest Schools and translate that into creating an individualistic, creative and independence during the long term programme. This will lead on to or towards the understanding of career opportunities that may become open to the students because of their relationship with nature through participation in the Forest Schools model. Chapter 8 relates to Archimedes Forest School Education and its approach to
transformational pedagogy as applied to for example nursery environments, from our understanding of Transformational theory; the new Framework of Excellence and the three levels of awards for Forest Schools provision in settings identified by the Quality Mark. Archimedes Quality Marks awarded to Schools or other educational providers such as nurseries, enable setting staff, parents, potential customers, users and participants, as well as other settings and Local Authorities to be able to identify the level of practice and management team involvement in Forest Schools Provision that a setting has in relation to it’s undertaking. It will highlight the expectations of the schools depth of application and interrelationships of educational curricula delivery process and Forest Schools within that particular establishment. This gives prospective employees, parents and Ofsted an overview of expectations for children and the integration of delivery techniques when choosing a setting or school. The Archimedes Forest Schools Education Quality Mark provides a benchmark for excellence and attributes value to different delivery methodology of Forest Schools within settings. Conclusion The publication aims to present the Archimedes Forest Schools Education Model whilst providing an overview of the historical context and present provision and evolution of Forest Schools in todays practice. Any interested reader can obtain additional information from references cited at the end of the book or can visit Archimedes Forest Schools website (www.archimedes-‐earth.com and www.forestschools.com)
Chapter 1: Outdoor Education and Forest Schools 1.1.
Concepts and Practices in Outdoor Education:
The purpose of outdoor education or learning can be very different for different age groups and it also varies with the curriculum and intended outcomes. The requirements of outdoor exposure differ with age, be that for pre-‐school children, primary school children, secondary school students and adulthood, as well as taking into consideration the transitions between these groups. The most important age up to which most of human faculties develop is the age of 10 years, thus making pre-‐school and primary education one of the most important levels for exposure to outdoor experiences. This, linked to research findings by Clayton (2003) who demonstrated that creation of a positive environmental identity in childhood has impacts on beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviour that last into adulthood provides a solid foundation for the Archimedes Forest Schools programmes. Knight (2013) points out that during the post-‐industrialization era outdoor exposure of children in England declined because playing fields were sold for developmental purposes. The British obsession with inclement weather was also accounted for lesser use of education outdoors, and of course the continual pressures on finances and the perception that more time in the classroom will increase academic learning. There is now a growing concern about the poor understanding of young children about food, farming and sustainability issues (Dillon, et. al, 2005). The Education and Skills Select Committee Enquiry, 2005 and the Government Growing School Programme (DfES, 2005) all expressed concern about the need for proper outdoor education and learning opportunities for children.
DFES (2005) seeks to enable ‘schools to make better use of the outdoor classroom as a context for teaching and learning’. A research project on ‘Engaging and learning with the outdoors’ supported by National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER), King’s College London, and the University of Bath have come out with recommendations (Dillon et.al. 2005) which identify some needs for outdoor education for all children. The research supported by NFER and others have identified a wide variety of diversity of practices in planning, delivering and evaluating out-‐of-‐school learning. For the development of outdoor education in the country, the Select Committee has noted that ‘What is needed is a coherent strategy for education outside the classroom that brings together good practices from around the country, rather than a small number of limited, if worthy projects.’ The recommendations covered raising schools’ staff awareness about the opportunities offered by outdoor education, DfES and other agencies developing teachers’ confidence and capacities in outdoor context, need for enhanced participation in outdoor education, need for connecting students’ outdoor learning with the curriculum. The Archimedes Model centres on an ethos and practice that match core approaches identified by the Select Committee in regard to outdoor education and learning. 1.2.
Forest Schools for Outdoor Education:
The concept of Forest School in the UK as a way of learning and teaching children in and about natural world has its origins in both UK learning models such as Woodcraft Folk, Scouting, Outward Bound and other Outdoor Adventures and personal development programmes. Margaret Macmillan presented children and families with the opportunity to learn outdoors in the 1930’s.
Scandinavian cultures have a closer relationship with nature both for education as well as for society as a whole. It was from this cultural foundation that Skogsmule developed by Gosta Frohm in Sweden in 1957 and other programmes in European countries such as Germany have influenced and inspired the developments in the UK. It is possible to observe children’s play and learning which coexists in total harmony with the natural environment, specifically forests, woodlands and the coast. As we will discover later in the text there is a historical context that understands that where children are free to play, to lead their own investigations; influencing their own plans, self regulating risk and exploration through a wide range of play types. These include cooking with fires, listening to stories, singing songs, and climbing trees. All of these offer a more ‘complete’ picture of life and meaning in context for the child. In addition, develop the hand eye coordination to use knives to cut fruit and vegetable, whittle sticks, and then move on to using axes to chop wood for the fire. The child can understand so many life skills, the gifts of the earth and how they can participate, cohabit and harmoniously enjoy the abundance that the world has to offer, this will inevitably enrich and build a strong attachment to the environment as well as to the people that they are engaging with. The main focus of the approach being the investigation and exploration of nature, the development of self through the participation, and the setting of foundational learning that is relevant for a child’s future. This way of working with children in woodlands and forests, developed through the introduction of outdoor kindergartens in Copenhagen where the demand for early years provision outstripped the places available. In Denmark in 1980s as part of the Scandinavian tradition of being close to nature, children would jump onto the coach in the morning, and return to their parents in the evening after a grand day out in the wilds. Inspired by
this experience, similar sessions were offered for nursery children in the UK and after developing an Early Years provision, a facility in the woodland was developed and Forest School was offered to older students with more complex learning needs. This Forest School provision was found to be useful to students’ self-‐esteem, confidence and well-‐being; those same outcomes shared by and advocated in the Every Child Matters agenda (DfES, 2004). The concept of Forest School picked up in the United Kingdom with nearly 200 trained practitioners by 2001. Schools, Children’s Centres and other Early Years settings in England and Wales started offering Forest School programmes. Local authorities such as Oxfordshire and Worcestershire understood the application and benefits to the Early Years age group and this created demand for trained practitioners. In Wales, through the work of the Forestry Commission and Forest School Wales, the prevalence of Forest Schools for children increased substantially with some of the first research coming from schools adopting the approach here. As the work of Archimedes grew, an increased demand for practitioners to work within the company created it’s shift into training to support this need to facilitate the Archimedes Programmes aimed predominately, though not exclusively for young people and those with specialist and additional needs and living in urban settings. Archimedes was established to deliver to young people and children and moved into training practitioners in 2002 due to these ever increasing demands across the country. Forest School was observed to support and provide positive impacts within the Early Years sectors and the new outdoor learning provision for young people was also becoming more established. Burnworthy in the South West, was providing many opportunities for young people to thrive and flourish and this was being replicated further north in many towns and cities by Archimedes though the long term Forest Schools Education model.
Archimedes founding leadership team were indeed trained by Gordon Woodall, who was then the lead trainer and had been instrumental in the course training developments and success up to this time. Woodall, an inspirational and talented individual, was passionate about the deeper neurological aspects, the fundamentals of wellbeing and lifelong learning that the Forest School process supported. It was dedicated to how this process could utilise this knowledge for maximum benefits for the children and young people who participated. The development of a new programme of study through Archimedes based on the Archimedes Forest Schools provision across the North of England and in pockets further south utilised much of this understanding of the time. As more and more is being learnt about the brain, how we respond and react to situations and differences in gender over the past 20 years it was inevitable that new changes and understandings would impact on the foundations of the emerging Archimedes Forest Schools Model and application of theory and thus the course development and structure. This understanding is growing year on year as more research is being undertaken both in the field of Forest School as well as areas that are directly influential on it. Archimedes is keen to monitor and incorporate this new leaning into its teaching, as it inevitably encourages robust learning and educational processes according to the research findings. Our ethos is focused on supporting Personal Sustainability through transformational pedagogy and new scientific knowledge is paramount to our focus. It supports children and enables practitioners to understand and adapt their methodology for the maximum benefits of the end user, children, and ultimately for society as a whole. It will be these children, as they grow into adulthood and positions of responsibility and independence themselves that will inevitably influence policy decision-‐making, and innovation. This emerging brand of Forest Schools,
supported by experienced practitioners from a range of differing fields such as the environmental sciences, outdoor education, play, health and indeed, special needs such as Autism and models used in the corporate industries such as Kolb, Tannerbaum and Schmitt and Rogers have added a wealth of facets extending the Early Years focused process initiated in the 1990’s in the UK. The work of Woodall outlined desires to seek a deeper understanding of emotional literacy, brain function and how woodlands can impact, irrespective of age on wellbeing and health. Industry experiences gained by the Archimedes urban Forest Schools programmes, observations and reflections of practice with disaffected young people, special needs groups and those with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) enabled an emergent perspective, as well as new insights and depth supported by the evolving academic research and findings from those fields. The Archimedes Forest Schools Model is based on an understanding that participation occurs over all the seasons and that there is clear vision, that of supporting the development of the ‘Capable Learner’. There is as a foundation a planned intention of the practitioner, clear outcomes and goals, and the adaptive and flexible provision gained and gleaned through observations utilised to maximise learning possibilities. The skilled practitioner, or ‘Informed Leader’ is able to plan for the individual child, without removing any notion of self-‐initiation, following of interests and motivations through discovery, exploration with the support of the supportive adult as far as is reasonably possible, with regard to safety and boundaries of behaviour. It is this expertise that creates a positive impact through the Forest Schools Programme when firmly woven into a diverse and beautiful natural woodland setting. Although serendipity plays an immense part, it is this conscientious process that sets foundations for and constructs change. For example Forest Schools cannot take place in its true or
core form as a holiday club. The theoretical underpinning would nullify the association. However, it is possible that some of the theoretical underpinnings may play a part in the practitioners way of working, and the process of day or session provision will apply some of that methodology.
The Archimedes Forest Schools Model illustrates how the child and the practitioner come together at the beginning of the programme. How they interrelate over the course of the baseline assessment phase – the 6 initial weeks of interaction. This then informs the leader of the overall programme aims for that child in attending the Forest Schools programme. This extended developmental phase of the programme occurs in nature, ideally woodlands, through all the seasons, using the ‘Plan, Do, Reflect and Preview’ cycle. Transition is the point by which children move away from Forest Schools, this can take up to 6 weeks of sessions, similar to the Baseline Assessment period at the beginning of the programme. Careful planning is essential in order to support the child back into a life without Forest Schools. As with any process, programme or relationship, for the child there could be a time
of mourning or grieving at its absence from their lives and could be perceived as immense. This needs careful planning and management by the Pracitioner. The transition is the point at which the Skilled Practitioner is undertaking to ensure that all the concepts and skills and understanding learnt within and through the Forest Schools Programme are available in transferable form in and to the child, young person or ‘Capable Learner’ It is remembering the purpose of your Forest School, and specifically the aims and objectives of the Forest Schools programme for this group and for this specific child. It is that which will enable you to assess the achievement of the developmental goals during the programme. Assessing each week is essential tool of Forest School; listening to or seeing the child’s reflections on their own learning, monitoring your own observations and then adapting and planning to extend the child’s learning, increase ability and maturity in all the holistic areas each session. Therefore, based on the evaluation of their holistic development profiles accrued at the beginning through the baseline assessment, it is a simple matter of assessing progress and ensuring that this learning is then transferred into their everyday lives at home as well as at school. It is this transference that is consistently developing the ability for the child to become a ‘Capable Learner’. The Capable Learner increases their own capacity for ‘Personal Sustainability’ The Archimedes Forest Schools Model focuses on this as its main aim – Inspiration, Aspiration, Transformation.
Fig 2: The Archimedes Recipe. Illustrates the development of both participant and forest school practitioner from their base line state to transition state and improved outcome for both over a natural cycles of a year
Research by Nawaz and Blackwell (2014) on the perceptions of Archimedes Forest Schools reveal that due to the structured and observational tools and the in depth theoretical base employed at Forest Schools has led to a higher degree of environmental identity and respect for nature in those taking part as well as personal, social and academic associations in children attending, compared to those who do not. The research showed that children who attended the Forest Schools Education programmes over a long period were much more likely to encourage their parents and families to visit woodlands to play at weekends and holidays, than those that did not. As mentioned, the concepts underpinning Forest Schools derives from a range of
theoretical foundations from various fields of outdoor education and learning, play, environment, social wellbeing, emotional literacy, neuroscience and others from a range of interesting sources. The roots of which, however can be traced to early day educational thinkers; Ogilvy, Kurt Hahn, Karl Rohnke, Joseph Cornell; John Dewey; Jean-‐Jacques Rousseau, Roger Greenaway, Colin Mortlock and Carl Rogers to name but a few. Froebel and Pestalozzi have laid out the importance on play for children’s development and Margaret McMillan and her sister Rachel (Cunningham, 2006) recognised the effect of lack of fresh air and freedom of movement on young children’s development and founded their outdoor nurseries for poorer, less privileged children. Later Susan Isaacs set up an outdoor nursery for more privileged children. Subsequently, the 1944 Education Act made access to education compulsory for children up to 14, which subsequently rose to 16 and is now up to 17 years and in 2015 extended to age 18 years. At this time physical education in the form of outdoor sports, playtimes in open air acquired importance. The last quarter of the twentieth century saw a decline in outdoor opportunities as playing fields were sold for developmental purposes. In many countries of northern Europe, children were allowed to develop socially and environmentally without exerting pressure of academic achievements in the first phase of their lives. Scandinavia is a well documented baseline of educational excellence which bases its ‘playful’ beginnings in early childhood as a standard concept which recognizes that ‘Haptic Perception’, the process through which a child recognises objects through the sense of touch, is fundamental to children’s healthy attitudes to learning and indeed the success of children’s learning. (Lederman & Klatzky, 2009) suggest that Haptics is a perceptual system and that understanding is processed kinaesthetically
and cutaneously, i.e. it is through touch and movement that objects are perceived and understood, processed and information stored for future use and application. It is this process that supports schema (Piaget) and sensory input in young children. The recognition of objects occurs through a number of sensors and it is through this process that a child develops environmental recognition as well as other important concepts such as body image and body control. With the increase of the use of technology and the ‘regularising of surfaces and shapes’ from natural to manufactured, textured to smooth and plastic, there can be a decrease in the development of fully functioning haptic realities which can lead to a wide range of problems: conceptual misinterpretations later in life, misplaced symbolic representations and distorted perceptions of the world. Through the management of tactile interactions with natural objects and body movements that allow interactions with the natural world, memories and experiences can be stored in the brain allowing children to more readily sort out problems both in the here and now and in their future encounters. Thus, children visualise a range of concepts and become more able to read and write, thus aiding and supporting academic success during the education process. Physical engagement has been shown to create stronger memories than simply looking at something – Confucius said ‘I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand’ Through the rapid and accurate identification of three-‐dimensional objects by touch through exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the stick, leaf, earth, flower or holding the entire object in the hand Gibson defined the haptic process as "The sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body". If a child or adult loses their sense of touch, or in fact has limited opportunity to experience a wide range of
textures and shapes and qualities of materials then this has impacts such as losing the ability to walk with confidence and also to lose other skills like holding tools or objects such as pencils and pens, thus their ability to manipulate those materials in order to process symbols, such as the alphabet. Research shows that many children who are made to walk in shoes too early, can affect not only their ability to read and write later, but also due to the lack of sensory input directly relating to the connection with the receptors on the soles of the children’s feet, social behaviour and learning is adversely affected also. Health and Safety has become such a monster that the fear of harm through a mighty array of both physical, social, emotional and therefore psychological impacts has reduced the freedom of children by parents, carers and educationists to allow children to explore, touch, manipulate, experiment and discover natural objects such as mud, dirt, water, leaves, and as such a detrimental impact on children’s holistic development in so many areas. The natural environment, with relation to Haptics is, therefore, of fundamental importance to children’s learning. The understanding of teachers and senior management in creating opportunities for kinaesthetic experiences involving a wide range of physical movements involving gross and fine motor skills is essential. It is this closely related physical dimension of experience that enables the effective creation of neuron connections enabling a richer learning experience that is fully felt in a physical being as well as at a cognitive level. Experiences create memories, and memories enable future understanding and support problem solving skills in children, an essential aspect of learning and development. Research in the area of Haptics has been shown to support the concept that if a stick, for example, has been held, played with, manipulated and used in a great variety of ways, then later in their development
phases the child will be able to transfer knowledge of the specific associated resources currently at hand and the perceptual experience is ‘transparently transferred’. Tools are used in all sorts of activities in education and greatly in subjects such as design and technology and also in physical sports such as tennis, cricket and hockey. The more proficient a child is in this ability to use their fine and gross motor skills effectively the more associated they will be with the learning task in the classroom as well as out of it, the more able they will be to apply themselves, the higher their own sense of self worth in adding to the discussions and their own self image and confidence increases and learning will be reflected in application of themselves to the problem solving process. It has been reported that young adults are commencing university in subjects that require the use of tools many students have never once in their past experience had access to simple tools such as hammers, saws and nails. As the unconscious competency, and the ability to transfer is dependent on the young persons past experiences, this is adversely impacting on their ability to physically coordinate and create precise hand eye movements. At an archaeology undergraduate course for example, tutors are not expecting to have to teach adults how to use tools for the first time, but this is in fact the case, and getting more pronounced each year which inevitably leads to delayed development. 1.
1.3.
Learning Experience through the Archimedes Forest Schools Model:
In traditional outdoor education, one off outdoor visits are organised to support or extend classroom teaching for fun, play or learning. Forest Schools is different in its approach as the programmes are worked out in some detail through collaboration and consultation between school and Forest Schools practitioner, and child, depending on their ages and capacity. The processes are integrated within the curriculum of individual children’s needs through a process of
baseline assessments of holistic development phases. The teaching theory is quite different though, as, within the educational programme big picture – i.e. the agreed outcomes to facilitate the development of the Capable Learner -‐ the child is at the centre of the learning experience and time is essential in allowing the exploration and self-‐discovery to occur most successfully.
In Forest Schools, the outdoor opportunity is provided consistently over a period of seasons. Neuroscience supports the presupposition that to create opportunities for the myelination of neural pathways and for neural development, consistent and sustained exposure is required in a relaxed and positive learning environment. This consistent exposure to positive experiences that are relaxed, nurtured, supported and role modelled by key adults and peers are in the same key for the development of empathy, time, space, experience, compassion and love to grow from its small seed of potential in the brain into a positive and life enhancing empathetic vision of self, others and the world indeed takes time. This repetition and consistent attendance leads to a foundation of stable and consistent experiences, in nature, with adults and with peers, usually over the course of an academic year will reap its rewards. This long-‐term approach is essential for the development and hardwiring of
neurons to react to situations that may in the past have, or could well become predisposed to unsociable or unacceptable ways of behaving, or indeed absent due to the child experiencing high levels of cortisol in the brain, due to stress or trauma, inhibiting the development of neuron connection and maturing of the brain areas. If these responses are indeed unsociable they will lead to exclusion, either by peers or by the social group, society and community, and the immediate or indirect school environment. Archimedes proposes that the basic objective of the Forest Schools programme is that of supporting the holistic development of an individual, nurtured through connection with the outdoor woodland environment and open spaces in order to facilitate the notion of a ‘capable learner’ who is able to became ‘Personally Sustainable’. Fig 3: The Forest School Participant-‐What goes in. The key elements affecting the participants learning experience
The opportunity and freedom for a child or learner to choose, experience, and learn from the natural surroundings sits at the heart and centre of the Archimedes Forest Schools ethos, principles and process and is balanced around the needs of the individual, group and development of a ‘capable learner’ The environment offers opportunities for development of physical, mental, sociological, sensory, and communication abilities, self-‐esteem and confidence, the ability to manage hardships, to be mindful. It also offers opportunities to appreciate self, others and the environment leading to a more altruistic and empathetic perspective with an ability to make independent decisions taking care of personal welfare and to positively influence the world as we pass through it, now or later in life. 1.
1.4.
Outcome of Forest Schools
In contrast to the more traditional outdoor exposure offered to children, Forest Schools Education provides a very comprehensive and broad-‐base experience for overall development. Some very positive developments observed in children attending Forest Schools are: self-‐esteem, (to include increase in levels of self worth, a rethinking of actual self and ideal self, a more realistic self image) self-‐confidence, new skills, ability to make independent decisions, ability to take care of self, communication abilities and social linkages. Among these developments in children, the most distinguishable aptitudes are in relation to the nature and environment, the environmental identity and the longer-‐term respect towards it. Such an experience is very distinct and highly advantageous from the point of view that these children are learning the foundation of sustainable development.
The understanding and love for nature that children can develop in Forest Schools through the long term process is most marked as compared to some other outdoor programmes. In the past researchers such as Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) have suggested that simply being in nature will develop a positive identity with it, though there is growing research from researchers such as Dutcher et al., 2007; Hinds & Sparks, 2008 that it is an emotion that children are developing regarding their affiliation with nature that would be called Environmental Identity. It is during childhood that this appreciation occurs. Hinds and Sparks (2008) suggests that through a study of both urban and rural children, those with the highest scores on pro-‐environmental activity in adolescence and adulthood came from those who were able to benefit from a more rural immersion during childhood.
Fig 4: The Forest School Participant –What comes out. The key outcomes for the participant at a personal level
It is also suggested that it is not only the presence of the child in nature for prolonged periods can also be significantly enhanced in the company of an enthusiastic adult, who shares to some extent their own passion and values. It is the experimentation and exploration through the seasons and the ability to some degree to be independent and self determinate in the learning process that has enabled children to develop and attribute a deeper value to nature through direct association, as opposed to those who did not have the opportunity or that the experience was disassociated, for example through books or the television. This advantage of Forest Schools Education can be amplified if such exposures continue at secondary and other levels of education and even extend beyond the national boundaries to acquire international dimensions.
The Government in the UK is encouraging and supporting educational organisations to engage in learning outdoors and establish close links between ‘haptic perception’ for exploration and learning. Outdoor learning provides a unique opportunity to achieve and influence positively on academic and holistic development. Nawaz and Blackwell, (2014), have demonstrated that Forest Schools exposure leads to increased physical activeness, memory improvement, and increased self-‐confidence in children. These outcomes are the result of long-‐term duration of programmes and challenge to children and young people for problem solving during the programmes. Though some parents avoided sending their children to Forest School on grounds that it involved risks, none among those children who attended programmes cited a single incidence to support that these fears were grounded on reality and therefore the benefits significantly outweighed the negative perceptions.
