Tab Ella

22 June 1999 World Commission On Dams Meeting at Tarbela, Pakistan Tarbela, NWFP, Pakistan: About sixty people representing diverse interests in the Indus Basin gathered at Tarbela Dam on Tuesday to participate in the first phase of a study that focuses on the development effectiveness of the Tarbela project. The World Commission on Dams (WCD) study, one of ten being conducted world wide, is an important element of the WCD's global program to develop new recommendations on the planning, design, implementation and operation of large dams. Representatives of downstream and upstream communities, federal and provincial government agencies, and environmental and social interest groups, came together to help prioritise issues for the study. Advisors to the WCD Secretariat, Jeremy Bird and Madiodio Niasse, clarified the role of the Commission to the participants, "The mandate of the Commission involves listening to interested parties, learning lessons from existing dam projects around the world and making this experience widely available. On the basis of these studies, the Commission will develop generic criteria and guidelines for the future". They further clarified that "in fulfilling this mandate the Commission is precluded from adjudicating on disputes or becoming involved in local decision making, that is the domain of sovereign states." The Ministry of Water and Power and WAPDA have been supportive of the Commission's work. Tarbela Project Director, Dr Izharul Haq, noted that the Project is in the year of its silver jubilee adding "we are thankful to the WCD who have chosen Tarbela Dam as one of its case studies". The study, to be completed by the end of this year, will focus on the development effectiveness of the dam, assess how key decisions were made and implemented, and on the effects those decisions have had on different interest groups. An important component of the study will be an assessment of the distribution of costs, benefits and impacts for upstream and downstream interests. Study questions also include: What did the planners predict, and what was the outcome? How have the different agencies dealt with the unexpected events and changing values of the society? Working in small groups, the participants pin-pointed the focus and approach for the study in assessing the performance of irrigation, power generation, and flood protection functions of the dam, and the role of the dam in fulfilling the provisions of the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty. The integrated nature of water management was highlighted and emphasis given in the meeting to environmental and social issues. These include the consequences of reduced dry season flows on the ecology of the river and its delta. National NGOs were well represented at the meeting. Representatives of the Pakistan Network for Rivers, Dams and People commented, "We are cautiously optimistic about the Tarbela study and welcome the opportunity it provides. We would like to assist in this enterprise by sharing the resources which PNRDP has at its disposal. An issue which remains of primary interest to us is the methodology which will be followed in executing this study". Commenting on the origins of the Commission, its Chair, Professor Kader Asmal, said in a recent interview "When opponents and proponents of dams agreed jointly in April 1997 to establish the WCD, they did so because both realised that an independent review was required. The WCD process was painstakingly designed around two concepts - independence from vested interest and balance in terms of perspectives represented". In addition to Professor Asmal, eleven Commissioners were chosen with wide ranging experience in damsrelated issues from around the world. The WCD stressed their commitment to a fully transparent process of consultation throughout this study and indicated that a series of local meetings on specific aspects of the study will be held in the river basin over the coming months. Anyone wishing to contribute or submit opinions and perspectives is welcome to join this endeavour. To submit comments and receive information, the Commission's web site can be found at http://www.dams.org. The Commission will draw on the issues raised by participants at Tuesday's meeting to guide their investigation over the forthcoming months. In early December, the Commission and

study team will meet again with interested parties to report their findings and receive feedback prior to incorporating the study's output into WCDs wider global report due in June 2000.

Pakistan: Tarbela Dam The Tarbela Dam in Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province was constructed in 1976 and involved the resettlement of more than 80,000 people. Many were moved to a series of townships surrounding the Tarbela reservoir, some moved into higher valleys, while others were resettled in the provinces of Sindh and Punjab.

Our partner in Pakistan, the SUNGI Development Foundation, worked with the community-based organisation SMT to collect and communicate testimonies from those affected by the resettlement.

Narrators describe the differences between their life in the villages and the more urban environments to which they were moved, where many of their old skills and occupations were redundant. As a result, unemployment is a huge problem, and drug addiction among the younger generation, particularly men, has become a major concern. The publication of a booklet of the interviews was delayed when SUNGI and SMT had to focus on the aftermath of the devastating 2005 earthquake, but in early 2007 they produced The submerged speak.