The decline in outdoor education may have been due to perceptions of high risk and therefore associated harm occurring during participation. The House of Commons, (2005) associated this perception with learning outside the classroom, but the current thinking is in favour of outdoor exposure in a situation of managed risks. Thus, children need certain levels of risk to be physically active and to understand the world through touch, experience and personal discovery in order to be more realistic, empathetic and social in relationship with the society in which they live. ‘For the past 30 years at least, childhood prior to adolescence has been marked by shrinking freedom of action for children, and growing adult control and supervision.’ (No Fear, Growing Up in a Risk Averse Society Tim Gill)
Chapter 2: Development of Educational Theories and Practices 2.1. Early Life in Nature Thousands of years ago, our ancestors lived the life of the hunter-‐gatherer, of forager and scavenger. These human beings (Homo sapiens) lived in total harmony and so very close to nature, collecting all food and nutrition from wild plants and animals and lived what can be expected to have been a harsh and difficult life. These practices endured through ninety percent of our human history. Following on from this process, indicated by small and simple steps leading to a more secure and agrarian way of living; from harvesting wild seeds, later collecting, cultivating, growing and harvesting in small clearings closer to sleeping spaces, thus increasing the likelihood of survival. The life of most hunter-‐gatherers was either displaced by husbandry or farming as this new physically economical and predictable process was adopted to supplement the traditional and historical foraging activities. In contemporary societies, few hunter-‐gatherers are present in our diverse cultures, though still found in sparse pockets across the globe. It is true to say that this skill is regaining its place in certain fields and a sense of romance and nostalgia and a desire for a more simplistic lifestyle drives the demands and more and more companies and individuals are offering instruction, courses and training. Identification books such as those by Richard Mabey also supplement interesting and relevant information to help us in post industrialized society to revisit our basic desires for self-‐sufficiency and supplementation of our diets. Primitive Living books also outline foraging such as Fyona Campbell’s ‘The Hunter Gather Way’. This is to some extent in much the same move as our ancestors, however conversely, theirs through the adoption of cultivation and husbandry of animals, moved towards what is thought to
be a more civilized but less balanced way of living with the earth. Thus, through living a more natural way of life, humans have an ancient ‘nature-‐forest-‐animal linkage’ and this link is associated with our evolution and adaptation. This linkage, is the predisposition and driving factor that is forming this enduring journey to return to the way things were, to search for our roots, to learn again to live from the land, to commune with it and to learn by instinct to trust it. As the stresses of society and culture, work, responsibility and other consumer pressures push us in one direction, there is without a doubt a movement to reconnect with our genetic history, our inner being, our need for an interrelationship with nature on many levels. It is perhaps interesting to note that is only the hunter-‐gatherer societies that live a truly environmentally sustainable lifestyle. The Aborigines in Australia and the Hadza of Tanzania, for example have lived for tens of thousands of years in total harmony with nature without destroying or decimating the natural balance of ecosystems and life processes within them. According to some archaeologists and some scientists, hunting and gathering traditions evolved in the region of 1.8 million years ago by Homo erectus and continued by Homo sapiens through their evolutionary period 200,000 years ago. The hunter gathering process sustained existence through to the Mesolithic period around 10,000 years ago. It has been documented that agricultural practices began to develop 12,000 years ago and as such, this period from forest gardening to current times of universally agriculture dependent societies has not taken such a comparatively long time in our ticking historical clock. It is reported that even up until 1500 AD one third of the world’s population were still hunter-‐gatherers. It is possible to only survive and endure and participate in this type of culture and society, when land is not required, needed, developed, cleared or otherwise modified. As such, most hunter-‐gatherer communities live in
deserts, mountains and jungles. Our current phase of human life; the result of the industrial revolution in the second half of eighteenth century resulting in the invention of steam engines and machines to make life quicker, more predictable, less dependent on human frailty and error has led to an increasingly pressured, fast, socially isolating and consumer led culture. It is apparent that in hunter gather societies it is the culture, not the human soul that stimulates the desires for more and more commodities. It is also necessary to state that in hunter gather societies there is less disease, more leisure time, less environmental destruction, more equality, higher levels of wellbeing, shorter working lives (from mid twenties to mid forties only) the rest is spent in a way that we in ‘civilized society’ would attribute to the rich and affluent, i.e., spending time with friends, relatives and children without having to earn money for mere existence. Following the industrial revolution, the human quest for nature saw a decline, and even though all human beings, by their very biological nature always needed, enjoyed and craved the large spaces of landscapes, forests, mountains, rivers and oceans, this connection was simply and surely, socially, physically and emotionally being eroded through the generations. ‘Adventure Education is a recent phenomenon in the widespread business of teaching and learning. It’s emergence, has, ironically coincided with the decline of the wilderness resource upon which it depends. This Is not surprising since the reason people now program adventure is because it is no longer a normal part of life. Humans sought for millennia to subdue wilderness. That process was dangerous, unconformable and often fatal. Now that wilderness seems to be conquered, humans miss the challenges the struggle provided. They recognize the values provided by that struggle, values not appreciated then and not now available in the normal course of life. So in compensation, they venture for in growing numbers in adventure sports and even programmes
for their youth.’ – Miles (1990 p 327). The ancient human link with nature is responsible for pleasures associated with adventurous journeys and challenges, as Miles suggests. Besides, the beneficial effects associated with adventure education (Karl Rohnke 1931-‐) in natural spaces including Adventure Therapy had a range of positive outcomes such as improvement in self-‐concept, self-‐esteem, pro-‐social behaviour, trust, and many more are rooted in human association with our natural environment. It is through the emerging 1900’s that many religious and moral groups developed their work in wilderness environments and this took a variety of forms. The basis of all this work was a deep understanding that wilderness; wild spaces, woodlands, mountains, countryside and water had a therapeutic quality and as such could contribute to the healing of the body and mind. In the 1900’s there were a number of educational reflections that led to the provision of the Open Air Schools in the fight against Tuberculosis (TB) and other bronchial diseases. The first in London was in 1907 in Bostall Wood, Plumstead interestingly, by the London Borough Council. The Macmillan Sisters then very quickly replicated this first school in 1908. The Macmillan’s next school was residential and children not only attended for education but also slept overnight in tents at Evelyn House Deptford. It is amazing to think that by 1937 there were 96 Open Air Schools in the UK with 53 residential settings. This movement was happening in many European countries and the first Waldschule (forest school) opening in Germany in 1904 again for health and therapy with an emphasis on helping children with TB. The children here had lessons in the forest and this was probably more akin to the Forest Schools we associate or picture today, with more freedom and play designed within the programmes, than the Open Air schools in the UK where many had desks and chairs and blackboards lined up in rows, and the curriculum was simply delivered outdoors.
One of the earliest provisions of using nature came after the war. Kurt Hahn and Lawrence Holt promoted character building within their project funded by the Blue Funnel Line in the 1940’s. The concept for the participants to develop a certain aptitude and tenacity, as well as resilience in working confidently and with perseverance at sea through their continued survival of exposure to harsh conditions over a period of time. Lawrence observed that the young men at that time, who were becoming sailors were less likely to survive in war situations or if catastrophically, to encounter a ship wreck due to their lack of ability to function under these stressful conditions. He used adventure and exposure to the elements to develop certain personality traits for survival through nature. Outward Bound, still in action today with over 200,000 pupils worldwide. Also the well known Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme, that many young people take part in today. Adventure Therapy is a process that developed in the 1960’s as a concept and a practice that can be traced to many cultures such as Native American, Jewish, and Christian traditions. There is a difference though, according to Ewert, Mcormick and Voight (2001) who described adventure therapy as a process where professionals use outdoor activities involving risk for physical and emotional challenge; outdoor experiential therapy, is when leaders concentrate on physical, social and emotional development, personal and personal growth that could or may lead to rehabilitation. Wilderness Therapy on the other hand is a process through which participants are immersed in more primitive processes for survival with an emphasis on adaption to the new circumstances and a development process leading to the formulation of coping strategies. Archimedes Forest Schools Education uses a culmination of all of these processes, their
background philosophy, their ethos and underpinning process when we work with children, young people and adults. Qualified practitioners identify the needs of the individuals within the group, we monitor and create baselines of maturity and development, even when a child is for example, only 8 months old, the practitioner will look for normal ranges of development across the holistic profile, developed by educationalists, early years professionals, scientists and those in the medical profession. As such the processes we implement, metaphorical as well as literal, tools that are carefully matched to the desired and intended outcomes, that of supporting the development of a Capable Learner with Personal Sustainability traits. The Archimedes Forest Schools Model is not a simple exposure to nature in the hope that nature will ‘do its thing,’ there is a premeditated and prescribed intention, motivation and monitoring process that occurs. This is based on the expensive research, theoretical underpinning and work done by those in these many differing fields of knowledge, experience and expertise. Outdoor recreation in the form of physical activities and adventures like fishing, hillwalking, climbing, camping, ice climbing, canoeing, horse riding, mountaineering, trekking, surfing and even cave exploration are activities that produce positive effects on psychological and physical health, this we know without doubt. We are so confident in this that in the past town planners and social philanthropists have artificially created parks with trees and plants, resulting in their associated ecosystems with the sole aim of producing environments that will have socially positive effects on behaviour, health and well being. It was believed that the provision of these parks would increase family stability, increase productivity in the factories and allow those living in the industrialized centres of cities to appreciate the finer glories of life in their times out of work. Birkenhead Park was the first publically funded park in the UK and it was this park that was the inspiration for the
internationally renowned and most visited tourist attraction in the world, Central Park in New York designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux in 1857. Maybe it is the innate understanding of our evolutionary association between human and other biological life that has driven us to recreate natural environments where it has been replaced by urban sprawl. Adventures in nature with definite objectives such as field studies and scientific explorations lead to excitement, curiosity and understanding in those that take part. In addition, now that it is so easy to travel to places of historical importance, archaeological and geographical sites, biologically diverse havens and conservation or National Parks for outdoor experiences, learning and adventure. Eco-‐tourism is now a growing and booming industry and a socially conscientious way to visit places rich in biological diversity. Visits to natural environments provide a depth of opportunity to experience, learn and understand the natural ecosystems that make up our planet, and it is these educational visits that can lead to far-‐reaching learning experiences and discoveries and impact, when coordinated appropriately to the care and love of our planet into the future generations. Following the industrial revolution, human society has dramatically transformed itself into a predominately consumerist, urban way of life. This transformation caused breaks in the association with nature, diminished physical activity and a generation who are disconnected to the concepts of hard physical work for the generation of livelihood and life itself. This gradual movement and migration has lead to the currently prevailing and in many fields, worrying situation of a sedentary, comfort-‐seeking and indoor-‐confined life. Further, the current human indifference to nature and relentless exploitation of nature is a consequence of the loss of association with nature over time, if we have no affiliation for something, or no sense of value
attributed to it, then we tend not to have a desire to protect it.
Forest Schools Educational practice is a fresh view and provision of outdoor exposure and learning, increasing contact with nature through it's long term immersion links directly to the brain and the hard wiring through repeated associations and positive outcomes. It provides an opportunity to understand the integrity of human life and the nature in all its glory. Further, attendance helps in developing abilities in individuals to face challenges, build stamina, emotional wellbeing, endurance and resilience, uses more primitive processes in order to develop coping strategies and utilises the concepts of risk and adventure. Where mistakes and failures can often occur and as a result children and young people learn methods of how to overcome these and deal with them. In relation to human evolution, the educational model presented puts Forest Schools in a central and strategic position reflecting it’s important role in current post industrialised society and provides a situational perspective on the evolutionary relationship of human beings with nature and wild spaces.
2.2. Evolution of Educational System and Practices: Educational practices and systems have evolved in different cultures over a period of time and have influenced overall developments in the field. Indoor teaching methodologies have been a subject of concern over many generations from Rousseau to Isaacs. Comenius (1592-‐1670) emphasised learning through play, leisure and pastimes as critical and vital to a rounded and mature adult existence, the ‘Capable Learner’ with an aptitude for both personal and societal sustainability. As educational systems have evolved since the war time era, children have become more and more confined to classrooms, forced to learn following a set curriculum and to some extent without the freedom to process and reflect on learning and experience. In recent months, on visits to a range of far eastern educational schools and experienced the curriculum in these countries, the emphasis is on repetition and rote. It is focused on obedience and discipline. Children are not expected to question, to think individually, but simply follow instruction and absorb information. Globally, children have lost the autonomy, independence and freedom that our ancestor’s children experienced when learning to become adults through the more social and contextualized processes in nature. Those who had lived thousands of years ago, and those that still live in many of the cultures we described initially in the hunter gather culture, experienced holistic learning in natural environments, from events happening within the social environment as well as how that network relate to and functioned in nature. Learning here is totally in the context of elements of nature, forests, with wildlife, the changing climates and weather conditions. This mismatch of how humans have evolved, with a direct and consequential relationship biologically and currently engagement alienated from the wider perspective is manifested and increasingly
evidenced through a range of illness, and adverse effects on the health and wellbeing of individuals through current living ad learning cultures. There were no schools in England until St Augustine arrived in 597. He and his successors created two types of educational establishments: the grammar school to teach Latin to English to priests and Song Schools to train boys to sing in cathedrals. By 1100 all the cathedrals and collegiate churches had schools, some of these developed privately and by 1100-‐1500, though there was some expansion and development in education, this was still seen largely as a Christian enterprise. The availability of work by Aristotle started finding a place in the process leading adult’s interest in logic, and the ‘Seven Liberal Arts’. In the period between 1500-‐1600, termed the period of renaissance (literally ‘rebirth’) that started in Italy in 14th Century, humanist educational reforms based on reasoning and empirical evidence took place. The movement spread across Europe in the following three centuries. In England education grew under the reign of King Henry VIII, himself, allegedly, the most educated personality in his time. In the 17th and 18th centuries developments in the field of education theory and the school curriculum began to develop into the forms we more commonly know them today. The concept of common education emerged. Comenius (1592-‐1670), a Czech teacher and educator, championed the cause of universal education. He believed in human learning as a progression from youth to maturity and from elementary to advanced knowledge. He believed that nothing should be taught to the young unless the young were committed and there was a requirement based not only on physical age but also on maturational age. He stressed the educational importance of the first six years of a child’s life and believed that there should be no pressures made to read and write but to play continuously and have life experiences with friends, mentors
and in context to the life that the child was living. This philosophy has been sustained in countries like Denmark until very recently where mainstream education did not become compulsory until children were around 7 years old. Interestingly, it was by invitation from the House of Commons that Comenius came to England with a request to establish and promote learning in Britain. During this period, there were many debates and deliberations regarding the nature and purpose of education. Samuel Hartlib fostered an approach, based in the precept that: ‘A great fault in teaching (is) that children are not made to learn themselves but are always taught’. The idea proposed originally by Comenius that children needed to play in order to learn was expanding. As a result of this the Grammar schools started teaching English, modern languages, mathematics, geography and physical sciences though it was described by Williams, (1961: p134) that for most children the education opportunities in England were a ‘haphazard system of parish and private adventure schools.’ The Charity Schools movement caused significant change, seeing developments by the end of the 17th Century. The population of Britain was in the region of seven million in 1751, rising to twenty six million in 1871. This rapid expansion in the population corresponded to large increases in the proportion living in towns and cities, with a high growth in the child population. The 19th century saw large numbers of people moving to cities and population pressures causing slum housing and a consequential reduction of playing spaces. The Peel's Factory Act of 1802 required all employers to provide lessons in reading, writing and arithmetic during at least the first four years of the seven years of any apprenticeship, as most of these were young pauper children frequently brought from distant workhouses to work as labour in the cotton mills and other factories.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-‐1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who promoted, ‘learning by head, hand and heart’ would certainly have inspired the educational principles of Rudolf Steiner and now integrated into the Waldorf educational structures. Incidentally research by Briggs, M (2014) shows how the use of the ‘hand, head, and heart’ model, when correlated to working with the resistance of materials and how it can support personal development, self awareness and emotional understanding in people with learning disability, or those with mental health issues. Friedrich Frobel (1782-‐1852) in Germany advocated kindergartens as an experimental approach to early education for pre-‐schoolers based on a foundation of playing, singing, practical activities, social skills development and as transition from home to school; As the name implies, Frobel desired that children should be nurtured like plants in a garden. It was Pestalozzi who advocated the educational worth of games and play and that children’s work was play or ‘free work’, into his pedagogy this is now established by the UN regarding rights for children. Article 31 ‘Every child has the right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts’. John Dewey (1859-‐1952) had great influence on American education and social reforms. Meanwhile in Europe Maria Montessori (1870-‐1952), an Italian physician and educator promoted scientific pedagogy and supported education for those with learning disabilities. The United States, by the 1830s had established a public school system based on a common education for all its children; England still promoted a divided school structure reflecting its class structure. The class-‐based system was intensified by three national education
commissions: the Clarendon Report (1864) which focused on the nine 'great' public (private) schools and led to the 1868 Public Schools Act; the Taunton Report (1868) by the Schools Inquiry Commission and the Endowed Schools Act of 1869 dealing with educational schools for the middle classes; the Newcastle Report (1861) and the 1870 Elementary Education Act supported a free education provision for those that could not afford the other options. During the post-‐industrialization the classroom increasingly became the main place to learn and study and acquire knowledge and skills and thus started the journey of human civilization to a new way of life where the objective was conversely opposite of what the human beings had learnt during the course of evolution: skills to fend for oneself in nature, the ability to look for right foods, physical and altruism and the abilities to save and protect, stamina and physical ability, resilience and survival skills. Traditional societies protected their natural surroundings and conserved plants and animals for food, medicine and as a mark of cultural practices, in many western societies many of these habitats have been decimated or left unmanaged or manicured them so rigidly that species are indigenous or native. Ernest Westlake established the Order of Woodcraft Chivalry in 1916 promoting a simple living ethos in association with and developing a strong relationship with nature. He initiated the curriculum at his school to include crafts and aspects self-‐discipline with the focus on outdoor learning. It is highly probable that the principles emanated by Sloyd, an educational process developing in Scandinavia at the time, based around the development and respect for self and nature through craft, paper craft and then woodcraft. The Griff Pioneers was established in Derbyshire at Shining Cliff Woods, as a result of the Woodcraft Chivalry philosophy, bringing together many young, unemployed men to offer training and support thus created a small
community living in and off the woodland. The nature preschools in Scandinavia were to some extent established to determine the connection with nature in order for those children to gain a foundational experience, knowledge and affinity for natural materials and their properties. This allowed a clear and natural flow into the educational process established once school age had been reached. The Sloyd Model is still used as a process in many schools in Scandinavia and also has a reasonable following in the US. Susan Isaacs established her nursery schools in 1924 to encourage exploration and natural nature based enquiry in a garden environment with the Chelsea Open-‐Air Nursery School in London. Her emphasis was on ‘risk and challenge as a strong ethic for children’s learning and play’. Its interesting that following the Second World War with the baby boom outside spaces became more developed and less amenable for playgroups and nursery and school and as such the open air schools fell into decline. 2.3. Evolution of Education Theories: The 19th century witnessed the beginning of education theories to deal with absorption, processing, retention of information and the consequential formation of memory. It was understood that functions such as cognitive, emotional, environmental and prior experience played a key role in acquisition, learning and retention of knowledge. Forest Schools Education employs a combination of educational theories such as Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Educational Neuroscience, Transformative Learning and Constructivism in everyday practice. The behaviourists consider learning as an aspect of conditioning dependent upon rewards and targets whereas educators employing cognitive theory focus on the learner and the complexities of human
memory. Humanists emphasise the importance of self-‐knowledge and relationships within the learning process. Constructivists understand it is through the learner’s existing knowledge and ability to learn that learning is an individually tailored process of construction, from prior knowledge to future potential. In Archimedes Earth approach to pedagogy, teaching and learning employs a combination of all these approaches to achieve the best transformational outcome dependent on the observable needs of the children. The theory of Behaviourism comes into play when learning is the acquisition of a new behaviour through conditioning, such as learning to be safe around a fire circle, or learning the safety processes required when using a new tool, developing an understanding of tools talks and safe procedures of use, or a utilising a new skill that could cause physical or psychological harm. The learner is dependent on the leader or the practitioner to act as a role model and instil the new system of behaviour. The leader’s task is to demonstrate knowledge, observe, measure and modify behaviour changes in a specified and formulated direction towards safe practice, confidence, unconscious competency and independence. The learning is a conditioned response or memorisation of facts, rules, and laws and in some cases terminology. The correct response is achieved through stimulation of the senses, the focus being on the development of visual and spatial, musical and rhythmic and bodily kinesthetic, linguistic, natural, mathematical, social and emotional intelligence. The goal of learning in this context is that of keeping self and others safe and is of a low order process aiming at factual knowledge, skill development and training.
The proponent of Behaviourism was John Watson (1878-‐1959); he insisted that psychology must focus on measurable behaviours. Behaviourists processes put into place within a school environment will ensure practitioners can elicit desired responses though behavioural objectives from competency based learning, skill development and training. This can occur through repetition, illustration, observation and demonstration. We also know that there are basic human needs that seek out this process, this habitual and ritualistic process, and for this reason these basic safety boundaries and process work at a very basic, reptilian and emotional level. The theory of Cognitivism relates to the human ability to generate knowledge and meaning through sequential development of cognitive abilities such as mental processes of recognition, recollection, analysis, application, creation, understanding and evaluation. The learning process is adoptive, such as the learning of techniques, procedures, organization and structure to develop internal cognitive structures through strengthening of synapses in the brain. The learner is dependent upon assistance in the first instance to develop prior knowledge and integrate new knowledge. This assistance could be as basic as being offered the opportunity to simply be in the natural environment and walk over uneven ground and slippery surfaces at one end of the spectrum, all the way through to using a pole lathe to make a bowl or stool leg at the other. Through education the learner develops conceptual knowledge, techniques, procedures and algorithmic problem solving abilities using verbal and linguistic, logical and mathematical intelligences. The learner is given scaffolding opportunities to develop schema and adopt knowledge from both people and the environment. The leaders’ role is pedagogical, as they must develop conceptual knowledge by managing the content of the learning opportunities or activities in order to provide for a range of possibilities and potential outcomes. Cognitive theories grew
from Gestalt psychology developed in Germany in the early 1900s. The German word ‘gestalt’ is equivalent to the English word ‘configuration’ or ‘pattern’ and underlines the whole of human experience. The cognitive theories consider learning as an internal mental process, that memory works to promote learning and that an understanding of short-‐term and long-‐term memory is as important to educators as it is for the learner. New cognitive frameworks have been emerging since the 1970s and continue to do so. The field of educational neuroscience or neuro-‐education links brain processes to education. As new information is processed in the brain, neuroscience aims to study biological changes and find out which environmental, emotional and social conditions best help in the retention and storage of new information. This is generally, though not exclusively, via the linking of neurons and what factors allow reabsorption of dendrites and the ensuing or resulting memory loss. The rapid advances in neuroscience in the 1990s designated the decade as the as “The Decade of the Brain”. In 2000, the American Federation of Teachers stated “It is vital that we identify what science tells us about how people learn in order to improve the education curriculum.” An understanding of the process of learning is being made available by using imaging techniques and other scientific methods. It means that scientists can, by studying neurological changes in the brain in each individual as a particular acquisition of learning processes progress. This will inevitably open doors for our own understanding about the process of learning. The more we understand about how children and grown ups learn, the greater potential we have to improve and support the holistic learning techniques to encourage the ‘Capable Learner’ and development of capacity for Personal Sustainability as independence increases. Neuro-‐scientific approaches can have various applications in children whose development resides within the ‘norms’ for their age
and environment, that is our mainstream children and adults, but equally well with anyone having learning disabilities or other developmental needs such as Attention Deficit, Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD), or those suffering from attachment issues and early emotional trauma. The newer fields of Educational Neuroscience use techniques of event-‐related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging for studying the brain during learning processes. At present, understanding about the workings of the brain in learning is that instead of a main and central processor or constructor of intelligence the brain in fact Is made up of ‘functional areas’ some suggestions speculate that are over seventy areas of brain activity that make learning and everyday performance possible. During cerebral activity many of these areas of brain will all work together. Different types of intelligence are the result of different combinations of these distinct functional areas. Learning for each of us is the result of a development and specific configuration of the synapses created between nerve cells or neurons. It is at this point in the time and thought configuration or continuum that knowledge is graded, ordered and categorized. As new knowledge is added to the conceptual schema, (or pattern,) the brain considers what the new information is most relevant to and as a result places the new information hierarchically with similar knowledge. Once ordered we can use this new knowledge accordingly, quickly and appropriately as the new neural pathways are linked to many existing neural networks. The current theory of learning is based on multiple intelligences in which learning is seen as an interaction between dozens of different functional areas of the brain, each with their individual strengths and weaknesses in any learner. The theory of multiple intelligence does not rely on any single general ability but a combination of specific modalities which according to the Howard Gardner model (1983) includes eight abilities: musical-‐rhythmic, visual-‐spatial, verbal-‐linguistic,
logical-‐mathematical, bodily-‐kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. The other learning theory, ‘Humanism’ is based on human generation of knowledge, meaning, expertise, through interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence; that which is formulated as a response to interactions between oneself and others and that which is formulated within a person independently. Transformative Learning relates to any change that a learner needs in preconceptions and worldview to function successfully and freely within the world. The theory investigates how practitioners can support children and adults to rethink, review and reinterpret meaning through the development of increasingly complex processes of critical thinking .It is related to how the mind and mental capacity of an individual can make sense of a situation through increased intricacy of thought based on new experiences providing new insights and a bigger picture of what was a perhaps previously a narrow frame of reference. A frame of reference is described as a perception that defines our view of the world; it is our 'map'. As we grow and develop we create a specific map that works for us and allows us to interpret the world accordingly. However as we grow older and mature, the neurons become more resilient to change having an increased tendency to discard any idea or perception that does not support our preconceived existing values, associations and models of the world Habits are routines and behaviours that through the hard wiring of associated neurons, have allowed us to become unconsciously competent at performing in the world as we see it. They are so difficult to change as they rely on perceptions and points of view commonly framed from very early childhood, even before cognitive memory systems are mature in some cases as exposure to learning experience occur during our past. These habits and frames of reference make up our values and belief systems and thus how we function in the world,
in the here and now. Roger Greenaway and others suggests that change can happen as a result of reflection and feedback, a key proponent of the Archimedes Forest Schools Education process. Transformative learning can occur when intentions or motivations are examined and reviewed with self or with others, by investigation or analysis of additional and observable confirmation of new evidence, or additional and alternative points of view. That is why reflective practice works so successfully, as it allows us to hear others points of view and facilitates increased empathy and understanding that others have an alternative 'map' to ours, and that neither is wrong or right, it is just different because our experiences have been different. This can, of course, only take place during Forest Schools when the maturational age of the child or adult allows for such sophisticated cognitive and linguistic functioning to occur. The theory of Constructivism goes some way to explaining processes of knowledge construction in all of us and at different cognitive and maturational stages. It describes the amalgamation of information as it comes in contact with our already stored and existing knowledge centres developed by our past experiences. It has its origins in cognitive psychology and biology. It is an approach by which knowledge creation, through education can be developed in order to facilitate an adaption to the personal socially functioning world. Constructivism is built on the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner and emphasizes the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for oneself. It is about building new ideas or concepts based on current knowledge and past experiences. The curriculum, it is proposed, should be built upon understanding of what children already know and should then be allowed to develop upon what is already within the constraints of the known. It is the building up of these experiences that scaffold learning and therefore the knowledge of possibility can become unending and full of opportunity.
Constructivism has implications for the theory of delivery and pedagogy at Forest Schools by the leader; The theory proposes that the leader begins by providing children with the exposure to a basic skills base in the first instance in order to go on to solve more complex problems in the future. Various practices of teaching and learning like discovery, hands-‐on, experimental, collaborative and project-‐based opportunities are all applications based on constructivism, which identifies their popularity throughout the Forest Schools process of possibility, opportunity and provision. The theories of John Dewey, Maria Montessori and David Kolb are the foundation on which constructivism is built. Constructivism: active learning, discovery learning and knowledge building can all form a basis for this process of teaching and learning, the leader acts as a facilitator and children are provided with the freedom within boundaries to construct knowledge by working to solve real problems in real situations, contextualizing their knowledge and skill acquisition. The principles of Accelerated Learning developed by Colin Rose utilises this understanding and makes proposals regarding the basic presuppositions. . In addition there are several other types of approaches to education from which Archimedes Earth does draw its inspiration. While in the past, conservatives believed in the maintenance of the objective educational standards based on testing, reformers believe that the traditional teacher-‐centred and task-‐based approaches of learning should be abandoned. John Dewey considered traditional education such as passing skills, facts and moral values, primarily based on adult view about what was good for the next generation, equal to ‘imposed from above and from sides’. In traditional education, young people are taught to obediently receive fixed answers; the teachers are instruments communicating information Traditional education, we
know, is still the modus operandi in many secondary schools across Britain and throughout its former colonies as well as many eastern Asian countries where education is a somewhat rigid framework. 2.4. Development of Archimedes Earth Many environmental and educationally focused researchers have demonstrated some linkage between nature and child development. Rousseau suggested that children were closer to nature than adults because they are free from cultural influences. Froebel recognised the importance of nature in the development of children and established the Kindergarten – literally, children’s garden -‐ movement. The other educational pioneers including the Macmillan sisters, Steiner and Malaguzzi (Reggio Emilia) advocated outdoor experiences and play as important components of their pedagogies. But, the fundamental tradition of modern child development theory in the mid 20th century has been dominated by formal teaching indoors, with the leader or teacher providing information or instruction to children, who are passive recipients and it has viewed the role of the natural world in children’s development as subsidiary (Bilton, 2002). A report by Dillon, et. al. (2005) raised concern about the poor understanding of young children about food, farming and related sustainability issues. The Education and Skills Select Committee Enquiry (2005) and the Government Growing School Programme (DfES, 2005) expressed concern about the need for proper outdoor education. DfES (2005) aimed to enable ‘schools to make better use of the outdoor classroom as a context for teaching and learning’. For the development of outdoor education in the country, the Select Committee noted ‘What is needed is a coherent strategy for education outside the classroom that brings together good practices from around the country, rather than a small number of limited, if worthy projects.’ The recommendations covered
raising schools’ staff awareness about the opportunities offered by outdoor education, DfES and other agencies developing teachers’ confidence and capacities in the context of the outdoors, along with a need for enriched participation in outdoor education along with a need for connecting children’s outdoor learning with the curriculum. It is interesting to note that the Forest School ethos and practices have been following and indeed leading the way that the approaches pointed out by the Select Committee comment on in regard to outdoor education. In summary Denmark and other Scandinavian countries have inspired many professionals by providing children an opportunity to engage in an education philosophy that permits and encourages play outside in woodland with the children setting their own vision for learning and playing, risky opportunities were allowed and encouraged, for example tree climbing was seen and was supported as a valuable and beneficial endeavour. The Scandinavian tradition of a closer association with nature is present because culturally there is a fundamental belief that ‘there’s no such thing as bad weather, only bad clothing’ and that there is a basic human need for a lifelong relationship with nature. This is now flowing more consistently into the British and worldwide educational systems through the work of those passionate about getting children outdoors. This has led to the development and an increasing awareness of an innate desire for Forest Schools Education in the UK and further aboard. The development of children globally through Forest School was initially a novel experiment and is now a revolutionary movement for children’s development. Forest School, in early research was described as ‘an inspirational process that offers children, young people and adults regular opportunities to achieve and develop confidence through hands-‐on learning in a woodland environment’. (O’Brien)
2.4.1. Definition of Forest Schools: Archimedes Earth defines Forest Schools Education as ‘an inspirational, purposeful and intended process that offers learners consistent and repeated opportunities to access woodlands throughout the course of a year or more. The opportunity to build a foundation of wellbeing, become self aware, self sufficient and confident capable learners that can operate independently and socially in times of hardship and adversity as well as times of ease and transparency. Programmes are supported and facilitated by qualified and experienced practitioners to enable individuals of any age, culture, gender or religion to achieve and develop confidence and self-‐worth through hands-‐on learning opportunities that incorporate risk and adventure as well as community and friendship. Forest Schools promotes the concept of Personal Sustainability’. The Archimedes Earth Model is a specialised learning approach within the framework of outdoor education, in a woodland setting, now with the philosophy applied to a wide range of settings, such as Beach Schools, Bush Schools, Jungle Schools, Urban Park Schools and River Schools. Archimedes brings together the participant with a skilled practitioner in the natural setting; the goal is providing constructivist and transformational opportunities that provide a possibility for a capable learner to participate, absorb, assimilate and adapt and transfer knowledge and understanding over the seasons, to become and maintain Personal Sustainability.
Fig 5: Spheres of influence. Fig 5: Spheres of influence. Archimedes Earth draws on methodologies and practices and applies these to a range of natural environments
for
transformational
development
of
children
and
adults.
2.4.2. The Ethos: The ethos of Forest Schools is now commonly based upon six guiding principles developed and proposed by the Forest School community: •
It is a long-‐term process of frequent visits and regular sessions in woodland or natural environment involving planning, adaptation, observations and reviewing as integral elements
•
It is located in woodland, or a natural environment, and supports development of relationship between the learner and the natural world
•
It promotes holistic development of all those involved fostering resilience, confidence, independent and creative learning
•
It offers the learners opportunity to take supported risks appropriate to the environment and to themselves
•
It is run by a qualified Forest School practitioner (minimum Level-‐3) who continuously maintain and develop their professional practice
•
It uses a range of learner-‐centred processes to create a community for development and learning.
•
Some of the most significant features or guiding principles of Forest School are:
•
Forest School visits are consistently over a long period preferably throughout year
•
The programme has a structure based on observation and collaborative work between
learner and practitioners devised after a baseline assessment process in the initial stages •
Forest Schools programmes constantly monitors the ecological impact and follows an approved management plan agreed between land owner, Forest School practitioner and the learners
•
Forest Schools programmes aims to develop physical, intellectual, linguistic, emotional, social and spiritual aspects of learner
•
Forest Schools are designed to build on innate motivation and positive attitudes and allows the use of tools and fire, if appropriate for the physical, cognitive and linguistic levels of the children
•
The programme is supported by a risk-‐benefit analysis.
•
Forest School is lead by a practitioner of minimum Level 3 accredited qualification.
2.4.3. Archimedes Earth Forest Schools
Forest Schools use a learner-‐centred pedagogical approach that is based on needs and
interests of the learner. The practitioner models the pedagogy and promotes it through a process of careful planning, dialogue and relationship building. Play and choice are considered very important and constitute an integral part of the learning process. The practice provides support and stimulus for all learning preferences and dispositions. At the end of each session a reflective process is involved during which learners and practitioners assess and understand achievements and plan for the future sessions. Practitioner’s observations are used to improve upon the pedagogy. Reflections are specific and appropriate in format and these will be appropriate to the
learning and cognitive abilities of the group. Because the Forest Schools process and intention regards the construction of the learning by the individual, it is part of the programme that the learner is helped to understand what it is they have learnt, acquired or assimilated. If they cannot do this, then the experience will lose a large amount of its impact and intention and can become simply an experience, as opposed to learning. Roger Greenaway states that without reflection there is no learning.
Fig 6: Making it real. Reflection makes the difference between experience and learning. If we used the analogy of baking a cake, it requires a number of ingredients to produce. It is possible to choose a range of products to fulfil the requirements of the recipe. The choice and quality of those ingredients will inevitably determine the end product. It is also then in addition possible to add in a range of spices, different types of sugar, organic flour, free range or caged hen eggs, butter or margarine. The quantity and quality of the ingredients, the way it is beaten and mixed, and in what order, the temperature of the oven and for how long we bake it will all create a variety of finished results. Each will of course still be a cake, but the nutritional and visual presentations will all be different and our choice of process and input can add to our enjoyment of
it and the benefit of eating that particular cake. Therefore, it is possible to establish a Forest School in a range of natural settings such as in school grounds and parks. Forest Schools that occur in these environments have without a doubt a fantastic impact and a long-‐term effect on participants and for some, this will have been the very first opportunity to play and learn in this way. The woodland environment, as an ingredient in the recipe provides distinctive and unique conditions for setting up a Forest School: space to organise and play; clean air and natural backdrop for the establishment of healthy affirmative feelings; the diversity of materials on offer, and the range of biodiversity for exploration, observation and encounter; opportunity to become exposed to and experience totally unique sensory stimuli (visual, sound, smell, tactile, taste); rugged and uneven ground and tougher more challenging conditions for physical development. The key elements relating to provision in woodlands is the abundance of loose parts and therefore the impact on symbolic play, deep play, communication play and the opportunity to utilise the wide variety of natural objects, resources and materials that are dropped, left, loosened, provided by the various trees, shrubs and animals and other creatures, both flora and fauna.
Fig 7: Landscape Diversity – Some of the variety of different settings in which a forest school can be run. The Emergent Curriculum Our role as Forest Schools Practitioners is to understand the child’s interests and passions and plan a curriculum that enhances, entices, motivates and engages each child in their learning. This is called an Emergent Curriculum
The Forest Schools Pracitioner will plan the whole of the curriculum based around both the educators responsibilities as well as the interests and motivations of the child. Our role as an educator using this model of curriculum provision requires a wide range of skills in order to be able to manage that process •
Observation
•
Recording
•
Monitoring
•
Analysis
•
Creativity and synthesis
•
Evaluation
The role of the educator is to offer children ways to extend their thinking and to enable them to develop strategies for Inductive reasoning, analogical reasoning and the more sophisticated process of deductive reasoning as they grow and mature. The curriculum emerges both from the ‘playfulness’ and imagination of the educator as well as the natural playfulness of the child. It s a ‘co-‐constructed’ process that emerges from the environment, in our case form nature, from the child and lastly from us as the educator, its depth and breadth comes from the educators ability to notice and consciously be present in the opportunity when a child asks a question or participates in specific experience in a particular way. We offer an intrinsically and naturally individualistic process that extends thinking and being, builds neural pathways and develops strategies for problem solving and resilience and confidence in learning.
Emergent curriculum is after a period of transformation for the educator, a most excellent and satisfying methodology, children become intrinsically motivated, children’s ideas and assumptions are catered for and challenged and the educator is able to channel and intensify learning. It is the responsibility of the educator to observe, monitor and analyse the interests and the emerging motivations of the child. It is at this point that the educator will think creatively and flexibly. The role of the educator is not to prescribe an outcome and create a formulaic
methodology to ensure an inevitable outcome; it is the role to ‘road map’ a great many opportunities and to consider a vast array of outcomes. By being able to contemplate some of the outcomes it is possible to identify appropriate materials, resources, equipment or even a vocabulary to be using with the children to develop the interest and to facilitate their journey to facilitate maximum possibility. The actual outcome of the session and learning day may be unimaginable and the resulting learning far, far more marvellous that we as planners could have hoped for. It is important to understand the role of the educator in this process. It is at times, a difficult and time consuming role, one that requires flexibility and patience. There are certain aspects to life that need to be learnt, self awareness, self regulation, respect of others and the environment, natural systems and interrelationships, mathematical reasoning and scientific enquiry, cultural influences and historical influences. As such may well have a general topic they think is important for children to study and the educator will be mindful of these whilst listening and observing the child’s natural enquiry. It is common at Nature Kindergarten that a curriculum idea or topic or theme for the children can come from a variety of simple sources such as finding bugs under a log, watching the rain make rivulets in the mud, watching the wind as it blows and makes sounds through the trees. Those who are skilled at such teaching are often unable to communicate to parents, colleagues, or the public what intuitively they are doing superbly well (Jones 1977, 4) The Emergence of Emergent Curriculum by Elizabeth Jones.
2.4.4. Typical Days at Forest Schools: 2.4.4.1. Health and safety checks:
Forest Schools programmes always start with the fulfilment of basic needs that are
described by Maslow and expanded upon by Carl Rogers, as these support the basic brain functions found in the reptilian brain, proper clothing, warmth, food, drinks and physical and emotional safety. Forest Schools practitioners carry out the daily dynamic site risk assessments and ensure the group safety; they are up to date on the newest weather forecast. The group is either asked about relevant issues relating to safety, so they can recount aspects to remember and offer advice, support to each other or briefed about safety aspects. It is ensured that all accompanying adults are aware of essential processes that the leader will employ whilst working with the children at the site, as well as how to manage the group should emergency cover be required. An example of this may be the need to access emergency services, and how they may access the evacuation point. These will be contained in the Policies, procedures, Risk Assessments and the Communication documentation given to support assistants, other leaders or parents. Depending on the maturity level, these will be taught to the children also. 2.4.4.2. Preparation of Forest School sites:
First and foremost is the preparation of the Forest School site that is unique to the needs
of the group and suits the environment. The site preparation is carried out in negotiation with the woodland owner. Normally located in a cleared area of the woodland, the site is made as safe as possible where required. However, it should provide opportunities to explore and discover other areas of more dense ground flora. The site can vary in complexity from no fixed features to a fully
constructed shelter, fire area, cooking area, tool and equipment storage, as well as coat racks, toilet facilities, art installations, play spaces, craft areas and any combination of the above.
There may be separate identified areas for fire, hygiene, creative art, and tool-‐use, fast games, throwing games, water collection, flora monitoring or other ideas. Though a permanent construction takes longer, it can in certain circumstances become a more rewarding proponent for some groups depending on their needs, ages and development. All site development requirements, assessment and management are covered on Archimedes Earth training courses.
2.4.4.3. Development of Children: Archimedes Earth focuses on the holistic development of children and adults of any age or ability. Separate programmes are organised for adults and for special needs groups as appropriate,
and combines all family groups for programmes too when required. Because the process is individual therefore focused and child centred according to the prerequisites of the development plan for each child, through provision for their interests, capabilities and maturity. Baseline Assessments will be carried out by the Skilled Practitioner over the first few weeks of the Forest School, becoming more detailed as the Informed Leader delivers more programmes. Through the use of agreed interventions to develop physical strength and confidence, well being, emotional literacy and social awareness within the wider realms of the appropriate curriculum (and here we take curriculum to be any programme of personal development, not restricted to educational and intellectual curricula). Children are supported to understand, build skill levels, and problem solve through the opportunities that are designed and possibilities open to them on the programme. The intended outcome of each session is to support the child as a capable learner, one with the ability to remain personally sustainable. The Baseline Assessment the Archimedes Model promotes is the use of any appropriate observational tools to measure social awareness, personal awareness, empathy, self-‐regulation and self motivation (emotional literacy in order to build up children's awareness of the natural environment, social environment and the way it affects them and how they impact others). This is how an understanding of an ability to manage individual and personal risk factors in relation to the world around them. The Skilled Practitioner then adapts processes so that the children build a strong connectedness to one another and nature, the beginnings of a positive self-‐identity, a strong sense of place as well as a positive environmental identity. A capable learner will impact on education, community, and society and to some extent the wider world through positive experience, adequate reflection, and formulation of beliefs,
values, attitude and resulting behaviours. The art of the practitioner as mentor, facilitator and coach, is to understand what is in effect a positive experience for that individual. This will come from their ability to observe, make good judgments, to provide the right level of risk, the right level of challenge and utilize those elements that intrigue and interest that child. Without the review process though the practitioner will leave the outcome to chance, they will rely solely on serendipity, and as a result the outcomes could be anywhere and everywhere. Intended learning is paramount for children to development abilities to become good citizens, socially and culturally responsible, having appropriate moral, ethical and cultural values, as well as to understand that two and two equals four and that writing their name and reading is an important life skill, that without will lead to some elements of social exclusion. Serendipity is also critical to all experiences; it is needed and necessary for learning. Without awe and wonder of the world and appreciation of the nuance, the special and unique world we live in, children can and will never come to terms with the wonders and immense value and preciousness of this planet. It is impossible for the leader to fundamentally determine or predict or anticipate the full learning picture or process of each child and it will take away from the child their part in the learning process. The best learning for the child will come via providence, chance and the finding of a certain indescribable treasure. 2.4.4.4. Thematic Sessions:
Some practitioners organise their sessions on themes and these will be based not only on
the needs of a group, but also their specific interests, passions, leads or quests for knowledge and
understanding. For some it could be the understanding of the physical process, so using schemas as a way to provide opportunities through materials and resources or places in the forest or woodland that will support this natural investigation can be as sophisticated as it comes. Others may use the Celts, or the Romans, or archaeological digs, dinosaurs, flight, geology and hard things, mud, fire, leaves, butterflies, poetry, storytelling, survival, giants, animals, living things, shelters, dens and houses of the world, cooking at festivals, rituals and rites of passage, France, Spain, Australia, the list is endless. Areas of National Curriculum Foundation to KS4 are intrinsically covered but the sessions are not necessarily curriculum led. Sessions and opportunities provided are expected to be within the capabilities of every person within a group, however there is a need for differentiation and for challenge and for risk and for the development of problem solving techniques. Opportunities are provided with different objectives: Games and group activities, for building teamwork skills; opportunities to play games like hide and seek, shelter building, develop tool skills whilst making objects, lighting fires and cooking, creativity using a range of natural materials, pigments, dyes, and environmental art are all avenues for building individual skills and heightening self-‐esteem. They are not solely the product that is created, but the development of intra and inter personal skills, as well as other intellectual understanding. 2.4.4.5. Use of Tools:
Tools are used in a traditional woodland manner and are introduced gradually after the
baseline assessment process. BY then the practitioner will have an informed idea of the ability of each child to listen and to adhere to the fundamental health and safety requirements made of them, to keep themselves and others out of harms way. The Practitioner will be qualified to use tools, with a certificate of achievement from the awarding body; to show that whilst training the
leader fine tuned their own use of tools to become unconsciously competent. Therefore we can be confident that when the tools are introduced to the child, the process of teaching will be safe, consistent and easily managed by the leader. If tools are introduced before the Baseline Assessment process carried out with the children, the practitioner has little understanding of the child’s self awareness and ability to control body movement, emotions and understanding of spatial aspects, relating to the tools themselves and other people. Once we understand the levels of maturity, and physical levels of the children, then we can put in place the required control measures to allow freedom of use, build confidence and avoid accidents or incidents, all within the boundaries that have been set. If we use the tools without ourselves being confident and self-‐ assured users we will demonstrate inconsistent use and processes to children, who will then, as imitators of other, pick these up and use the tools in the same way, which could lead to an accident and injury. Without the depth of experience, children do not have a full understanding of the consequences of using a tool in an unsafe manner. The Archimedes Model builds children’s ability to manage risk, understand challenge, but for them to build up those skills, according to the constructivist model of learning, though reflection and good role modelling practice, the practitioner must go though the same process themselves, prove competency before trying it out on the children. With reference to insurance here, tools and fires can be used independently when qualified, unqualified trainees can only utilize tools with children with a qualified practitioner in situ.