Tarbela Dam is constructed on River Indus in the North West Frontier Province at a distance of about 70 kilometers from the capital Islamabad. It is a multipurpose earth-fill dam constructed as part of the Indus Water Replacement Works. The construction of the dam was completed in 1974. It has a reservoir area of about 260 square kilometers and about 82,000 acres land was acquired for its construction. The large reservoir of the dam submerged 135 villages, which resulted in displacement of a population of about 96,000 people. For the land and built-up property acquired under the Land Acquisition Act of 1984, a cash compensation of Rs 469.65 million was paid to the affectees. In the absence of a national policy, resettlement concerns of the affectees of Tarbela Dam were addressed on ad hoc basis.

In a meeting held on May 1967 under the chairmanship of the then President of Pakistan, it was decided inter alia that owners of agricultural land possessing a minimum half acre of irrigated or two acres of barani land under cultivation in the affected areas should be given the option to purchase agricultural land in the old colonies of the Punjab and Barrage areas of Sindh. The minimum area to be offered will not be less than 12 acres in colony areas and 16 acres in Barrage areas depending on the quality of land. Land offered in Colony areas should be priced on the basis of prevailing prices during 12 months preceding May 1967. In the Barrage areas also the price should be similarly fixed by the Board of Revenue and a concession of Rs 100 per acre should be made. In the Colony area, the maximum acreage to be offered to a land owner, should be 50 acres while in the Barrage areas there should be no size restriction. For those affectees who did not qualify for grant of agricultural land, it was decided to develop village sites along the periphery of the reservoir and elsewhere in Hazara district in consultation with the affected people. The plots in these settlements were sold to the affected people willing to establish their new houses in these areas. It was also decided to draw up proper investment schemes to make profitable use of the huge amount of compensation money that would be paid to the displaced persons. Large amount should be issued in bonds and securities. The immensity and complexities of the problems arising from the acquisition of such large tracts of land and the evacuation and resettlement of such a large population prompted the government to create a separate organization known as the Tarbela Dam Resettlement Organization, headed by a separate Project Director. This organization, set up on the pattern of the one at Mangla, was responsible for the assessment, acquisition and payment of compensation for the properties thus affected and acquired: and the evacuation and resettlement of the vast population. The Tarbela Dam Resettlement Organization functioned with a modicum of efficiency not unexpected of a bureaucratic organization of such temporary nature. With the passage of time the organization became redundant and was formally closed on June 30, 1985. It is not suggested that all matters pertaining to resettlement had been resolved. For the resettlement of Tarbela Dam affectees, Government had allocated 60,000 acres of land, 30,000 acres each in the Punjab and Sindh. Accordingly 30,000 acres of land in the Punjab was given to 2,400 affectees whereas in Sindh only 10,667 acres could be given to 667 affectees. Out of the 667, it is reported that 170 have not received possession and have asked for alternate land. Thereafter, the Government of Sindh declined to give the remaining 19,,333 acres of land with the result a number of affectees, who had exercised option and fulfilled the laid down conditions, could not get alternate land. At the same time it needs to be stated that at that point of time there were many affectees who preferred to take cash compensation rather than accept alternate land offered by the government. During the preparations for the Ghazi Barotha Hydro Power Project, some of the NGOs agitated against inadequate compensation and unsatisfactory resettlement of the Tarbela Dam displaced persons. Taking notice of the hue and cry the World Bank persuaded the Government of Pakistan to resolve outstanding resettlement issues pertaining to Tarbela Dam and accordingly in the loan agreement dated March 7, 1996 for the Ghazi Barotha a condition was inserted. In pursuance of the above commitment an Independent Consultant was appointed by WAPDA on the recommendation of the World Bank to undertake the survey and define a clear action programme to deal with the outstanding claims. On June 12, 1996 WAPDA submitted to the bank this survey and action plan and on June 24, 1996 Government of Pakistan confirmed that this report constituted "our survey and includes action plan for the purpose of section 6.01© of the loan agreement." The Independent Consultant's report envisaged apart from other recommendations involving finances, a payment of cash compensation of Rs 1.668 billion in lieu of alternate land to which the Tarbela Dam affectees were entitled. By January 1997 Ministry of Water and Power began to have second thought about the Consultant's report. The Ministry felt that all-legitimate compensations for land had already been made and that, there was no need to reopen the issue. The Economic Coordination Committee of the cabinet approved Ministry of water and Power's proposals to ignore the report of the Consultants and decided that affectees should be free to go to the court for redressal of their legitimate grievance. The bank expressed concern at this deviation of GOP from its contracted obligation and commitment and refused to accommodate GOP's request for further help to the GBHP. In June