When the observations and assessments of the group members are complete, strategies are introduced in order to build up awareness of the ground rules, physical and social boundaries and safe working practices and processes. All trained and qualified practitioners deliver with a built in safety approach so that children become used to them. Use of tools promotes trust, self-‐ confidence and develops gross and fine motor skills. The qualified practitioner constantly evaluates progressions of each individual and makes adjustments to meet each child’s requirements. Tools Talks are used as strategies, Introduced by Archimedes Earth since 2001, that have their foundations in educational and learning theory. They are simple, adaptable, follow a sequence and story and are aspirational using visual, auditory and kinesthetic processes to ensure transference into the long term memory of practitioners as well as children and young people who use them. Tools talks are a requirement of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 that requires all to be trained in the safe management and use of equipment that could cause damage or harm. It is the Archimedes principle that by setting the boundaries early on reduces conflict, error, or mistakes later. And most importantly it set the boundaries and expectations for learners so that they are fully aware of how to manage themselves and others as well as the tool and protocols for well being. Tools Talk Protocols are accompanied by actions: Bow Saw •
This is my Bow Saw
•
This is the Handle
•
This is the Blade
•
This is the Blade Cover
•
I take the Blade Cover off like this
•
This is the Blade
•
This is the cutting edge
•
When I’m not using my Bow Saw; going backward and forwards, I replace the Blade Cover like this
•
I hold my Bow Saw like this
•
I walk with my Bow Saw like this
•
I pass my bow saw like this
•
When I’m not using my Bow Saw I place it on the ground next to me with the Handle facing outwards and the covered Blade facing in towards me
•
I use my Bow Saw to cut anything larger than a 50p piece
•
I use my Bow Saw two arms and an arms length away form anyone apart from my partner
•
When I have finished using the Bow Saw I replace it in the Tool Box provided with the Handle facing downwards and the Blade facing up.
•
I always use a Glove on my Helping Hand.
2.4.4.6. Reflection and Transfer:
Themes may well circumvent the intended outcome of the programme; it is therefore
essential for the leader to understand what this is for each participant, and the group as a whole. Transfer of learning is paramount to success, i.e. using learning from one place and then being able to use that skill, knowledge or understanding in another situation, location or difficulty. When parallels can be made between problem solving in Forest School, for example making a fire when the resources are wet, and then reflecting on what worked and what did not, why it didn't and what changes can be made in the future, the learner can then apply the learning made at Forest School to completing a task at home or at school. It is likely that the answers to the issues arising out of Forest Schools are not immediately apparent or there would be no difficulty in achieving a successful outcome. In the same way, when in school, with friends or family, if the answers were consciously available the child would have no issues solving the situations. Forest Schools challenges become metaphors for life and the issues and situation the opportunities and experiences encountered, throw up prospects for learning for our children. Once a child learns l to break down a problem into its constituent parts; the resources needed, the understanding or skill required, the time needed to complete and any help required from others, these strategies can then be transferred into other areas of the child’s life with maximum benefit for well being, confidence and ability to cope with stressful situations in the future. Research from McCree and others suggest that resilience can be an outcome for children who attend Forest Schools. Resilience is the ability to be strong in times of adversity, to cope with
stressful situations as they have the capacity to sort out issues arising in their lives. So if Resilience is a skill learnt at Forest schools (See Fig 4: The Forest School Participant – What comes out) for some children transference of learning processes will indeed enable children to use those skills elsewhere with very positive results. For the Practitioner who has completed their baseline assessments, they will have a clear picture on the ability of children to focus, be self motivated and to problem solve by the end of the first six sessions. With a balanced understanding of these maturity levels for each child the practitioner can facilitate a clearer and more focused vision of goals and how to provide opportunities to meet milestones on the journey during the development phase of the Forest Schools Programme, The Skilled Practitioner will understand three types of learning transfer and will use a variety of different approaches depending on the needs and requirements for each group or child. This can change both in the session and between sessions depending on the results of your assessments of observations. •
Specific Transfer
The learning of specific skills for use in a very similar situation e.g. learning knots from making a picture frame, to building the shelter or tying into a climbing harness is a perfect example as the knots serve a similar purpose though they are used in a different situation. •
Non-‐specific transfer
Learning of more generic behaviours and applying them to different situations, for example participating and developing trust during a blind fold walk to protect against physical injury can be transferred to trusting others to support in times of volunteering ideas or the
disclosure of secrets. •
Metaphoric transfer
A metaphor is an idea, object or description used in place of another idea to represent comparative similarity between the two. This type of transfer can be represented as the activities can be used to represent real life situations. If parallels can be made between the two learning environments for example problem-‐solving making a fire when the resources are wet will create specific problems, this could then be paralleled with completing a task in real life when the answers do not seem immediately apparent. Another example would be using inner strength to compose you appropriately in order to take the first step of speaking in public. This could be mirrored in having the confidence to apply for a Woodland Skills qualification, and then built up to have an interview or start a new job or start a new relationship. If the connections are startlingly clear then there will be a greater success in the transfer of information from one experience to another. Your role as practitioner is to strengthen the connection and therefore enhance the transfer through the way you use reflective practice. At the end of the day, as well as throughout the session, a review of progress made by each individual is carried out: children could be asked to shout out, draw, act or play a game to review the day they have experienced. Bringing the session back into the forefront of their minds will give them an opportunity to have a deeper reflective perspective through which they can evaluate their own learning and how to transfer that into everyday processes, for now and in the future. Children can apply so much of their learning at Forest Schools, consciously and unconsciously to the rest of their everyday lives, at home and in school. This is followed up through evaluations
carried out with school staff and parents or caregivers. Each time children leave school or nursery for home they may take something with them from the site to home to encourage parental interest and encourage communication on the day’s Forest Schools session. The main focus of this is to build attachment and a sense of value and achievement, it also allows the development of personal and emotional bonding and attachment that will enhance and facilitate a sense of significance, a deep realisation that others are interested in them as an individual. This demonstrates that these significant others in a child’s life support their learning and how they are managing their days as they grow. The Sutton Trust has released findings that 40% of children from all walks of life are experiencing attachment issues with parents and caregivers in the UK and this gap in emotional bonds can influence a child’s ability to learn and apply themselves at school. This inevitably is impacting on the levels of progression and the likelihood that they may become NEET (Not in Education Employment or Training) later in life. Archimedes Forest Schools Model concentrates its work on developing positive lifelong learning attitudes, not simply on those that are functional in the here and now. Forest Schools is there to develop positive attitudes to self, others and the environment in which we live. Positive relationships at home also enhance communication back to school. It is a continuity of process of review and reflection. Nawaz and Blackwell report in their findings (2014) that there is an increase in the numbers of child-‐initiated visits with family at weekends and holidays to woodland and green spaces as a result of participating in Archimedes Forest Schools Education programmes. The Transition state is where through positive experiences at Forest Schools, with the right ingredients, beliefs can be formulated, mostly unconsciously in the first instance, regarding education, learning, friends, adults, the outdoors, respect for others and for self. These beliefs will inform our values
and how we attribute value to those areas of our lives. As we all know, behaviours are the tip of the proverbial iceberg. By focusing on the experiences and creating positive neurology, the behaviours will be representative of those values and beliefs we hold. We all know values are developed through experiences of a wide range of aspects of our lives. We have both intrinsic as well as extrinsic values all influenced by our friends, the media, culture, school and experiences that we undertake. If, as Becker states, that after only three years of having introduced the Television into Fiji, accompanied by a process of rapid and diverse social change, it was found that girls around the age of adolescence increased their preoccupation with body image. How quickly would we at Forest Schools, be able to develop intrinsic values towards community, self, environment and education through positive experiences with exposure to caring and meaningful learning over the long term. Not only was there this increase in self image issues, but this was accompanied by eating disorders and social competitiveness. All extrinsic values and a shift away from the pre change era where intrinsic values were more highly regarded; family and community. Becker, A. E. (2004, December). Television disordered eating, and young women in Fiji: Negotiating body image and identity during rapid social change. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 28 (4), 533–559.
Fig 8: The Transition State –The process of positive thoughts and experiences that lead to positive behaviours
CHAPTER 3: Archimedes Earth Practitioner Training 3.1. Training of Practitioners – Pedagogy, and Woodland Environment Holistic development of participants attending and participating in Forest Schools programmes is based on five basic components; 1.
Intention and outcome
2.
Woodland setting
3.
Pedagogical approach
4.
Skills (practical as well as ability to carry out environmental assessments and Health and Safety)
5.
Programme design, delivery and reflection.
This reflective process applies to both the practitioner and how these are employed and utilised as well as how these skills can be and will be taught and developed within the individual learner as a part of the programme process. These are all balanced around the central pivot of training.
Fig 9: Training Elements. Critical and distinguishing elements In the Archimedes Forest Schools Model of Training Practitioners and Trainers. It is through establishing a foundation and then in understanding these components in all their facets and diverse propositions, possibilities and interrelationships, gained from initial training through post training experience and then the coming together of like minds on assessment week to share and balance and build on those initial months of experience that consolidates the knowledge, skill and understanding. The second week of training adds strategy, insight, substance and essence to the whole experience; the part that I call the ‘honey’. Honey is food, it is sustenance, it is life, and it also allows one, when spread on the past knowledge to move those elements of knowledge around much more fluidly and easily, the second week of training has at its core the binding element that supports, compounds, and then propels the individual into
independence and freedom. It is the transformational element that has been discussed, supporting a new Frame of reference and creating a strong 'map' for the practitioner of how Forest Schools can become an immersive and effective learning provision. Until that time the trainee practitioner has been the student, the learner, the processor of given information, after this point, the practitioner is free to manage, to indulge, to move, to experiment with the acquired knowledge, skills and experience that they have instilled inside themselves. They are the author of the next chapter and the accountability of that process, its highs and lows are all their responsibility and this is where the true adventure begins.
Fig 10. The Trainee Practitioner Recipe
3.2. Neurological Development in Natural Environment
There is an increasing bank of evidence demonstrating there is a correlation between the
age of a child and the corresponding formation of connections between neurons. This process is called synaptogenesis. In the UK, a collaborative research initiative, the ‘Teaching and Learning Research Programme’, under the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), has been investigating the relationship between neuroscience, psychology and education. Research shows that in adolescence a second wave of structuring and organisation occurs in the brain, hormones are racing and there are inputs of growth hormones, sex hormones, emotional hormones and those that deeply imprint on us as women or men, oestrogen and testosterone. Therefore, as the brain continues to develop and adapt, there is a need for molding and shaping in readiness for independence and adulthood, though this process of maturity. Children who are stressed do not give their neurons an opportunity for myelination, or hard wire, if they cant hard wire the synapses in the brain, then there will be a reduction in the number of available options for problem solving. It is likely that the social and emotional processes that have worked in early childhood are sill being employed; this results in a lack of self-‐regulation and self-‐ awareness. The brain continues to change and develop throughout adulthood, but the changes are less radical than during childhood. It is not a new concept to understand that as we age, our neurons die, but it is known that the hippocampus is one area that neurogenesis continues. This is known to remain an essential component of the brains function, as it is still critical in learning and memory, storage, retention and retrieval. Brain or neuroplasticity theory and research indicates that our brain is indeed designed for lifelong learning, adaption, assimilation and adaptation. Good news for those coming on training later in years!!
Evidence has shown that the woodland environment affects physiological changes in the body, which reduce tension and anxiety and increase body’s capacity to fight against infections and free radicals. If the reduction of stress creates favourable conditions for concentration and absorption, this will in turn support the formulation of neural connections. In Forest Schools the various techniques employed for providing learning opportunities in the woodland environment is based on evidence generated through research. Repeated and frequent exposure to Forest Schools during the year covering all seasons promotes the formation of neural connection and helps learning. It has been widely and significantly recorded by the Royal Society that there is an inclination to use medicinal methods to boost cognitive ability in children with a range of disabilities and difficulties. Ritalin is a well-‐known and increasingly prescribed drug for children diagnosed with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity disorders, according to the Care Quality Commission, and increase of 50% in the last 5 years; 420,000 cases in 2007 to 657,000 last year. Participating in Forest Schools Education demonstrates that though the use of nature and engaging in the consistent, repetitive and recurrent learning opportunities occurring in this space, many, not all by any means, of the behaviours that are anti social in the classroom do not cause the same impacts when at Forest Schools and do perhaps support the proposal that ‘education is the most powerful and successful cognitive enhancer of all’. http://royalsociety.org/ All experience impacts on the brain, we are a multi sensory organism that is consistently and continually firing neurons when we sleep, walk, talk, watch, reflect, interact, pay attention and learn. The brain is described as having ‘neuroplasticity’ or an immense ability to be flexible and to adapt to changing environments. Interestingly for the Forest Schools Practitioner it is
something called experience-‐dependent plasticity that is present at all stages of our lives. What this actually refers to is the understanding that neurons are strengthened and become wired together when they are fired together concurrently. Someone described this the process as ‘neurons that fire together, wire together’!! Lovden M, et al (2010). A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity, Psychol Bull 136(4), 659–76. This is very important information for us as Forest Schools Practitioner because we speak about holistic learning as a methodology, but knowing what is different helps us to understanding why this works. The Archimedes Model proposes that Forest Schools is an integrated part of the education or learning system, and that it is in a deeply sensory environment, the woodland. Research is demonstrating that by participating in opportunities that are multi sensory, discovering things and socializing, experiencing the elements of natural world, smells, textures, sounds and movement all at the same time in the Forest Schools environment that this will increase the plasticity of the brain. Research therefore is showing us how important this is to the development of children, and we can take note, and understand, because we observe it occurring when there is longevity of involvement. This neuroplasticity can not become embedded through experiences that occur on a one of occasion, they can be a trigger for it, especially where there is heightened sensitivity and emotion, this is stored in the hippocampus and can be retrieved later for use, but it will not provide for myelination and a hard wired response in the same way repeated actions and process are over a period of time will as at the long term Forest Schools programme. This research demonstrates ‘why’ it is important. If neurons are firing together, stress levels are low, (due to deep level learning contributed to by a change of brain patterns)…release of cortisol and epinephrine is reduced and therefore myelination becomes possible. Through
repetition this myelination process speeds up learning and if neurons are being wired together and strengthened this in turn impacts on the learning process for the future participation in similar situations, or ones that require problem solving to create answers. So the more experiences the more neurons; the more neurons the greater increase in resilience due to the ability to deal with adverse or potentially difficult or stressful situations. Experiences, with reflection lead to learning (Greenaway), which in turn leads to memories and a wide and varied storage of possibilities and potential as we journey through our lives. Research in brain development have shown us that there are ‘best’ times for learning some processes and also that there possibly is a decrease in the ability to retaining information the older we get, unless we keep actively learning. It is suggested that it is the hippocampus and the amygdala interestingly enough that are the two areas where this ‘pruning’ of synapses does not occur. The brain structure changes all the way through our lives and it is suggested the greatest level of synaptogenesis, or myelination happen in the brain from birth to three years, decreasing to a slightly slower rate as we pass through childhood, but still very rapid compared to other times of our lives. It is understood that there are ‘optimum periods’ for learning skills, or to simply being exposed to experiences, children who have not experienced attachment with parents and in particular their mother, and developed emotionally have been shown to have very few synaptic reactions or connections in that part of the brain. Some of this research came out of Romania where children were kept in cribs without any attention or care or love for years of their lives. Adults have been found to have difficulty in discerning some sounds if they have not heard them in the first six month of their lives. The fixed periods of sensitivity are most commonly shaped in
the individual by the environment and therefore the abilities revolving around aspects of vision movement, memory tasks which can best be learnt in the multi sensory natural environment. In adolescence, brain development in the frontal and parietal lobes are strident. The frontal lobe is that area that houses the dopamine system, that relating to short term memory, attention, planning and self motivation. Because the neurons in this lobe are the most dopamine sensitive, if there is any reduction in the production or transition of dopamine, and therefore that feeling of the ‘feel good’ factor, a sense of reward and achievement, then there can be a correlated reduction in performance and memory, impacting on problem solving and decreased brain function when completing tasks. The partial lobe is responsible for sensory and spatial sensitivity. It is highly likely that those tasks that respond to the dopamine are not necessarily those that are considered to be the most favourable by adults, parents and teachers, and this can be where great rifts appear in relationships and therefore self esteem and self confidence. These hormones and chemicals are intensely strong and overpowering and in some cases will leave the logical brain standing. Growth hormones, sex hormones, emotional hormones and those that deeply imprint on us as women or men, oestrogen and testosterone are all busy changing the way our brain works, which is intact being restructured from within. Therefore, as the brain continues to develop and adapt, there is a need for molding and shaping in readiness for independence and adulthood, though this process of maturity. Children who are stressed do not give their neurons an opportunity for myelination, or hard wired because of the cortisol levels in the blood stream, fight or flight is the agenda, not self-‐actualization. If firing neurons cant hard wire over the synapses in the brain, then there will be a reduction in the number of available options for problem solving. It is likely that the social and emotional processes that have worked in
early childhood are sill being employed; this results in a lack of self-‐regulation and self-‐awareness. As we pass puberty, and adolescence is behind us, the capacity for neurons to connect decreases. Research suggests that children with autism and Autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) have a larger brain during babyhood and early childhood and also that the hippocampus and amygdala are larger during childhood. Researchers are not entirely sure why this is or what the specific impact has but as we understand the amygdala is there to support our flight or fight and therefore survival, and this could be a contributing factor to the increase in anxiety and heightened stress levels in those with ASD, especially as these areas do not proportionally increase in size with chronological maturity, These changes in the brain impact on aspects of development closely related to the work around Emotional Literacy; self awareness, self regulation self motivation, the ability to empathise and relate to understanding others perspectives, understanding of social situation and an increase in the capacity to feel guilt and embarrassment. Blakemore S J (2008). The social brain in adolescence. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9(4), 267–277. The current research shows that self regulation -‐ and to be clear this means the ability to control and manage impulsive actions we could make that could be deemed as inappropriate or socially unacceptable -‐ develops slowly in early childhood but in normal development conditions increases in adolescence and adulthood. We are examining in reality the development of Executive Functioning and Ontogenesis, the development of the self through self-‐determination and self regulation. Without and understanding of social boundaries, and the ability to read the cues and control our behaviours accordingly to abide by these social rules, then we will find ourselves excluded and in some cases incarcerated with no freedoms what so ever. By using the woodlands highly sensory environment
for learning, we allow children to literally ‘fire on all cylinders’ all at the same time, ensuring maximum learning potential and a holistic and rounded understanding of a sense of self others and the environment as well as developing an understanding of physics, chemistry, biology, culture, language and literacy, mathematics, history, geography, music, art, design and technology to list a few curricula subjects. By looking to provide opportunities for children to function appropriately in a range of social situations, and be able to understand and adhere to the rules and boundaries of acceptable cultural behaviours, long-‐term strategies are required for myelination. They can not be embedded in a day, or a week, or indeed 6 weeks. This process needs to become neurologically hard wired in the brain, in the frontal and parietal lobes where memory and outcome are linked with other sensory input as from smells, tastes, sights, touch and feelings. The Archimedes Forest Schools Model is long term because of this research. Education improves outcomes in life and for life. A one off experience, will be just that, and may remain in the short term memory systems if reflection or revalidation is experienced, but by going over or repeating a process again and again is to facilitate the myelination process and embed in the neurological processes in the brain. Forest Schools is long term programme in the woodlands because there is multi wiring processes going on, neurons are being fired at the same time and these will be stronger and these stronger links will enable the learning to become more functional if repeated and used in a variety of different contexts, that is translated and transferred. 3.3. Benefits of Tools and Fire in Forest Schools: Learning the use of tools and fire helps develop certain attributes like self discipline, accuracy,
confidence, hand eye coordination, well being, self sufficiency and the development of muscle memory. Development of right muscle memory is very crucial in skills development. Muscle memory may be defined as ‘a type of movement with which the muscles becomes familiar over time’. An example of this is playing the guitar by using different fingers. By practicing, the fingers develop muscle memory and then it is possible to play without looking at the fret board. The same is true about the use of tools. Muscle memory is the route to unconscious competency. The muscle memory is stored in the brain but it is essential for learning complex tasks and movements such as safely using the tools and lighting fires, but equally for the leader to know how to teach those skills to others. Without unconscious competency, or at a minimum, conscious competency, then the leader is still a learner and will not have the experience to fully understand the consequences of their use, practice, or indeed how to rectify mistakes in practice. If a child gets frustrated because a method isn’t working correctly, the leader must be able to stand out of the picture, look objectively and consider solutions. Without the muscle memory and a wide variety of synaptic responses that circumvent the process, it simply is not possible to advise. Both the child and the leader are in the same experiential place, and tools and fires are not the place to be developing on the job. Brain activity is very high during the learning and achievement process, there is a highly sensitized and emotional reaction to the process and this stimulates certain chemicals and functions in the brain. When a process is repeated over time by using muscles it builds the neural pathways and as such the muscles are said to have developed their own memory patterns allowing performance unconsciously. The same is true of new movements that lead to awkward and uncoordinated efforts and mistakes. As we have seen in the
previous section during adolescence there is an increased awareness due to the numbers of synaptic connections made in the brain that relate to special awareness and those made through sensory input. There can sometimes be a lack of coordination, where this has been exemplary in the past due to the increase and rapid growth in muscle tissue, bone and ligaments that need to be re programmed and coordinated. Patience and understanding is the key here to support young people as they master skills, this can be supported through the methodical and gentle approach to introducing tools and fires taught on the Archimedes training. During the initial phase of the process of acquisition of learning, there is a quick fire learning action in the memory. This happens relatively quickly, for example, in the use of the sheath knife. The body and brain are both working out how to hold the knife, how to make effective and efficient movements with it to whittle and hone the stick into a sharp point. It is the second phase, which takes longer because the brain is aiming at the accuracy and precision of the movements required to achieve creation of beauty and balanced structure. Muscle memory is a form of procedural memory and enables the learner to become very good at something through repetition. Equally one can become very bad at something through the same number of repetitions. Trainee practitioners are required to follow the basic structure of training in order to develop muscles memories that are helpful and reduce the likelihood of harm from incorrect usage processes. Many of these training processes utilised by Archimedes have been formulated and based on the teachings of Robin Wood, master wood turner from Edale and his immense respect for tools and quality of practice. The saying ‘you can’t teach an old dog new tricks’ is not true, but it is much harder to learn to re-‐do something that has potentially taken years of practice to perfect as working practice, only
to have to change it later on. And it is this that makes muscle memory so important as a practitioner and also the process through which it has been achieved. While demonstrating a good practice and teaching children to use knives or tools correctly and with precision, it is important to have correct muscle memory or else teaching without having precision and unconscious competency will lead to imperfect actions in ourselves. Demonstrating an imperfect action will lead to an unsafe practice in children and formation of their own muscle memory. Malcolm Gladwell has suggested that it takes 10,000 hours to make someone an expert. But others suggest that it is more like 300 to 500. Irrespective of the number of hours or repetitions, if the quality is questionable, then those hours are a waste. The key to good muscle memory is quality as opposed to the quantity. 3.3.1. Stages in Competence Development in Tools Use and Safety Practices:
The steps in development of competence in the use of tools and other skills involve five
stages. The cycle is sequential in that each step must be gone through. The skill of the trainer is in making the transition from one stage to the next only as painful as is required! It is also very useful for trainers to regularly put themselves back into a state of conscious incompetence to feel the vulnerability of that Stage 2 place. Business Balls websites states: “The California-‐based Gordon Training organization, was founded by Dr Thomas Gordon. He states that their Learning Stages model 'The Four Stages for Learning Any New Skill' was developed by former GTI employee, Noel Burch over 30 years ago. •
Stage 1 -‐ Unconscious Incompetence: This stage can be best described as “blissful ignorance”. It’s the stage where learners actually don’t see the need for the particular skill
at all. And if they think about it at all, it’s to assume that it’s either way beyond them or too easy to bother with. What’s needed in this part of the cycle in order is to move onto the next stage is a pain of some sort. Learners need to find themselves in situations where they struggle and appreciate that they actually do need to learn something. Let’s use the analogy of driving. In this stage, it tends to be assumed that anyone can drive and that it’s really easy to learn. The person may not want to learn until they are faced with a situation where they have to learn how to drive. •
Stage 2 -‐ Conscious Incompetence: This is the most painful stage for learners, particularly adult learners who are used to feeling a certain level of competence in other spheres of their life. It’s a sobering experience to realise that you are not very good at this new skill. It can feel humiliating and vulnerable for the learner. Instructions and information will need to be given, repeated and delivered in several different formats: visual, auditory and kinaesthetic before even the rudiments of the new skill are acquired. It is very tempting at this stage for learners to want to give up. They need encouragement, support and practical examples of people who have successfully mastered the skill. Feedback on performance needs to be given frequently. They may also need some gentle reminders of their initial motivation. To return to the driving example, in this stage, lessons, support, encouragement and practice are crucial for successful negotiation of this stage.
•
Stage 3 -‐ Conscious Competence: In this stage of driving, the car has a large L plate and instructions are followed with painful accuracy. Learner drivers in this stage can be seen repeating instructions to themselves, checking manuals. Self-‐learning resources are a critical support as the learner gradually begins to gain confidence and realise that while the
skill feels unnatural and forced, there is progress. The skill can be practiced but only with a full conscious effort and full attention. Further practice is essential to move onto the next stage. One useful technique for moving onto the next stage is to teach the skill to another. •
Stage 4 -‐ Unconscious Competence: When people are at this level, the skill looks effortless. The unconsciously competent person can often do other things along with the skill. This can be a dangerous stage for trainers because what is effortless for them, for learners it is Stage 1 or 2. At this stage, trainers may need to become learners again, perhaps by attending a training course, watching other trainers at work, or going back to acquire a totally new skill.
•
Stage 5 -‐ Beyond Unconscious Competence: There is some controversy about a “fifth stage” of competency. I personally like the idea of “reflective competence”. This competence means that not only can the person practice the skill with grace and ease, but they can also step outside themselves to see what they have done and identify the steps and their underlying thought processes. They become observers of their own skill.
3.3.2. Tools Use and Care:
Irrespective of the ages of the learners, it is the responsibility of the leader (employer) in
the eyes of the Health and Safety at Work 1974 Act to teach safe use. Tools need to be managed in such a way that it will reduce the likelihood of injury, maintained appropriately and that others in the group (employees) are taught the correct manner by which they have to use it when working. It is a legal duty to do so and until the individuals within the group can demonstrate personal competency, it is the leader’s responsibility with regards to guidelines and safety
processes. Tools Talks are a requirement of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, where the equipment use, its correct usage and how to keep self and others safe are explained. All tools will be well managed and well maintained, as this will ensure that they are suitable and effective to carry out the task. 3.3.3. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
For each procedure and activity there is the correct PPE. This includes steel toecaps if
felling or carrying large items; warm underclothes and waterproofs, hats and perhaps long sleeved clothing areas where biting mosquitos or gnats are present; heat resistant gloves when using fires or Kelly Kettles; hard hats and luminous jackets if tree felling or working with overhead resources or pruning; and goggles for working with wood that may splinter and fly. The decision to wear PPE is based on competency levels and the desire to reduce the likelihood of harm, and if it is statutory and required. A practitioner could be held liable in a court of law if a learner is put into danger and the correct equipment was not provided. If a young person, who can make reasonable judgments is given PPE to wear, but chooses not to it will be the responsibility of the practitioner or leader to restrict the use of the equipment so as not to contravene the health and safety legislation. Under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 it is the responsibility of the employee – or in this case the young person to take reasonable care for their and others safety, to follow guidelines and instruction of process to keep safe. As long as this is being followed then work can continue. As soon as the safety guidelines are not being adhered to the leader will be well within their legal rights to restrict access to tools or equipment that may cause injury or harm.
3.3.4. Fire Circle Guidelines:
Archimedes Earth recommends guidelines for the fire circle construction and this will be
taught during training and assessed during the accreditation process. The process includes site assessments, risk assessments suitable to the site, investigation of the ground bedrock and soil types, the design suitable for the whole of the fire area, clearance of the area around the fire to reduce the likelihood of trip hazards and of course safety processes to avoid falling into the fire. There are requirements for construction of the site. Procedures are developed in order to maintain the safety of the group members against fire hazards and whilst the purpose of the training is to provide guidelines for competency of the leaders to be assessed. This allows those employers and parents to know that the practitioner is capable and accommodating when aspects of their personal responsibility are required. It is probably useful to note that most insurance companies do not allow or permit individuals who are going through their training to use fires, cooking or tools without the presence of another qualified Practitioner or until the assessment process has been completed. If a practitioner was to use tools and fires and a child or participant was to have an accident, of course, they would not be covered for the liability of their actions, as they have not as yet been deemed competent until assessment has taken place.
CHAPTER 4: Risks, Safety Measures and Benefits 4.1. Risks and Safety In Forest Schools:
As we have previously discussed the foundations on which the Archimedes Forest Schools
Model in the UK is based, may be traced to the works of early day philosophers, naturalists, educators and adventurists like Wordsworth, Ruskin, Dewey, Kurt Hahn, Susan Isaacs, Carl Rogers and the Macmillan sisters, to reiterate a few. They worked on varied themes ranging from a love for nature, the importance of learning outdoors and the understanding of how the inspiration of a playful childhood could motivate and expand the possibilities for learning and development. Forest School education offers freedom and opportunity to play and accept challenge through managed risks. Children’s rights to play, in line with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989, and adopted into the UK in 1991, is whilst ‘striking a balance between risks and benefits of challenging play opportunities’ advocated by the Play Safety Forum, formed in 1993 and in a Health and Safety Executive statement ‘Children’s Play and Leisure, -‐ Promoting a Balanced Approach 2012. Safety is taken seriously and thoughtful consideration is given to its management through structural foundations. This can ensure that children are able to work within their comfort zones when new to the experience, extend their participation, levels of challenge and anticipation of risk, harm and challenge, leading to increased understanding of self, their physical strength, their mental capacity to overcome and ultimately to use problem solving skills to make important decisions regarding
appropriate participation for the simple need for self preservation, in order to maintain Personal Sustainability. This self awareness and self regulation through mindfulness and a growth in the capacity for executive thinking allows adventure and all it offers without the risks of moving across the line into misadventure through accident or incident. It is the role of the practitioner to understand the social, physical and psychological boundaries of the group as a whole, but also the individuals within the group as they interact with the environment that they are in. The Archimedes Model is respectful of appropriate measures providing the skilled practitioner with a deep understanding of why these boundaries surrounding safety are undertaken, and through the development of confidence and expertise in the skilled practitioner to ensure that all participants can expect levels of acceptable safety but by balancing inevitable and necessary exposure to physical, social and personal challenges and their associated risks with the benefits of experiencing a multi sensory playful life. The ethos of Forest Schools Education and learning is not solely based on the adult view of risk. Instead, it is based on children’s innate abilities, which are allowed to grow by developing new skills and confidence. It has been observed that imposing an adult’s view of safety to children’s experiences has denied them valuable opportunities to grow normally and can contribute to a range of issues. Richard Louv in his book Last Child In the Woods identifies what he calls ‘Nature Deficit Disorder’, where the absence of a relationship correlates to many social, emotional and physical issues. Sedentary lifestyles, imposed through constraints like time availability, opportunity, fear, can contribute to a range of forms of poor health, such as obesity and related diseases; Attention Deficit Disorder, a lack of environmental identity and physical activity (Rowena Kenny, 2010).
In the last few years the concern for risks and safety to children in play environment has changed, there are individuals such as Tim Gill and others like Ball et al. and those working at the Health and Safety Executive and RoSPA. To help create a balance between the risks and the benefits of offering children challenging play opportunities, the Play Safety Forum has produced a guide by Ball et. al (2012). The document shows how play providers can replace current risk assessment practice with an approach that takes into account the benefits of challenging play experiences to children and young people. The document's approach will be useful for those who manage spaces and settings in which children play. The approach of the guide, ‘Managing Risk in Play Provision’ is very similar to the ethos and practice adopted by Archimedes Earth, which critically assesses every activity in terms of risks and benefits, based on its longevity of experience, and variety of practice; benefits to individuals as well as to the wider group and back to the Arc of Influence, are used by skilled practitioners as a basis for criteria when selecting an activity. The guide supports the view that there is need to provide children an opportunity to develop and take risks in play provision by managing risks. The national voice for learning outside the classroom, the Council for Learning outside the Classroom considers that irrespective of circumstances every child up to 19 years should be allowed to explore the world outside the classroom as an essential part of learning and personal development. The Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH) holds the view that children should be allowed to handle risks by making them ‘risk aware’ and ‘risk intelligent’ and not by making them ‘risk averse’. The council also decries ‘too much risk management’ or a ‘wrap in cotton wool’ approach. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA), while endorsing
the guide by Ball et al (2012), believes that the guide will allow children to exercise their right to play in more satisfying settings. As the children play outside and take risks, RoSPA believes that the risks ought to be managed so that unacceptable risk of death and serious injury do not occur. Agencies concerned with children’s education, development and welfare are in favour of freedom to children to allow them to take risks in play provision. It is now believed that the effective management of risk during play is ethically and legally the ultimate responsibility of the play, education and in our case Forest Schools providers. One out of six principles governing Forest School ethos is about the challenge to learners. Forest School offers learners the opportunity “to take supported risks appropriate to the environment and to themselves”. The ‘supported risks’ implies that Forest School voluntarily take due care to manage all risks themselves through proper planning and execution of programmes or sessions. In this context the Archimedes Model ensures that Health and Safety through using established methodologies, based on research about visual and kinesthetic learning processes, transference into long term memory though accurate and practiced repetition, understanding of how muscle memory works allows for easy application elsewhere. It is the appreciation of how simple rules and processes can be adopted, assimilated and adapted to similar experiences, for example, learning a tools talk for a bow saw can be accurately be applied with ease for a sheath knife. It is this understanding that has become a major thread in the education of Forest School practitioners to ensure that they have appropriate skills in risks management. 4.2. Tools, Fire and Food Hygiene:
Fire and tools are used in Forest Schools if their use is essential or the participants show
interest in them. Forest Schools can and do run in many settings without children ever using tools or fires and this is a practical and personal approach. It may be because of the age of the children, the setting or environmental considerations. Forest Schools does not need to use the more risky elements and there is extensive value in not using, as well as using the equipment to allow children to pursue their own ends, and if required to develop the skills and muscle memory to use those appropriately in their course of action, then all the good, and if not it is not essential. Archimedes promotes the notion that all experiences, Crafts of all nature, curriculum, culture, adventure, survival, exploration, skills, understanding are all a process of development and do not rely on the compulsory use of one or other piece of equipment, but on the imagination of the individual involved. The depth and essence of transformational processes and the importance of the relationships with self, others and the environment are the main issues. The Archimedes Forest Schools Model supports skilled practitioners to understand the function of the tools and fire, as a conduit or vehicle to the bigger goal and vision for each child. It trains its practitioners to apply a specific methodology of tools talks and tools use. This has been based on research of observing and collating best practice from experts, and adapted by Archimedes to reduce the likelihood of harm occurring, both to trainee practitioners as well as to children, to support positive relationships, to foster respect for the equipment and the inherent risks involved and to encourage success and therefore confidence to persevere. The use of these elements through the Archimedes Model is introduced and followed only after an evaluation of the baseline assessment has taken place during the first few weeks of the programme. This is carried out not only to assess personal awareness and regulation of emotions and movements, appreciation of others and the environment and an understanding of what is involved, but also
with respect to the potential benefit to the learners in their experience. It is common that tools are not used until it is the learners themselves who want them to be included, because they are working in a specific task or process that requires a tool to complete it. If the practitioner decides to use fire and/or tools it is the regulations of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, that will ultimately govern their introduction, training, use and maintenance. The Knife Law in the UK also covers the use of tools and it is important that the practitioner understands this legislation. If an incident was to occur as a result of a leader or practitioner not following the law, then the consequences can be very severe, and could be held vicariously responsible. Because of the introduction of these laws, the landowner’s permission is required to use tools on their land as well as to light a fire. If practitioners or learners are cooking food on fire, then the qualified leader will have awareness of appropriate food hygiene practices and training may be required. It is an employee’s legal responsibility to follow their employer’s health and safety guidelines, which will be incorporated into the procedures and policy documentation. 4.3. Archimedes Earth and Risks-‐Benefit Assessment:
Archimedes Earth offers high levels of industry focused experience, infrastructure,
expertise and resources to offer to trainees so that the development of appropriate risk-‐ management skills is well understood and appropriate for the group and for the environment. This is present through the provision of programmes as well as through the training. Risk-‐benefit analysis is undertaken before programmes commence. Risks are primarily associated with the group or individual learners, the woodland environment, the normal operating procedures including, but not exhaustively, the weather and seasonal impact, fires, tools, activities and
transport. It is essential though that it is not simply the risks that are focused upon, as in this world of fear and containment, the role of the Forest Schools Practitioner is of facilitator and enabler ensuring that the balance between the aspect of risk, i.e. the likelihood of a harm occurring to people, environment or ‘things’ is accurately balanced with the severity of any harm that may occur as a result of an encounter. This in turn is assessed against the benefits of participating in a particular process, with a particular group of people, doing particular things, and with what. So the benefits can be analysed for a particular individual, a group or environment as a whole, and whether these benefits will outweigh the sum of the severity of the risks involved. In 2013 there were 1,754 car deaths, 118 bike deaths and 3,222 serious bike injuries on Britain’s roads; Suicide is the second highest cause of death in the world amongst 15-‐19 year olds; the suicide rate for boys and men in the UK in 2011 is at its highest recorded since 2002; a total number of 5,981 recorded by the Samaritans in the 2012. Exposure to the ‘forces of nature’ caused 129 accidents whereas accidents in the home caused a whopping 2109. I think what I am trying to say is that there are some risks that in this life we simply take for granted, e.g. driving to work every day. The likelihood of a child dying in Forest Schools is very low. (Blackwell and Nawaz; Perceptions of Archimedes Forest Schools 2014) There is a significantly higher chance that a child will be injured in a car accident than be seriously hurt at Forest Schools or participating in out of the classroom activities, and the experience may just well save their life given the right transformational processes and long term interventions because of their ability to manage hard times and difficult situations. In risk-‐benefit assessment, safety is a serious concern but it is not the restricting factor because all risks, to a reasonable extent can be managed, with the right amount of experience and
understanding. A well-‐conducted risk-‐benefit assessment is the one that is properly acted upon and it will provide a sound and reasonable defence against liability claims and prosecution relating to any harm. Safety is evaluated with respect to many components at Forest Schools. 4.3.1. Woodland Site:
Sustainable site management plans are all written, and Environmental Impact Assessments
as well as dynamic daily assessments are all agreed for the entire duration of the programme between the land owner /manager, Forest Schools practitioner, teachers, or support workers and learners, as appropriate. These agreements are all followed at Forest Schools with any updates recorded and monitored accordingly. If a landowner has public liability insurance the clauses may be taken into account before signing the agreement. A detailed site risk assessment of the proposed area in use and adjoining areas is also undertaken. Remoteness of the site is assessed along with the potential risks and available systems for risks management. All lead practitioners will of course be responsible for and be aware of the access and exit points and any additional emergency equipment required are carried and made available. Communication systems are in place between the lead organisations, the staff involved, the volunteers and of course the children are also aware as much as their linguistic, cognitive and physical capabilities allow, and as appropriate and made easily accessible for use in the designated location. All staff are required to follow the employer’s guidelines or own procedures, for taking children or young adults off site or into the Forest Schools location if on the school or settings grounds.
4.3.2. First aid requirements under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974:
Archimedes advocates that all practitioners have full first aid training that is applicable to
the client group and the environment that they are working with and in. First aid kits appropriate for the number of attendees, and for the type of undertaking that may be engaged in, including a ‘happy sack.’ Is recommended. These resources include all the supporting safety and wellbeing equipment that a qualified practitioner could need to satisfy any incident or accident or procedure that inclement weather or the age of your group may throw up. Archimedes Earth has spent many years working with professional provider Andy Forsyth from ITC (Immediate Temporary Care) and have developed the first Forest Schools First Aid qualification for practitioners that meets the needs of the industry, this has been developed to support appropriate provision as opposed to offering First Aid that is not necessarily appropriate. For example, the First Aid at Work (FAW), which is designed for employees within a work place and does not cover work with children. The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 states that employers are required to provide training to employees that meets the needs of their job. It is the responsibility of the Practitioner to ensure that they meet the requirements of the law. The FAW does not provide the appropriate depth or knowledge to provide immediate and temporary care in the outdoors, when there is not the facility to keep a person warm, to immediately run to a phone, and in a remote situation that the emergency services may not even be able to access, such as a woodland. It is essential that the law is understood and that the first aid training is applicable to the environment. The majority of Forest Schools Practitioners work with children who are over 12 months, though by no means exclusively, and their practice take place away from the building and car parks and access roads and that they work not only with adults but with children too.
The Archimedes ITC developed training course covers all the essential outdoor elements as well as adults and children in that setting. If you do work with the under 1’s then according to Ofsted requirements a paediatric qualification will be required also.
CHAPTER 5: Archimedes Schools and Holistic Development 5.1. Holistic Development in Forest Schools Environments 5.1.1. Personal Development In the Forest Schools environment children connect with each other through heart, hand and head, i.e. emotionally, physically and cognitively. They are free to learn with full concentration, at a deep level, because there is in general a reduction in pressures that can be present in a classroom. Here the children are free to work at their own pace and can apply their own imaginations, discoveries and outcomes, thinking and speaking out their ideas without fear of being ridiculed or undermined by their peers or adults. There is no right or wrong answer, only investigation and reflection. This environment opens up children to learning. As a result their minds are not distracted and they focus better on the processes of learning. The impact on the brain waves at Forest Schools in the natural environment is that the length changes from predominately Beta, and highly consciously aware, to that of the Alpha waves, those that are the most positive and inductive to information transfer and assimilation and long term retention.