1997, therefore, Ministry of Water and Power proposed to set up a Tribunal to settle the issues of the Tarbela dam affectees stating that the Bank mission were inclined to support this approach. The World Bank, however, again emphasized that the Independent Consultant's report and action plan serves as the basis of declaring the loan effective and any intention on the part of GOP to substantially revise, reverse or reject that action plan could lead the Bank to consider suspension of loan disbursements. The Economic Coordination Committee of the Cabinet, on July 1, 1997, agreed to the constitution of a Commission under the chairmanship of a retired judge of High Court and two experts to settle this issue. Ministry of water and Power was to draw the Terms of Reference and the Commission was required to submit its report within four months time. The World Bank expressed reservation on the Terms of Reference. The ECC on November 2, 1997 decided that the Terms of Reference of the proposed Commission may be revised in such a way that it should limit itself to implement the action plan agreed with the World Bank in a manner designed to eliminate possibilities of fraud. Moreover, it should be expanded to include one or more representatives of local NGOs. The Terms of Reference were accordingly revised in consultation with the World Bank. Thereafter the Ministry of Water and Power issued a notification on April 23, 1996 appointing a six-member Commission under the chairmanship of Mr. Justice CA Rehman. The Commission could not proceed with its work for certain reasons and was reconstituted on July 28, 1998. The Commission commenced its work on August 1, 1998. Commission's recommendations On completion of its tenure, the Commission has submitted its recommendations with a view to settle the claims of the affectees of the Tarbela Dam. The recommendations are: There are only 40 affectees who had been paid cash compensation for purchasing alternate land. Since land was not made available they had subsequently withdrawn their compensation amount. These persons, in Commission's view, deserve grant of alternate land at the original cost of Rs 700 per acre as recommended by Independent Consultant. The remaining 1,704 eligible affectees, 1,319 belonging to settled area and 385 belonging to Kala Dhaka tribal area, may be provided 12 acres of state land at a price to be determined by mutual consultation between the Federal and provincial governments. The cost of land should be payable in installments in twenty years as laid down in the original resettlement scheme. So far as Nawab of Amb is concerned, no special dispensation can be suggested. He will be entitled to land compensation like any other affectee. The number of applications for residential plots received from settled areas and verified by Ghazi Barotha Taraqqiati Idara (GBTI) comes to 6,827. Out of these, 3,279 meet the declared criteria and have been declared correct. From tribal area of Kala Dhaka out of 1,280 affectees, 173 have already been settled in New Darband township, Kangra Colony etc. Out of the remaining number only 666 affectees have been found eligible by the provincial authorities. Already, there are 441 developed plots in New Darband Township Extension Scheme. Hence a shortage of 225 plots has to be made up. The Chief Minister of NWFP, on 26th February, 1996, approved development of a housing scheme in the vicinity of New Darband Township Extension Scheme at a meager cost of Rs 4 million. The Commission recommends that an amount of Rs 10 million be provided to the Government of NWFP for executing the proposed scheme. The sale proceeds from the existing 441 plots in New Darband Township Extension Scheme may be retained by the Government of NWFP and utilized for creation of new plots. The maintenance of buildings, roads, water supply etc is poor by any standards. There is a need to improve civic amenities including education, health and environment. It is recommended that adequate funds may be earmarked for this purpose on sustainable basis. There are twenty-seven cases under litigation in various courts between the affectees and WAPDA. The cases where WAPDA has gone in appeal (as a matter of routine) against the judgment of the High Court may be reviewed by the Ministry of Law and Justice with a view to abate proceedings.

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Koshi River

Countries State

China, Nepal, India Bihar

Major cities Biratnagar, Purnia, Katihar The Kosi River, called Koshi in Nepal (Nepali: कोशी नदी), is a transboundary river between Nepaland India, and is one of the largest tributaries of the Ganges. The river, along with its tributaries, drains a total area of 69,300 km2 (26,800 sq mi) up to its confluence with the Ganges in India (29,400 km2/11,400 sq mi in China, 30,700 km2/11,900 sq mi in Nepal and 9,200 km2/3,600 sq mi in India). The watershed also includes part of Tibet, such as the Mount Everest region, and the eastern third of Nepal. The river basin is surrounded by the ridges separating it from the Brahmaputra in the north, theGandaki in the west, the Mahananda in the east, and by the Ganges in the south. The river is joined by major tributaries, approximately 48 km (30 mi) north of the Indo-Nepal border, breaking into more than twelve distinct channels with shifting courses due to flooding.[1][2] Kamlā, Bāghmati (Kareh) and Budhi Gandak are major tributaries of Koshi in India, besides minor tributaries like Bhutahi Balān.[3][4] Over the last 250 years, the Kosi River has shifted its course over 120 kilometres (75 mi) from east to west.[5] and the unstable nature of the river is attributed to the heavy silt which it carries during the monsoon season. Flooding in India has extreme effects. India is second in the world after Bangladeshin deaths due to flooding, accounting for one fifth of global flooding deaths. The Kosi River (The Sorrow of Bihar) is one of two major tributaries, the other river being Gandak, draining the plains of north Bihar, the most flood-prone area of India[6] Contents [hide] •