5.1.2. Self-‐Esteem: It is well recognised that it is not by knowledge alone that one can grow and be successful in life. Confidence building and self-‐esteem is very important for success. The Forest Schools woodland environment provides a complementary and contrasting environment to the traditional classroom and particularly supports those who might not be apt to learning by auditory (by listening) and visual (by reading) processes, and are able to learn more predominately by intrinsic and extrinsically kinaesthetic processes, learning by feeling and doing. In Forest Schools high adult-‐ pupil ratio, an environment to make things, opportunity for children to lead games songs and actions, and allowing the use of certain tools lead to specific outputs like learning of new skills,
physical evidence outputs of work, and associated trust and responsibility. In the Forest Schools environment, the learning process of ‘How to learn’ and ‘What you learn’ is integrated with the surroundings. Learning is contextualised; the environment enables individual learning at one’s own pace. This makes learning enjoyable and fulfilling, thus allowing a child to grow and gain independence, confidence in trying new things and develop an ability to speak with complete confidence. There is evidence that children who do not perform as well in traditional classroom environments have blossomed in Forest Schools. There is the work of Kolb that suggests that the traditional learning styles that we speak of here, i.e., visual, auditory and kinaesthetic are perhaps less important than the more deeply related personality types that would lead to one being reflective, action centred, conceptual or concrete experience orientated. The work of Ruth Adams, in her work with the Elements (www.in-‐your-‐element.co.uk) supported by writings and discussions by Sir Ken Robinson, is that if one is working with one’s ‘element’, then one will become more motivated, more in tune and more responsive to learning opportunities. These elements work so well with the principles of Archimedes Forest Schools Education ethos and practice, as they are linked to the elements of Fire, Water, Earth and Wind, each allowing the individual to having a propensity to approach life and the challenges that the world throws at us in a variety of distinct and discreet ways. In some manner these link to the more ancient theories (Galen AD 190) relating to the aspects of the ‘Humors’; Sanguine, Phlegmatic, Melancholic and Choleric. Here Wind would be Sanguine, Water Phlegmatic, Earth Melancholic and Fire, Choleric. In effect we have, as a human race, been looking to compartmentalize the human psyche for generations and just because we fall into one way of being, it must be categorically stated that it does not determine our futures or our outcomes, or
our successes.
Fig 11. The Humors -‐ Development of self evaluation skills Archimedes Forest Schools recognises, that we are all different, we are all unique and we are all a combination of many personality type definitions, and that the traditional teaching process does not always cater for, or indeed tolerate the uniqueness and therefore the potential of all individuals, as it is so rigid in its delivery. In the woodlands and natural spaces, Forest Schools facilitates a freedom to explore and for those ‘types’ that like to move, to express, to talk and discuss, to experiment, to watch, to contemplate, to assimilate and process and to satisfy the innate human need for self discovery
and self evaluation and can do much more readily. With the Humors it is also suggested that we respond to the seasons also and so our perceptions and moods can be different in a range of seasons. As the Archimedes Model of Forest Schools occurs over the full year, throughout all the seasons, it can give the child, as well as the practitioner opportunities for self awareness of how the environment impacts upon them and the individuals within the group in the different quarters of the year. It is of course up to the practitioners, as with all theories to find the one that suits the best for the way of understanding and perceiving the world. However, it is interesting to read deeper into some of the work that Adams does with a wide range of individuals, from young children to diplomats and government officials around the world. She has experience of education, family and business. These may be parents, teachers, managers, employees and the unemployed, leaders and followers, artists, creative individuals and musicians, deep thinkers and philosophers as well as academics and policy makers. The Archimedes Model encourages practitioners to observe children’s own sense of self worth, sense of self-‐identity or self-‐image, aspirations and gain an understanding of a personal ‘ideal self’, as well as an empathetic view of the perceived ‘actual self’. All of these aspects of ‘self’ are suggested by Carl Rogers (1902-‐1987) in his work and he proposes that all contribute to the overall makeup of self-‐esteem. He suggests that the behaviours that we observe are too simplistic in assessing needs of children, and indeed adults, on a daily basis. It is more complex and through the Archimedes Model, and its long term programmes the results of the baseline assessments will inevitably determine the intended outcomes for the planning process by the practitioner in how to address, if appropriate any of these elements that contribute to positive attitudes to life, others and themselves. The practitioner is an enabler and alongside an individual can to begin by creating
realistic unconscious or implicit self evaluations of their own sense of worth. Over time the practitioner will introduce external – explicit – processes that through the course of the programme, begin to become unconscious and implicit for the individual. For example the practitioner may lead on discussions and reflections initially, but over time the individual will begin to offer their own thoughts and feelings as to the accomplishments and developments that they are making. For some children, their self-‐perceptions may become more forgiving, realistic and balanced due to positive outcomes of experiences, which they have encountered during the Forest Schools experience, and a result of the reflective process. This more well-‐adjusted discernment can then be applied to the relationships with peers, adults and the environment. The participation, successes and the shortcomings, at times, faced by the individual when challenged or being taken out of a comfort zone of responses or behaviours become less traumatic and more solvable. All of these processes are central to the Archimedes Forest Schools Model and are distinctive of our philosophy and ethos. Without a sound self perception, Maslow and Rogers suggest that Self actualization is not possible. 5.1.3.
Well Being:
Well being is still going through a transition from being a philosophical debate, from the works by Aristotle, to becoming a scientific research domain. As such there is really no definition of Wellbeing, although it has been defined from a more clinical perspective as being the ‘absence of negative conditions’ whilst from a psychological perspective it is defines as the prevalence of ‘positive attitudes’. Most commonly though, at present there are the six attributes that could be identifiable in a person if they were exhibiting normal levels of well being. “More than the absence of illness of pathology …subjective (self-‐assessed) and objective (ascribed) dimensions. It can be
measured at the level of individuals or society [and] accounts for elements of life satisfaction that cannot be defined, explained or primarily influenced by economic growth”. (McAllister (2005). This is supported by Shin and Johnson who in 1978 who described wellbeing as a ‘global assessment of a persons quality for life according to his own chosen criteria’. These are all the definitions being used when indicators of national well being are being assessed, and though definitions are hard to explain, the five important aspects of wellbeing, after interviews with grown ups and children by the New Economics Foundation were reported to be: the ability to connect with people, be active, take notice, keep learning and to give. All these five characteristics that contribute have been researched and have a firm foundation in their contribution to their long-‐term impact on wellbeing. Adults often draw upon their own experiences of being children and vivid memories of how they felt, when ignored, excluded or picked out by someone who did not like them. Ferre Laevers (1997) has spent many years researching how experiences affect children’s behaviour, body language, self-‐worth and sense of wellbeing. Laevers writes “for development to occur, children need to be high on emotional well being” and “high on involvement”. Laevers has identified the following “signs of well being”: openness and receptivity, flexibility, self-‐confidence and self-‐esteem, being able to defend oneself, assertiveness, vitality, relaxation and inner peace, enjoyment without restraints and being in touch with one’s self. If most of these signs are present it might be concluded that a child’s wellbeing is high, and contrarily, that their absence would indicate low levels of well being. A high level of wellbeing is identified as being in touch with your feelings and able to express them. These observational elements are key to the work that Forest Schools practitioners discern, at baseline level and throughout the programme on a weekly basis. If possible in order to correlate
trends that relate to the time of day, the activity that was being participated in, the season and sometimes as detailed as the weather or the member of staff present or absent. We have found from our in-‐house research that wellbeing can dip before we clear up for the day, or before lunch. Of course this can then be discussed with the child or young person in order to identify reasons for fears or uncertainty It shoes we care, we are observant and that the practitioner wants to make a difference and to support the young person as best they can to arrive at solutions in the best possible way, and this of course links to resilience and creating positive outcomes to difficult situations. It is important that the assessments are consistent; the same person carries them out, because to certain degree these will always be subjective. But it will create a clear and positive outlook for the child and help the practitioner in their planning and help also with the development of individual self worth, self image, or self confidence, through the utilization of the reflective practice. As children progress linguistically and conceptually then they are encouraged to articulate and to voice feelings as they become more aware of their relationships with their peers, the adults and the environment. The more aware they are the more able they are to self regulate and to function in positive and successful ways – this of course is emotional literacy and the development of emotional intelligence. There is evidence to support Forest Schools ethos and practices are able to achieve rounded personal development through the achievement of self-‐esteem and self confidence in children and improvement of ability to work cooperatively and ability to appreciate others. There is attitudinal change by development of relationship with the forest environment and respect for it, and feeling at home reflects this. The children develop increased abilities by learning skills and knowledge.
5.1.4. Resilience What is commonly identified as resilience in children and adolescents relates to the ability of individuals to respond positively to adversity, stressful, challenging and adverse conditions. The greater the resilience in children, the more adaptive they become. Resilience develops from experiences involving adversarial situations, difficulties, with or without a supporting environment. At Forest Schools, the processes employed are concerned with learning, those that create a positive absorbing and environment, creating opportunities for a propensity to absorb and assimilate concepts, skills, knowledge amongst other things and therefore to grow and mature. Emotional literacy is a fundamental facet of the Archimedes Forest Schools Model. It encourages practitioners to aim towards the development of an understanding of children’s own emotions, as well as of those around them encouraging the promotion of social relationship. R Kenny has published a report on how Forest School can support the development of resilience in children. She has identified how, through an exposure to risk and opportunities provided for the development of an independent, mindful approach to understanding situations, children can become more able to analyse the outcomes to situations. With the correct coaching, mentoring and support, children who are not necessarily naturally resilient by character or by impacts of the nurturing process can develop the skills though participation in their long term programmes and as such these can translate into later life. The longer the programme, the higher the levels of relationship with the practitioner and role model, as such a deeper and more meaningful degree of sense of value and respect can be facilitated. In this relationship it is easier to present challenges that can push children outside of their comfort zones who can then begin to understand that if and when things go wrong, then there are the support networks there to
question, critically and empirically the outcomes. Such new ways of thinking, working and behaving, will promote positive emotions and develop that motivation to work towards higher and more demanding goals. Know that making mistakes is normal and acceptable and essential in supporting resilience it becomes a normalized process, as opposed to one that creates crisis, though a lack of learnt responses. The longer the exposure during the programme the greater the personal rewards – nature is a great teacher and facilitator and it models and creates excellent metaphors for change and development and that no two seasons are the same. Actions are needed to survive and these can be dramatic at times, for example when there is little rain and trees need to lose their leaves early in the season, in order to prevent transpiration, sometimes resilience is understanding that the resources we think that we have are not enough and that we have to look deeper inside to find a solution. Also it is a lesson of life, though we are consistently developing independence, that we are a race of humans that requires community for survival and happiness. In some situations it is imperative that we have the capacity to ask for help when we become aware that we need it, not only that we need to know who to go for to get the best help we can, but also to know how to ask for it. This is all a part of the development of resilience in our daily lives 5.2.
Environmental Identity, Forest Education and Sustainable Development:
5.2.1. Environmental Identity: Forest Schools Education has an important role in development of an understanding of the woodland and natural environment among children and adults by creating environmental identity. Development of this ability assumes importance because this changes perceptions about the
environment as a necessity and thus the need to protect and safeguard it. Children as the guardians of the future begin to understand the sustainable precepts that alone can ensure protection of environment. Therefore, Forest Schools programmes have an important role in supporting the development of environment related concepts in children to allow them to understand their own roles and responsibilities relating to the natural world. Clayton (2003) proposes ‘that an environmental identity is one part of the way in which people form their self-‐concept: a sense of connection to some part of the nonhuman natural environment, based on history, emotional attachment, and/or similarity, that affects the ways in which we perceive and act toward the world; a belief that the environment is important to us and an important part of who we are. An environmental identity can be similar to another collective identity (such as a national or ethnic identity) in providing us with a sense of connection, of being part of a larger whole, and with recognition of similarity between ourselves and others. Also like a group identity, an environmental identity can vary in both definition and importance among individuals.’ 5.2.2. Forest Education: Depending upon the age of children and objective of an adult programme the Forest School may perform different roles, like initiation to nature, overall development of foundation stage (0-‐5 years), primary and school programmes, or development of suitable expertise such as training of instructors for Forest School. Forest School is now regarded as the most basic educational need of schoolchildren for outdoor education, in particular for children of 0-‐5 years age group. Out of the various objectives initiation to nature is one of the major objectives.
Forest Schools in Britain are an inspirational process that offers children, young people and adults regular, long term opportunities to achieve and develop confidence through hands-‐on learning in a woodland environment. The Forest Schools settings are characterised by five features, namely, woodland environment, a high adult to pupils ratio, learning linked to child led learning that can link to National Curriculum and Foundation-‐Stage objectives, freedom of exploration using multiple senses, and the most characteristic feature of ‘regular contact for the children’ with Forest Schools over a period of time. The benefits of learning in the Forest Schools environment as observed through research have revealed overall development: personal, social, emotional, linguistic, communication, and development of ability for problem solving and risk taking. The development of Forest Schools from inception in the 1990’s became more widespread in 2000’s due to their support by the Forest Education Initiative (FEI), Forest Schools Wales and England and training provision made available and delivered by Archimedes Forest Schools Education. This was pivotal in the growing popularity and involvement from the FEI supported forest education activities. In 2006, according to the FEI reports there were about 100 practitioners utilising Forest Schools approach in England and 20 each in Wales and Scotland. In Wales most of the successful Forest School projects were supported through Forest School Wales and the Forestry Commission. The Forest Education Initiative in Wales and Scotland, and the Forest Education Network, which is a UK-‐wide partnership of woodland, environmental and educational organisations including Forestry Commission in England, Scotland and Wales, the Field Studies Council, the Woodland Trust, Groundwork and the British Trust for Conservation Volunteers, have all been involved in funding and support of forest education activities since its creation in 1992. FEI and its
network of partners, involving schools and communities, conducts programmes to promote increased understanding of forests, and their environmental, social and economic potential. In 2009/10, 73 cluster groups operated under the FEI across Britain. About 68 percent of cluster group activity was connected to training, delivery or networking including the running of Forest School. FEI supported activities that matched with the equal, or greater funding from other sources. O’Brien & Lovell (2011) reviewed the strengths and weaknesses and future potential of the FEI’s role and contributions to forest education and the role played by FEI’s cluster groups in 2009/10. A majority (68 percent) of cluster group activity were found to be connected to Forest School either through training, delivery or networking. Therefore, Forest School played a very useful role in forest education by creating awareness about the woodland environment among pre-‐primary, primary, and secondary school students, as well through projects with focus on young adults and those with learning disabilities. 5.2.3. Sustainable Development: Forest School in the general population have involved pre-‐school children through their initiation to nature at their nursery settings. In later years this has diversified significantly to a range of client groups. Archimedes has had a wide focus from inception and there are now many who also work with a wide range of client groups including pre school through primary, NEETs and ‘in the community’. When children and adults are exposed to nature they are able to use their senses and abilities far more effectively, increasing cognitive and reasoning ability. Research by some such as Colcombe, S., and A.F. Kramer. 2003 looked at Fitness Effects on the Cognitive Function of Older
Adults: A Meta-‐Analytic Study. Psychological Science 14, 2: 125-‐130. Whereas researchers such as Taylor, A. F., F.E. Kuo, and W.C. Sullivan. 2001. Coping with ADD: The Surprising Connection to Green Play Settings. Environment and Behavior 33, 1: 54-‐77. Kirkby, M. 1989. Nature as refuge in children’s environments. Children’s Environments Quarterly 6:7-‐12.) This research is reflected in the outcomes of Forest Schools. The ethos and principles of Forest Schools are rooted in human beings’ close association with nature. In current times, sustainable development is a global issue due to indiscriminate use of natural resources, in particular forests and wildlife. There is a growing concern due to reduction of forest cover and permanent loss of several species of plants and animal life. The initiation of interest and understanding of the importance of the place of humans in and with nature among children is essential in the early stages of children’s development. An altruistic perspective, developing when children are around 4 to 8 years old (University of Oxford) is fundamental to the attitudes and relationship with the natural environment as they grow. Sustainable development promotes protection of environment and a balanced use of natural resources. It is a subject that especially concerns the interests of future generations. Forest Schools provide an opportunity to closely observe, experience and understand the natural surroundings over a long period of time when the programmes are provided across all seasons as they are intended to do. This longevity promotes a better understanding of the interactions and processes of nature and all its complex relationships, its unique independent and interconnected elements and creates a sense of personal as well as a collaborative responsibility. There are two basic requirements to promote awareness about sustainable development that have been documented; a long term connection, awareness and education about nature, with an interested and motivated adult and this leads in later years, to a more complex understanding about the
utility of nature and its conservation. Both of these play a positive role in Archimedes Forest Schools Education programmes through its practitioners education and Forest Schools programmes it is understood by the team, that there is no value to teaching children to love and protect the planet, and identify all the awful things that are happening, if there is not in the first place a foundation, of love, awe and wonder that is at the core of the child. If there is no passion for the beauty of the intricacies of the planet, then there is little identity with the pressures and problems. Without a connectedness, the responsibility will always lie with someone else. The development process of positive environmental identity is considered a major contribution of the Archimedes Model towards promoting environmental awareness and sustainable development in the long term, but it is also understood from research that without the long term intervention, and much of that through self discovery, then the awe and wonder will simply not translate into active participation in the preservation and conservation of the planet. Before a longevity of and concern for societal or global Sustainable Development to be present, an awareness of Personal Sustainability must ensue within the individual. Early childhood experiences are known to last until we mature and move through adolescence and into adulthood. Awareness of woodlands and their environment develops love and respect for nature and develops its distinct and unique identity in the mind of children. Therefore, Archimedes Earth through its in-‐depth pedagogy provides valuable experiences and education about plants, trees and animals in the woodlands to its participants through the processes of immersion and exploration. The Archimedes Earth Model sensitizes trainee practitioners about the principles of sustainable woodland management and development and the required practices to best achieve sustainable development in the Forest Schools sites through Environmental Impact
Assessment and dynamic assessments. All highly skilled, confident practitioners are able to translate their knowledge and skills to their children, young adults and others through practice during Forest Schools. Aware and informed about issues relating to the environment and the need for personal responsibility and active conservation of nature at a young age, children go on growing as adults and are more likely to occupy positions related to natural resources and as a result can be expected to play constructive roles in the future of the planet and its under laying distress.
CHAPTER 6: Role of Forest schools in Health and Well Being. 6.1. Forest Bathing (Shinrin-‐yoku) There are a great many studies emerging from the US, Japan and Scandinavian countries that make many correlations between green spaces and wellbeing and in a recent study ‘A Countryside for Health and Wellbeing: The Physical and Mental Health Benefits of Green Exercise’ by Jules Pretty, Murray Griffin, Jo Peacock, Rachel Hine, Martin Sellens and Nigel South from the University of Essex, in this finding there was significant increase in the levels of self esteem, and along with that a correlation between self esteem and body size. Body size and self esteem also impact on the desire to participate in physical activity in green spaces and so it is possible to observe or draw a conclusion that when self esteem can be raised, there is a higher desire for physical activity. We all know that there is a direct correlation between well being and physical exercise as chemicals are released in the body, such as endorphins and to some extent dopamine – the feel good factor. Non Transmittable Diseases (NTD) and illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, heart attacks and some forms of diabetes can (though not always) be related to overweight or stress. Physical activity reduces stress levels and it has been found that being able to see, be in or experience nature in a number of forms can reduce stress, increase recovery times and in some cases actually suppress the onset of illness and disease in some cases. The Archimedes Model, ethos and practices are built on the principles of outdoor learning being available in an environment created out of the synthesis of open spaces, natural surroundings of woodland, and a support infrastructure, one that is founded upon Margaret and Rachel McMillan’s nursery provision (Cunningham, 2006). However, unlike more regulated current
outdoor provisions, we have explored how children in the woodland environment have freedom to choose, experience, and learn from the natural surroundings. The presented environment offers varying levels of opportunities and possibilities for development of physical, mental, sociological, sensory, and communication abilities, self-‐esteem and confidence, and ability to learn to take independent decisions and take care of personal welfare. A large body of evidence from scientific research and other studies has proved that connection with nature, in particular with the forests, woodlands, plants and animals, leads to a lot of benefits to health and wellbeing. Forest Bathing (Shinrin-‐yoku): The woodland environment in Forest School provides an opportunity to play and learn skills. As the children move around they learn to take care of them and help each other and as such the possibilities provided can be demonstrated to be very beneficial to children’s health and wellbeing. In Japan, visits to local forests are considered to be significantly valuable for health and wellbeing. The Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries coined a term ‘Shinrin-‐ yoku’ in 1982, and it means ‘taking in the forest atmosphere, or forest bathing’. The concept has since received scientific acceptance to not only provide relaxation for participants, but also to significantly reduce stress. Park et. al (2010) after reviewing the results across 24 forests in Japan researchers have shown that exposure to a range of forest environments significantly lowers cortisol increases concentration, decreases pulse rate and as a result blood pressure. Other positive changes in human physiology from the health point of view have been observed, that is now leading a new field of forest medicine.
Kawada (2011) has reported that by visiting forest parks enhanced human Natural Killer (NK) cell activity. These Natural Killer cells are a type of lymphocyte or white blood cell, and it is this lymphcote that is an essential element of our innate immune system that help us to fight infections and infections at a cellular level. NK cells play a major role in the elimination of both tumours and virally infected cells. The increase in activity of NK cells is associated with increased anti-‐cancer proteins such as performin, granzymes A and B, and granulysin in NK cells. The visits to nature were also reported to reduce the levels of stress hormones both in male and females. The effects were found to last for up to thirty days depending on the length and nature of the immersion, suggesting a once a month visit to a forest or woodland can maintain high NK levels. The report suggests that phytoncides are released from trees and these affect changes in hormones having a cumulative effect on the production of the cells. The recent scientific evidence suggests both a preventive and cancer controlling effect of Shinrin-‐yoku. In the light of these evidences about the health advantages of forest visits, the woodland Forest School environments can be considered very beneficial to schoolchildren, parents and teachers alike from the point of health and wellbeing. But it is the association to, and physical connectedness with the trees that facilitates this wellbeing, and will be missing in the less wooded environments in which some Forest School programmes are offered. 6.2. Theories of Biophilia, Attention Restoration and Stress Recovery: These two theories explain how nature plays a very important role in reducing stress, fear and anxiety in a range of groups, it is seen to promote a life more healthy and increase well being: ‘Biophilia’ is explained as the innately emotional affiliation of human beings to other living
organisms (Wilson, 1984). This ultimately links us as humans with our natural surroundings. The theory proposition is that the existence of a genetic sequence in humans programmed over one million years of evolution can respond positively to natural environments and helps us to survive and thrive. Individuals respond to these environments by feeling more content and by functioning more effectively, whilst in them but also after immersion, more effectively. Kaplan & Kaplan, 1995 suggest that there are two types of attentions in our lives: ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’. Direct attention involves concentration on activities that are judged significant by the individual and involve hard work and are generally not considered the most interesting subjects. Indirect attention involves issues contemplated as interesting and less importance to survival and these may have to be blocked out to concentrate on the direct attention activity, and if this is the case can cause tiredness. Indirect attention or fascination holds our concentration with little or no effort. This allows our brain to be restored so that we can return to direct attention. This theory is supported by over 100 studies. By allowing children with for example ADD to be in the outdoors for a period, allows for this restoration of concentration back in a classroom environment. ‘Psycho-‐physiological Stress Recovery Theory’ is based on ‘immediate positive response’ to either immersion in or views of nature (Ulrich, 1983). Such reactions can be witnessed within minutes of this exposure to nature. The changes observed are a significant reduction in stress, measured blood pressure, reduced muscle tension, and a lowering of the pulse rate. (Ulrich, et.al, 1991). According to the theory this change is the result of an innate reflex associated with the limbic system. Ulrich et al suggests that that throughout our evolutionary period those that now possess this immediate recovery ability will have a greater opportunity for survival by remaining
mentally alert after encountering or enduring stressful situations. The ‘Biophilia’ hypothesis identifies this ‘immediate positive response’ or reflex is presumed to be a result of our deeper genetic code. These two restorative theories, ART and Psycho-‐Physiological Stress Recovery theory explain the mechanism that restoration can take place. ART is understood to be a voluntary process that affects our thought processes and is measured by psychological features however, the Psycho-‐ Physiological Stress Recovery theory is understood to be an involuntary response in the limbic system and is measured from a physiological perspective. Forest Schools outcomes in producing positive effect in learning can, to some extent be attributed to ‘Biophilia’. The restorative theories can be linked to the reduction in stress levels and the consequential improvements in learning and performance observed in children, leaders and a variety of client groups. The Archimedes Model takes into consideration the provision and care of basic needs identified by Maslow and Rogers, that are prerequisite to increased feelings of security and thus reduction of stress through the provision of a positive learning environment: the warmth, through clothing, footwear, shelter, fire; quality food, as nutrition is necessary for concentration; drinks, water intake is necessary for food digestion and availability of energy; and physical and emotional security through the development of trust and a sense of value in the group and from leaders. These conditions promote wellbeing and learning. 6.3. Restoration Effect of Natural Surroundings of Forest School: Evidence from research has shown that children playing in natural settings at Forest Schools can improve concentration; a natural environment acts as a buffer to stress (Wells and Evans,
2003). Faber Taylor and Kuo (2008) have shown reduction in the severity of symptoms of ADHD in young people engaged in activities in open green space compared to those carrying activity in urban outdoor and indoor environments. The natural environment is also known to improve children’s mood and improve self-‐discipline (Faber Taylor et al, 2002). The degree of improvement in children affected by ADHD increases with the period of exposure with nature, these improvements are observed even if this exposure incorporates journeys travelled to school are greener and if better views from windows of green space are made available. We all know that stress affects the mental capacity and health of children and when faced with highly demanding events showed lower levels of anxiety and higher levels of overall self worth if they are extensively and repeatedly exposed to nature (Wells & Evans, 2003). Further studies have shown that after increased contact with nature the brain can be restored from exhaustion caused by direct concentration and can reduce many symptoms such as impulsive behaviours, irritability and aggression, thus improving performance and the opportunity for praise and success from the teacher. Children with lower academic success rates and what is perceived to be antisocial behaviours in class are more likely to receive negative personal comments than those who are moderate or high achievers, who are more likely to receive praise for achievements. Roe (2008) investigated mental health in young people across three behavioural states: ‘no behaviour problem’, ‘significant behaviour problem’ and ‘mental disorder’. The forest setting was found to be advantageous in all behaviour groups thus reflecting restorative outcomes in natural settings. A key finding was the ability of the forest to stabilize anger across all three groups. Anger in young people is linked to the reduced physical and mental health, depression and increased anti-‐social behaviour (Kerr and Schneider, 2008). The study suggests that Forest School can help
control anger in young people at risk, opening a potential door to improved learning experiences and rehabilitation and Personal Sustainability by increasing the propensity to become a Capable Learner. By review and analysis of current research, Kenny (2010) explored the relationship of the child with the natural world and changes made in Western industrialized culture. Applying relevant child development theory, eco-‐psychology and biophilia the reviewer found evidence of growing dissociation of children from the natural environment. Exploring tensions experienced by young children between their biological drive and modern life, the reviewer concludes with an analysis of the theory of ‘Nature Deficit Disorder’ linking reduced opportunities for children to access nature with the increasing levels of mental ill health and obesity. This theory provides a compelling case for the ‘re-‐naturing’ of childhood. 6.4. Health Benefits of Outdoor Learning: Physical activity in the outdoor has direct health benefits to adults and children. Urban lifestyles do not always allow for exercise in the open, or necessarily open spaces for children to run and play. Though it has to be said that there is also a decrease in the physical activity of children who live in rural areas also, as parental concerns and fears of accidents by traffic and people have an impact on the choices that parents make for their children and their freedom to roam and explore. The sedentary lifestyle in modern life limits physical activity, leading to poor digestion and metabolism and in turn poor growth. This leads to an increasing trend of non-‐ communicable diseases (NCDs) like cardiovascular diseases, high blood pressure, diabetes, obesity, cancer and chronic respiratory disorders. The lack of physical activity and lifestyle is considered
responsible for the recent increase of NCDs in adults and children. A paper presented by Justin Sherwin et al. 2011 suggests that through their Systematic Review and Meta-‐analysis of sunlight and exposure to the outdoors increases Vitamin D production in children’s body and as such will inevitably reduce the reliance of other forms such as vitamins. Without vitamin D we will all have problems with weak bones. But it is also identified through the research that simply playing and being outdoors will help to establish good distance vision. The review has identified that in some children there has in fact been cases where children with near-‐sightedness has been improved. ‘The Association between Time Spent Outdoors and Myopia in Children and Adolescents’
CHAPTER 7: Careers in Forest Schools and Outdoor Education 7.1. Opportunities in Forest Schools Education Archimedes diversified initially by adapting from programme to delivery to training and now by offering training in various natural settings of beaches and bush lands, jungles, and rivers as well as in less diverse and complex ecosystems such as school grounds and back gardens and parks. We also provide the new Nature Kindergarten Educator’s qualification and Working with Children and Young people with Trauma by Ruth Adams. Archimedes Earth serves to provide specialised training to meet the demands of educators working in natural places and their participants from the point of view of adventure, learning, health and well being for children and adults and conservation of outdoor natural environments. In 2002 a network of practitioners held the first national level conference at which a UK definition of Forest School was formulated and key features of Forest School were identified, including the decision that Forest School will be run by qualified level 3 practitioners. In 2007 Archimedes held a Conference where the proposal was discussed with delegates regarding the establishment of an Association of Forest School Practitioners. Then in 2009 the formation of the IOL SIG meant that there was a development proposal resulting in a consultation for the establishment of the Forest School Association (FSA). The definition, principles and criteria of good practices in Forest School were reviewed and built upon. The Forest School Association (FSA) was launched on 7th July 2012 at Elvaston Castle in Derbyshire as the new professional association for Forest School.
Fig 12: Training Progression – The different levels of training that are available in the Archimedes Forest School Model. Levels 1 to 4 are recognised throughout the industry.
7.2. Career Opportunities in Forest Schools: With the increase in number of Forest Schools in UK and elsewhere there is a growing demand for trained practitioners at different levels. Qualified staff with appropriate qualifications and experience is in demand. Opportunities are growing for those with qualifications and experience in this area of knowledge and provision
A parent or volunteer trained to Level 1 can find opportunities to support level 3 practitioners in local Forest School programmes, thus building their own experience and understanding and for some a deeper sense of self worth and provides increased confidence and aspirations. The Level 2 assistants support Forest School Level 2 leaders on a regular basis and by attaining this level of accreditation can support the number of children who then have access, can be the beginning of the journey towards a career advancement or voluntary opportunities for that individual. Above all it can provide a fulfilling and worthwhile role in the settings education and
learning programme. At Level 3 Forest School Leaders have the accreditation and certification to plan, design, deliver, manage and assess the programme, not only from the perspective of the children participating, the staff management and support, but importantly from the perspective of the benefit of the environment and its sustainability and well being. A variety of school teachers, support assistants, nurses, nursery nurses, Early Years Practitioners, youth workers and rangers attend Forest Schools training and in so doing add, through this CPD (continual professional development) to their foundation of skills and knowledge and can as a result increase employability potential in schools, colleges and Forest Schools around the world as a result. The more recognised the ethos and practice of Forest Schools becomes, the higher value will be placed on the achievement of this accreditation in a range of industries. 7.2.1. Career path for Young People. It is becoming apparent that during career advice and personal development in years 9 to 11 in schools in the UK, there can be a focus on more traditional careers and often reported that, ‘Careers advice 'is letting down girls' report by Laura Clarke August 2007, who states that ‘Sexist careers advice is damaging the job prospects of girls’ If this advice is on-‐going it can encourage some young people to underestimate the potential of their own abilities and go onto restrict, through lack of education and choices. It is evident that many end up working in the care and well being industries such as beauty and hairdressing because of a lack of favourable and more rounded advice at such an important time of their lives. Boys, to a greater extent are given information about the scientific and potentials of different Information technologies industries including those of engineering displacing them
potentially from taking up the much needed male role models in the care industry, this is a generalization of course, however ‘The quality of careers guidance available in schools in England is "nothing less than appalling", says the president of the body representing further education colleges’ according to By Sean Coughlan BBC News education correspondent It is well known that work experience can increase a realistic appreciation of an industry, and by attending a programme during childhood and attributing ones own levels of wellbeing and enjoyment and relationship with nature can then lead onto a great many alternative industries that opens opportunities for a career in Forestry silva culture, arboriculture, permaculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, farming, outdoor sports, learning and education, and that on top of opportunities for promotion of environmental awareness, sustainable development, architecture, water related industries to name a very, very few of the huge potential. Children, by developing an intimate and intrinsic interest in nature, now this affects their own local communities and build a caring association and level of responsibility for the world’s environments often start at a local level and will seep through into later life. This can all come about through experiencing the learning and freedom experienced and at the heart of their Forest Schools processes. Biophilia research suggests that this early childhood experience will indeed have this effect; It is only when a programme lasts a long period of time, where the relationship with the grownups and other significant adults in their lives support their educational journey that this can happen successfully and consistently. The longer the project, the greater the relationship with the natural world and therefore the higher and more sustained are the long term impacts on individual and collaborative wellbeing. It is demonstrated that through the development of
neurons and through the experience of positive outcomes to stressful, difficult and challenging experiences, children become more resilient and are much more likely to be able to cope with disappointment and when things do not always go right the first time. There has been observed a change in the approach to learning including a more deliberate effort in reading and writing, as children are able to express their ideas and recreate their experiences back in the classroom. Concentration and self worth and self confidence improve when children are in connection with green spaces and this is particularly prevalent when there is an identified issue with concentration, such as with children with ADD and ADHD. Archimedes Forest Schools has made processes available to individuals to move, not just to develop Forest Schools career paths, but also in other areas of natural enquiry -‐ tree work, woodland management, research, ecology, rangers, bush craft and survival, countryside managers, environmental managers, outdoor professionals and environmental sustainability -‐ all because of the development of an embedded environmental identity a an early age. This in turn has enabled certain participants to desire a better world for themselves and for the planet in which they live. A more balanced environmental stability and to seek out careers that can support the global systems of sustainability locally, nationally or globally. This is not restricted to children either. There are many individuals who have attended Archimedes Forest Schools Education training and as a result have changed career paths and desired to support children, through their new understanding and skills. We know that through transference of learning into lives through experience and reflection, as opposed to simply attending a short term forest school experience, one that is becoming increasingly familiar and popular these days, is the most significant. If theoretical content and
training is being watered down to provide what schools think they want, perhaps a token Forest School as that is a buzz word for outdoor learning, such as a forest school activity day, or couple of half day sessions, then the true impact of Archimedes Model is lost. There is no guarantee of progression or maturity of thought and understanding of nature and self as the processes of neuron development is not happening and therefore the new pathways are not myelinated. If hard wiring does not occur though continual immersion in the experience then it is likely that there will be a functional deficiency for these children to rely on in the future, as the experience is still external, as opposed to embedded. Forest schools simply becomes a trip, an activity, a nice thing to do as opposed to the intended purpose that is to make life changing opportunities possible, to support growth and development to enable children to function in as many social situations as possible, not just for the here and now, but for their future success as independent adults. Not simply to have a transient experience that gets lost in the sea of everyday life. 7.2.2. Outdoor Learning Training courses: In addition to Forest Schools the other brands of Archimedes are Beach Schools, Bush Schools River Schools, Jungle Schools and Social Forestry. In 2012 Archimedes setup the first ‘Bush Schools’ training course in Perth (Australia). The ethos and philosophy of Bush Schools are developed on the lines of the Forest Schools but the Bush Schools derive their materials and contents adapted to suit the Australian culture and environment. We are also very proud to have supported the development of the Jungle School in the mountains and highlands of Malaysia, where significant impacts have been recorded with the indigenous children attending the local schools there.
A programme called Forest Community and Adult Learning (FoCAL) provides opportunity to young adults with disabilities such as autism to learn new skills as well as supporting families and those with mental health concerns or issues. This tackles issues such as obesity, physical wellbeing through engagement in active lifestyles, cooking and food as well as generating a positive regard for the health benefits of the natural environment. We all know and understand that exercise produces endorphins, and the natural feel good factor achieved from the production of dopamine and adrenaline that in good doses motivates and encourages us to action and wellbeing. 7.2.3. ‘Get Children Outdoors’ Initiative: Archimedes Earth has been advocating outdoor experience for children as a means of providing children opportunity for development, health and wellbeing. The ‘Get Children Outdoors’ campaign uses experience of working with children in the outdoors for over three decades. It is their mission to see children develop confidence, self-‐esteem and emotional awareness through activity in the outdoors. The initiative ‘Get Children Outdoors’ was started with the objective to inspire everyone including families, teachers, policy makers in the understanding that the outdoors has immense potential in children’s overall development and their success and achievements later in life.
The Archimedes Recipe - Trainee level
Skilled Practitioner
Trainee Practitioner
Su m
EC TION
mn
n Wi
VIE P RE
W
te r
r
Natural Environment
Training week
tu Au
RE
Practitioner -Trainer
Informed Practitioner -Trainer
THE ARCHIMEDES FOREST SCHOOL MODEL Fig 13. The Trainee Recipe
Qualification
FL
g rin
me
Sp
PERIENCE EX
Fig 12 version 2 - 04-07-2014
CHAPTER 8: Archimedes Forest Schools Education 8.1. Overview Over the last 12 years, Archimedes Earth has been privileged to train more than 6500 of the estimated 11,500 practitioners in the UK. Archimedes Earth has three full time trainers and 29 trained and mentored Associate trainers. Of the 60 trainers members of the Forest Schools Trainers Network, up to half are using the Archimedes Earth Forest Schools Education Model. This means that over half of the Forest Schools Practitioners, it is safe to conclude around the world are Archimedes Forest Schools Practitioners delivering the Archimedes model, principles and ethos to children and others. Figure 10 All Archimedes Practitioners follow the same ‘Recipe’ model for the development of personal competency as the Participant (Ref Fig 2). This same process is designed on the same principles and will facilitate traits of a skilled practitioner the same seasonal and long-‐term approach applies as it does to develop the skills of a Capable Learner Some practitioners have worked with up to 20,000 children during the last 14 years; some have worked with 20 since their training. If we were to calculate a moderate view of the arc of influence of Archimedes Earth, then it would be fair to say that if each of the 6500 practitioners worked with 200 children each during their lifetime that is 1,300,000 children, if those 6500 worked with 500 children each that is 2,600,000 children, if each had worked with an average to 1,000 children that would be 6,500,000 children. Now if each child then took their mum or dad or grandma to the woods or wild spaces to play as a result, as research by Blackwell and Nawaz 2014 suggests, the breadth of that influence becomes doubled. These are of course conservative
estimates, as we do know of many who have worked with many more children and covers the UK, Malaysia, New Zealand, Australia, US, Canada, Spain, Germany, France, to name a few of the countries practitioners have emanated from or delivery has taken place in. 8.2. Development of Archimedes Earth In 2001, Archimedes Earth was established to provide education to children around the country and later for those wanting to become Forest Schools practitioners, using this progressive, constructivist approach. All the training is based on research and findings from eminent leaders in the field, introduced in the first instance by that generated by Gordon Woodall. By 2000 approximately 100 Forest Schools leaders were already trained by Gordon Woodall, a Scandinavian observed Early Years approach adapted to the British culture and simulated by Bridgewater FE college in their campus nursery. Archimedes Earth developed a Forest Schools Education model after carrying out extensive research in the writings of leaders in the field of education, outdoor industries, business, environmental conservation, youth and community as well as neuroscience to create a course that bought together knowledge, tools, models and good practices in one place, Archimedes Earth -‐ Forest Schools Leader Awards. Archimedes Earth studied the condition of education in open woodland spaces prevailing in Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Germany, their schools, kindergartens, community outdoor youth projects and environment centres as well as utilising aspects of good practice laid down by the outdoor industries’ National Governing Bodies such as the British Canoe Union, Caving and Mountain Leader Training. Having been working in the more traditional outdoor adventure activities industry for a number of years we had valuable support
from the Institute of Outdoor Learning in the UK, and with understanding of environmental management and countryside management these aspects all contributed to the emergence of the content and methodology. As a result of this research into relevant industries and prior knowledge and experience the Archimedes Earth Forest Schools Education programme model has transpired over the years incorporating theory and practice from the most relevant areas to support children in their development to adulthood. The realms of influence include environmental conservation and science, woodland management, heritage crafts and skills, the outdoor industry, practices in adult learning, programmes for young people and youth work, facilitation theory and business, adventure wilderness and outdoor industries, educational theories of Jung, Rogers, Vygotsky, Steiner and Piaget, Reggio and Macmillan to name a few, and approaches for working with those having challenging behaviour or special educational needs such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and other cognitive disabilities or disorders such as trauma and abuse. Archimedes Earth processed this knowledge and understanding from diverse fields; from play, education and learning processes and incorporated it into the evolving Archimedes Forest Schools programmes. The Practitioner and Leader training courses have followed a thoughtful monitoring and evaluative screening process for the selection of suitable learning materials and as this foundation of knowledge grows, content is adapted and utilised. Selection of educational materials was based on their effectiveness in terms of enhanced learning. In the first two years Archimedes worked in Doncaster, Sheffield, Chesterfield, Rotherham, Barnsley, and Stratford-‐ upon-‐Avon delivering programmes and projects to early years, families, parents, young people, and through experience developed more intimate models, in Forest Schools training and Forest
Schools practice. In 2002, Archimedes Earth launched its training courses based on the successful long term Forest Schools programmes and the application of the theoretical understanding identified. The aim was always simple and clear and that was to enabling others to work with young people, families and children in woodlands. Through support, we were able to develop appropriate course content based on new findings and observations that had taken place since the inception of Forest School in the UK in the mid 1990’s. The Archimedes Earth course was accredited by the awarding body and over the last 12 years, Archimedes has been privileged to train more than 6500 of the estimated 11,500 practitioners through in house and associate national trainers at all levels. As a result, the majority of Forest School practitioners around the world have been trained using the Archimedes Forest Schools Model for Practitioners who are now delivering using that Forest Schools model or adaptions to it, based in the principles and ethos for the maximum benefit to children and other client groups. The Archimedes Earth model has at its core a depth, breadth and process based not only on practical experience but also in evidence provided from other practitioners and researchers. It will always be difficult for those looking for training to know how to distinguish what makes an adequate course that meets their needs, as when looking from the outside inwards, choice is always a complex issue. Commonly in this day and age of financial constriction and pressures for time, the cheapest and closest are quite often deemed the most suitable choices. When an individual decides to attend an Archimedes Course it will not necessarily be the choice of price and distance. It is very often the particular approach that we offer, the ethos and values that are to a great extent passed on by word of mouth and experience of the qualified
practitioner and how they have been able to translate the experience into reality and though that practice been personally successful in achieving the intended goals for the programme and each child who participates in it. When Archimedes is booking prospective learners, or trainee practitioners onto courses some basic and fundamental predispositions will be required to be already in place in order for the individual to gain the most out of the training. This could be as a matter of enjoyment, engagement, motivation, transition, understanding, experience or level of ability in terms of childcare or teaching and environmental understanding, and the most important feature is the place of the child in nature.
Figure 14: The ideal traits that a learner will possess prior to attending an Archimedes Forest Schools or other course.
Archimedes Earth now runs Forest Schools programmes with young children and families in schools, with special needs children and with adults with mental health, through a number of different projects, FoCAL (Forest Community and Adult Learning), Forest Schools Kindergartens and the Dangerous Adventure Club. Archimedes Earth offers Forest School Level -‐ 1 to 3 training to become a practitioner or an assistant and the Level 4 Archimedes Forest Schools Trainers Award for becoming an Associate Archimedes Trainer and a Level 4 Archimedes Forest Schools Practitioner for those wanting to develop practical skills and knowledge, further and in more depth and expertise of that of the level 3 and will be interested in research and the gathering of analytical data form their programmes.
Fig 15. From Practitioner to Practitioner Trainer. The process of evolving from Level 3 Practitioner to Level 4 Practitioner-‐ Trainer
Archimedes Earth has grown and developed a network of Forest Schools Training Centres of Excellence® and focuses on Forest Schools Education nationally and internationally. However Archimedes Earth consistently pursues its intentions and visions maintaining its original core aims. We have not swerved from seeking to make a difference to the lives of children globally, irrespective of culture, language, heritage, gender, age or ability, or socio economics.
Fig 16. Arc of Influence Archimedes Earth We will continue to do this through providing training and education to practitioners as well as the delivery of programmes for children, young people and adults. As the Forest School movement grows and there is an increasingly diverse support for Forest
School provision, Archimedes is confident that it can identify its model of provision and development, its focus and abilities and that this will continue to emphasize the biological, physical and cognitive relevance of long term, reflective, child centred provision. The Archimedes Earth Forest Schools Education Model promotes a collective ethos, vision, values and processes for the transformation of children, young adults and adults and continually encourages programmes of delivery techniques based on the theoretical and practical foundations offered during training. It is by going back to the beginning of the story and to reiterate how Archimedes Model is concentrated on the Capable Learner, using theory and application in order to promote educational, societal and through these world change. The practitioners’ experience during training is improved and strengthened to provide a better understanding as this is developed whilst transformational skills emerge during the process of planning, preparing, delivering, observing, recording monitoring, assessing and evaluating each child, young person, or adult. Archimedes promotes a unique and transformational approach through its learning and training. It is this methodology and supportive resources that provide distinctiveness in what it offers through training and through project delivery and has let us to the significance of the Archimedes Model that can be applied at all levels of experience from child participation, to practitioner training and then replicated through the Trainer programme. The ethos is the same, the application is the same, the intended outcome is the same –though relevant for the participant-‐ and this strengthens and supports those who participate no matter the level.
8.3. Archimedes Earth Courses: 8.3.1. The Archimedes covers training in all the conventional Levels-‐1 to Level-‐3 and a special Woodland Skills Entry Level programme for 14 plus and a Level-‐4 programme: Entry Level: Woodland Skills is for young people, or adults with additional needs. Level-‐1: is an introduction to the ethos and philosophy of Forest School Level-‐2: Enables individuals to become a learning support assistant in Forest School Level-‐3: enables to set up, run and lead programmes in Forest Schools Level-‐4: Trainer -‐ enables to become an associate trainer for Archimedes Earth Level 4 – Practitioner – develops personal skills and awareness in aspects relating to the Archimedes Forest Schools Model, develops expertise in practical aspects and includes the requirement to collect analytical data for research and evaluation. See Fig 14: Training progression
All Archimedes Forest Schools qualifications are on the QCF, the Register of Regulated Qualifications, and accredited by a nationally recognised awarding body and supported by a robust moderation and verification process.
Fig 17: The Skilled Practitioner – What comes out. The key skills which a practitioner gains from the Archimedes Training Model at Level 3 8.3.2. Archimedes Earth in Other Environments and Habitat. Archimedes Earth through experience and reviewing process has been privileged to originate other practitioner training allowing learners to work and extend their practice confidently into other environments. So from the Forest Schools Education model there is now
Beach Schools, Social Forestry, River Schools, The Danger Adventure Club®, Bush Schools and Centre of Excellence for Forest Schools Training®. Settings utilising and implementing the Archimedes Forest Schools Education Model can be certified by a robust Quality Mark process; Provider settings and schools can register under three categories, namely, Gold, Silver and Bronze. Quality Marks ensure consistency of the quality provided through training and that this is sustained and supported through the governing bodies and leadership teams in settings and schools enabling them to also support parents and stakeholders in the knowledge that their children are participating in the best supporting and sustainable provision of education through the consistent and cross generational process, and for all children at Archimedes Forest Schools programmes within those settings that have been accredited (www.archimedes-‐earth.com). 8.3.2.1. Archimedes Earth Beach Schools Beaches are large open spaces in nature. Beaches vary according to their location, their physical history over millennia, as well as more recently due to urbanization or development, all influencing their ecology, their fragility or robustness, their geomorphological structure and their visual surroundings. By any comparison beaches are no less challenging an environment compared to woodland or forests and provide an opportunity to create a rich and healthy teaching and learning environment. Beaches are a virtual museum, with fossils, empty shells of molluscs, limpets, sand, pebbles, and fish skeletons. Live crabs hiding in rock pools, a live octopus or a seal left behind by the receding waters of the low tide and flocks of migrant and resident birds. There are big rocks nearby with roaring waves lashing against them. These objects speak about the environment, competition, survival, evolution, and climate change and provide one of the most
beautiful sights in nature. Given this rich diversity of resources, the open space and the physical challenge of winds, water, rocks and sand, the activities on beach require deep care thoughtfulness and attention from the programme planner. Thus the natural settings on a beach provide great opportunities for outdoor education for holistic development of children and adults by education in environmental issues, conservation and sustainable development and learning new skills. Beaches due to the exposure to the wild elements and the force and strength of water, some totally visible, like waves, but also the unseen in rip tides and the moon influencing tidal paths. It is this reason that the Beach Schools Practitioner training has come into fruition. 8.3.2.2. How Beach Schools compare with Forest Schools To make the best use of beaches for achieving safe learning the same model has been applied, but with the knowledge and understanding that simply by being confident in the woodland environment, understanding of the ecology and the ability to manage risks in that particular environment, can not equip all individuals with the knowledge and understanding of the beach and coastal environments. The course covers aspects of safety, risk management and how to plan according to seasons and tidal pattern. Children love to paddle and to play in water and to dig and to explore, but tides can be fierce and rapidly change. Developing an awareness of these environments can support this rich and diverse environment for learning. The same transformational approach and pedagogy is applied in Beach Schools, whilst at the back of our minds, keeping our children safe.
8.3.2.3. Beach Schools Education and Career Prospects: Archimedes Earth provides Beach Schools Level 3 Practitioner qualifications at level 2 for Learning Support Assistants and Level 3 for those wanting to run Beach Schools sessions and programmes. Archimedes Earth as the founders of Beach Schools training with the desire to educate individuals in the sustainable use of beaches, conservation of beach environment and its uniqueness. Our mission is to encourage the use of beaches and for education and learning and create a rich and lifelong love for coastlines and all they have to offer. 8.3.2.4. River Schools Many woodlands and wild spaces, even urban parks have streams water ways or rivers running through them. These area are immensely enticing, fun, enjoyable and due to the movement if water, sensorial and therapeutic. The sound of water running is well documented to calm the body; the visual impact of the movement creates a meditative atmosphere, focuses the eyes due to the dynamic process. Water stimulates exploration and physical immersion, to touch it, splash in it, to move it and to dam it. TO attract birds to a garden, it is well known that you place dripping or running water, we are after all no different. However rivers are also sensitive ecosystems rapidly eroded and the very sensitive to interference. They are dangerous places and this is one of the main reasons that local authorities restrict out of the classroom activities around water bodies, or ban them altogether. The River Schools practitioner level 3 training has been developed to support those who wish to use this beautiful and stimulating environment safely and protectively. It allows teachers, and practitioners to access the rivers with groups where in the past they would not have been able
to do so. 8.3.2.5. Social Forestry Practitioner Archimedes Social Forestry practitioners concentrate on the development of the core principle of ‘Personal Sustainability.’ That is the ability of a person to be self aware, self regulatory, self motivational, function socially and empathetically; Healthy in body, mind and spirit for the duration of their lifespan. Many individuals work with adults and young people in wild spaces and woodlands using a variety of different media to fulfil the same basic goals, that of wellbeing through the engagement with nature. The Social Forestry Practitioner will engage with a wide range of individuals covering as big a variety of programmes or sessional activities. Client groups include NEETS, Prolific Offenders, those with mental health issues, learning disability, brain injury, dependency issues, trauma and attachment history, Autistic Spectrum Disorders, non attenders, personal mentoring, health walks, dog walking with groups, to name but a few. The qualification is aimed specifically as the use of wood and woodlands to develop a good sense of self, a sense of place and a personal realization that they can make a contribution to society, to their families and sustain themselves. The New Economics Foundation has identified 5 main areas that contribute to high levels of well being; Connect with people; Be Active; Take notice; Keep Learning; Give something. Attending a Social Forestry programme by a trained practitioner will allow participants to engage in each of these areas and develop the skills to engage in them independently outside the programme, in order to become Personally Sustainable.
8.4. Forest Schools Framework of Excellence and Management:
Archimedes Earth has developed a framework of excellence for schools and settings that
use the Archimedes Earth Forest Schools Education model. There can be a number of benefits to the traditional education setting, the school, the nursery and the college. Education has been delivered in classrooms for decades and centuries, with the movement away from that becoming more established since the 1930’s as explored in chapter 2. As pressures increase and more emphasis is placed on academic standards of testing and exam results, there is a greater concentration on the need for children to develop reading and writing skills and to become creative explorers of their world, but also through the achievement of the A to C grades at GCSE and A level. Cary L. Cooper state in the book ‘Teachers Under pressure’, that as our education system whilst undergoing both immense and rapid change, it is very common for teachers to be stressed at work unable to find support to deal with the changes and many are leaving. There are debates about the role of schools and teachers, The Scottish Government comment that ‘Norway is often seen as a beacon in providing high-‐quality Early Childhood Education and Care services for all children with a strong emphasis on a holistic pedagogical approach, outdoors activities and the link between play and learning in a child's development’ (http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2013/03/4564/9) The report suggests that in Norway, where there is a strong emphasis on outdoor learning, similar in some cases to those we undertake at Forest Schools, does create a strong and firm foundation and this is fully supported by the Norwegian government, Norway does have high levels of kindergarten staff who work but are in fact untrained due to the explosive numbers of kindergarten places required in the country
and new settings being opened to provide for the demand for pre school places. The lack of trained professionals can and will have impacts on quality in the long term. It is interesting that (Østrem et al. 2009) ‘bought up a number of concerns that the documentation and mapping undertaken on children up to 6 years in the kindergarten settings is raising in emphasis. Interestingly they ask whether it supports or is in conflict with the national curriculum guidelines which are clear in their limited expectation of individual documentation, and is required only for pedagogues to use to reflect and provide opportunities for learning ønsberg, Høgskolen state that ‘Norwegian kindergartens have a duty to achieve the aims set out by The governmental framework plan though the way it plans and prepares and provides its offering, the kindergarten is required to "...lay the foundations for lifelong learning and active participation in a democratic society in close understanding and collaboration with the homes of the children." I thought that it was interesting to mention here that other countries, though we like to glorify them on occasions because we want so desperately to emulate what we think is the whole picture and not necessarily the case. All teachers and educational professional teachers and pedagogues are under pressure, no matter which country they live in; ‘Life and culture and society is rapidly changing, technology is changing it, and as such the demands on children, socially as well as educationally are shifting and even the very construction and firing of the brain in response to this technology is changing to accommodate the shift in sensory input ‘ Research is emerging from a range of sources of utilising the Forest Schools Education model. There is, and always will be much anecdotal descriptions, qualitative review and speculation. Steiner suggests that in al work with nature we use the hand, the heart or the head, or all three. Working with wood he describes as a process of heart. As such we as positioners and
trainers engage fully on an emotional level and as such we simply ‘know’ that something good is coming out of the process. Research makes many generic claims, but sometimes this can be non specific and not really useful to the school setting, that is interested in a more focused approach to findings. There is an increased understanding that Forest Schools works, and the nature of the provision is so dependent on many variable, that drawing conclusive conclusions can be and is carried back into the school in terms of how has attendance at forest Schools add value to the participants in terms of its academic remit, which is to support knowledge, skills and understanding, to promote the ‘capable learner’ and to inspire an individual to be independent, resilient, provide an economic contribution Social and Emotional Aspects of learning (SEAL) ad every child matters; Being Healthy, Staying Safe, Enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution and economic wellbeing. Archimedes Forest Schools Education model would describe this as ‘Personal Sustainability’ and can describes someone who can add constructively and creatively to society as a whole, not depleting its resources, environmental, economic or from its community. Longitudinal studies do take time, but there is emerging evidence to support the implementation of Forest Schools, using the Archimedes Model. The Archimedes Framework of excellence is setting based. It recognizes that an individual or staff team can provide excellence through its Forest Schools provision, but if this is not supported within the setting at all levels, and it is an issue that rears its head on so many occasions as concern from Practitioners who have trained with us. This the most common reason that Forest Schools becomes unsustainable in schools or nurseries, irrespective of the knowledge that it make a difference to children’s life, experience and foundations for learning; if practitioners are not
understood, supported or valued, then they as individuals will always loos vision and hope, as a result the children will loose their opportunity to participate in the whole transformational experience. The Framework of Excellence is designed with the aim of supporting schools through follow-‐up standardized and that the best value for money is achieved through added value to the school as a result of Practitioner training. There are many different areas where excellence can be developed, and these are embedded in the Quality Mark process. Here is an example of the criteria for school or settings management, one aspect of the process. The Framework of Excellence is the building blocks on which the Quality Mark is awarded at each level and are covered by the following criteria: 1.
Leadership & Management
2.
Quality
3.
Student Experience
4.
Health & Safety
5.
Environment
6.
Learning Provision
7.
People & Partnerships
8.
Evaluation
8.5. Forest Schools Quality Marks:
Archimedes has developed its certified Quality Marks for Forest Schools Practitioners
working in settings. The purpose therefore of the Archimedes Forest Schools Education Quality
Mark is that it is schools or settings based and it is aimed at a strategic level to support schools to integrate and to create a sustainable approach understanding that those who attend Forest Schools using the Archimedes model will in the long term contribute back into the school or setting, education as a whole and the impact on society can only be a positive thing. It assumes that the practice is of the highest quality and there is the Quality Improvement Framework (QUIF) which was developed by the Forestry Commission and Archimedes, amongst others with experience in Forest School development and delivery helped to pilot and the QUIF was ultimately designed as a self-‐improvement assessment tool for each practitioner to participate in if they so desired. Whenever a setting displays the Quality Mark others will be aware that those trained are Forest Schools practitioners using the Archimedes Forest Schools model through attendance and certification on a course run by Archimedes. Archimedes Earth website will publish all those setting names certified by the company through using the Framework of Excellence. The details of the Quality Mark system are explained below: •
The Archimedes Earth Quality Mark is recognition that a setting meets the criteria that have been matched against the Framework of Excellence for each level established
•
The Archimedes Earth Quality mark stands for quality and safety. If a setting carries an Archimedes Forest Schools Education Quality Mark, it ensures that the setting has been verified and audited on a regular basis and that it will perform to a consistent quality over time.
•
The Archimedes Earth Quality Mark will be awarded to a setting and they can display their
award in physical, electronic and in printed form. •
Archimedes Earth regularly checks Quality Mark holders to ensure encourage them to continue to meet the appropriate standard
•
Archimedes Earth Quality Mark holders will be listed on the Archimedes Earth website.
•
The Archimedes Earth Quality Mark designation is valid for three years and is subject to the setting evidencing its continuous improvement through internal audit and self-‐assessment. These settings will participate in an Archimedes Earth continual assessment process and the designation will be upheld as long as all the conditions are maintained.
•
Archimedes Earth Quality Mark is the first in the field to recognise a setting as a holistic entity in it’s vision for Forest Schools programme delivery and how this can enhance the children as well as schools learning standards; it is assessing the setting as a whole for its support and integration or Forest Schools for children and young people and it is this that people look for and trust.
There are three levels of Quality Mark •
Forest Schools Gold Award: The highest Accolade for a setting that meets the criteria
• Forest Schools Silver Award: The developmental award for a setting that meets the required criteria • Forest Schools Bronze Award: The entry level award for a setting that meets the set criteria Gold Award Settings: These are thought leaders, advocates and people dedicated to the process
of transforming children and young adults through their interaction with woodland and wild spaces. They will demonstrate and practice their understanding of Forest Schools pedagogy, ethos and methods for working with children and young adults. They will also demonstrate that they are changing lives and communities through their Forest Schools programmes. Their setting is at the forefront and pinnacle of transformational education. Silver Award Settings: These are dedicated to becoming Gold Award Settings. They are those in transition from entry level to the premier status and those that clearly recognise and understand the benefits of transformational Forest Schools education. They will have secured access to woodland or wild spaces that can be used for Forest Schools. They will have put staff and management through Archimedes Forest Schools training courses to ensure that they have the highest level of Forest Schools practitioners. Bronze Award Settings: These organisations are those that are starting out on their Forest Schools journey. They are committed to establishing and maintaining Forest School provision and are in the process of developing their woodland or wild space into an approved educational resource. They will have at least one Archimedes trained Level 3 Practitioner who will be given the resources to champion Forest Schools provision at their setting. Benefits of Forest Schools Quality mark to Service Providers: •
Whether it’s a school, nursery, public setting, private entity or outdoor activity provider the Quality mark provides assurance that it consistently meets the requirements of the appropriate standards.
•
All parents, stakeholders and the community will be made aware of the success of the
setting and celebrate in the commitment that the setting has made to promote and provide this specialist provision for the children and as such the local community, socially and environmentally as a result. •
All successful organisations will be awarded with a plaque and certification.
•
The organisation is presented with confirmation of its achievements to use the Archimedes Forest Schools Education Quality Mark to promote how Forest Schools provision is integrated into the school or setting. To maintain this approval Forest Schools carries out regular reviews
•
Any organisation can apply online having confirmed that it has read and understood the applications standard document prior to signing up.
•
All practitioners are offered the opportunity to sign up for the Bronze Award on application for training and this is presented to the setting in which they work on qualifying at Level 3 and completing their on-‐going mentoring at the setting for the academic year.
CHAPTER 9: Conclusion
In conclusion as we have thoroughly in some places and scantily in others touched upon
the Archimedes Forest Schools model, I have attempted to put the concept into perspective. We have looked at the work that Archimedes Earth does through its practical provision of programmes and its support of practitioners through the training. We have also looked at the development of traditional and also the not so traditional formats of education and how Forest Schools fits into that. Neuroscience is emerging and our understanding of gender, age and environment is influencing many aspects of how we see children and how their brains evolve through their lives. We as teachers, facilitators who have a passion for learning and for the work that nature fulfils as the natural teacher has been explored and how nature can go many miles in developing, establishing and maintaining health and well being. We have not really explored the areas of Reggio Emilia and the atelier as part of the story, we have to some degree ignored how our own experiences influence us as practitioners and how we ended up where we are on the journey that has bought us to Forest Schools, but we have at least bought this up as a thought provoking element to the theory and to the process Archimedes does not by any stretch of the imagination profess to know it all. It would be a foolish and self destructive statement. However we are trying our best to be the best we can be. I don't think that anyone n the world could ask for more. Our hearts are and always have been in the right place; We desire great things for our world, for our selves and ultimately we desire these great things so that we can give our children the best
world to live in, the best education that they deserve, the love and joy and acceptance that is the right of all children and above all we wish to introduce them to the wonders of the natural world, the awe and wonder that is elemental in our lives and we wish to give them their childhoods in which to play and simply be. The child that worries not, that wonders greatly, that has the widest set of experiences possible, that laughs every day, that is amongst friends and adults that respect and are respected back. That each one can have a chance to know a beautiful and real relationship with the wonder, that we call our Earth. Archimedes has spent many years working towards a story that we can tell. We hope that you have enjoyed it so far, its not over yet! If you are a practitioner who has worked with us, trained with us, who has story to tell, we would sincerely love to hear it. If you are a child who has been to Forest Schools and has something to share we would love to hear it. If you are a parent or a carer and you have seen a wonder or a glimpse of the magic that comes from Forest Schools then we would like to see it. If you have a passion and a desire to change the lives of children, to develop the personal sustainability of all those you encounter and you feel moved to become a part of the story, then we would love to know about it, so we can be a part of that journey with you. Thank you for your time and your energy and your passion. This book is written for all the children around the world who have experienced the joy and passion of being at Forest Schools; to all the practitioners who have trained with us and who have committed your own time energy and experience to making a difference to the lives of so many. To my amazing team, to those of you who take phone calls, those who turn up week after week with a drive that is beyond comprehension because as trainers you want to share the Archimedes Forest Schools Model with a whole new generation. Thank you to those that have endlessly been
reading the words that are contained in this book and made diagrams of what has been growing for so long. To those of you whom I have experienced on the way who have given me hope, who have given me drive and without whom Archimedes would not be what it is, Forest Schools Education would not have been a part of something so amazing and now to the Middlewood Nature Nursery and Forest Schools Kindergarten Staff teams who believe that we can make a difference.
No matter where you are on your journey… make it a good one!
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATION Figure 1: Arch of Influence
12
26
Figure 3: The Forest School Participant-‐What goes in
33
35
Figure 2: The Archimedes Recipe Figure 4: The Forest School Participants-‐What goes out Figure 5: Sphere of Influence
61
64
Figure 7: Landscape Diversity
66
84
86
Figure 10: The Trainee Practitioner Recipe
88
115
Figure 6: Making it Real Figure 8: The Transition State Figure 9: Training Element
Figure 11: The Humors-‐Development of Self Evaluation Skills Figure 12: Training Progression
137
144
prior to Attending an Archimedes Forest Schools or other Courses
149
Figure 13: The Trainee Recipe Figure 14: The Ideal Traits that a Learner Possess
Figure 15: From Practitioner to Practitioner Trainee
150
Figure 16: Arch of Influence Archimedes Earth
151
Figure 17: The Skilled Practitioner-‐What comes out
154
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Sarah Blackwell is the CEO of Archimedes Earth, Founder of Forest Schools Education and Forest Schools Kindergarten. Sarah has researched and written accredited training programmes in Forest Schools, Beach Schools, Social Forestry, Bush Schools and the Nature Kindergarten Educators Award. Sarah was a major supporter of the Institute of Outdoor Learning Special Interest Group for Forest Schools and an elected director and treasurer for the Forest Schools Association on inception. With a First Class Honours Degree in Countryside Recreation Management and a Post Graduate Certificate in Secondary Business Teaching Education Sarah is also a qualified in Mountaineering, Climbing, Caving and an NLP practitioner Sarah has written in many magazines and appeared on radio. Sarah’s passion for children’s education and the outdoors was the main motivator for her work developing Urban Forest Schools in South Yorkshire, Derbyshire and East Riding with young people, Early Years and Adults from 2000. This passion for social change and for the well-‐being of children globally has inspired her to train Internationally and to develop her Blog ‘Get Children Outdoors’ as well as to write a book about her approach to Forest Schools and the Model that Archimedes have developed over the past 15 years
Related Documents
The Archimedes Forest Schools Model.pdf
December 2019 5
Archimedes
November 2019 26
Archimedes
November 2019 25
Archimedes
April 2020 10
The Forest
July 2020 6
Archimedes Principle
May 2020 14More Documents from "mrs azizi"
The Archimedes Forest Schools Model.pdf
December 2019 5
Steiner-anthroposophy-background.pdf
April 2020 0
Gtd-for-teens-goals-canvas.pdf
December 2019 9
Tabel F
July 2020 20
Bagian Isi 3.docx
June 2020 30