1 Legend

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2 Access to the basin

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3 Geography

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4 National parks and fauna

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5 Floods o

5.1 2008 flood in Bihar

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6 Glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF

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7 Development scenario

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8 Adventure sports

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8.1 River rafting

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8.2 Sport Fishing

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9 Notes

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10 External links

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11 Reference books [edit]Legend Formerly Kauśiki (named after sage Viśvāmitra because Viśvāmitra is said to have attained the status of Vedic ṛṣi or Rishi on its banks; Viśvāmitra was descendant of sage Kuśika and was called Kauśika in Rgveda), in Nepal and Bihar in northern India is a major tributary of theGanges (one major tributary of the Koshi is the Arun, a major part of whose course is in Tibet). This river is mentioned in the epic Mahabharataas Kauśiki. Seven Koshis join together to form the Saptakoshi River/Sapt Koshi which is popularly known as the Koshi. It is also the lifeline of the Mithila region, today spread over more than half of India's state of Bihar, and parts of adjoining Nepal and it forms the basis of legend and folklore of the region; the legend of Mithila extends over many centuries. Mithila is also the name of a style of Hindu artcreated in the Mithila area. [edit]Access to the basin

Namche Bazar - A company of the Nepal army is stationed here to protect the Sagarmatha National Park From Katmandu, there is a road for some distance followed by trekking paths to Mt Everest, which crosses four major tributaries of the Koshi. Namche Bazar near Tibet border in Nepal (near southern base camp of Mt Everest) is the major tourist centre in the mountainous part of the Koshi belt. Birātnagar in Nepal, andPurnia and Katihār in India are major cities on the Koshi

Plains. Kamlā, Bāghmati (Kareh) and Budhi Gandak are major tributaries of Koshi in India, besides minor tributaries like Bhutahi Balān. [edit]Geography

Kangchenjunga south face from Nepal In Nepal the Koshi lies to the west of Kanchenjunga. It has seven major tributaries: the Sun Koshi, the Tama Koshi or Tamba Koshi, the Dudh Koshi, the Indravati, the Likhu River, the Arun and the Tamur. The Dudh Koshi joins the Sun Koshiat the Nepalese village of Harkapur. At Triveni Sun the Koshi is joined by the Arun and the Tamar, after which the river is called the Sapta Koshi. At Barāhkṣetra in Nepal, it descends from the mountains and it is then called simply the Koshi. These tributaries encircle Mt Everest from all sides and are fed by the world's highest glaciers. Further down the Triveni, the river cuts a deep gorge across the lesser Himalayan range of Mahabharat Lekh in a length of 10 km (6.2 mi) and debouches into the plains near Chatra. After flowing for another 58 km (36 mi), it enters the north Bihar plains near Bhimnagar and after another 260 km (160 mi), flows into the Ganges near Kursela(1). The river travels a distance of 729 km (453 mi) from its source to the confluence with the Ganges. The Kosi river fan located in the northern part of India (in northeast Bihar and eastern Mithila) is one of the largest alluvial cones built by any river in the world. This 180 km (110 mi)-long and 150 km (93 mi)-wide alluvial cone shows evidence of lateral channel shifting exceeding 120 km (75 mi) during the past 250 years through more than 12 distinct channels. The river, which used to flow near Purnea in the 18th century, now flows west of Saharsa (1). The Kosi alluvial cone and its adjoining area have been studied in detail by remote sensing techniques. The data have been integrated with the available geological and geophysical information to decipher the causes responsible for the lateral shift of such a high-magnitude fan. A satellite image shows the old palaeo-channels of the Koshi river with its former (before 1731) confluence with the Mahananda River north of Lava.[7] [edit]National parks and fauna There are two famous national parks in the Koshi river basin: the Sagarmatha National Park, located in eastern Nepal, containing parts of the Himalayas and the

southern half of Mount Everest and the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve situated on the flood plains of the Sapta-Koshi River in Eastern Nepal. Sagarmatha National park

Thamaserku mountain Sagarmatha National park is located in eastern Nepal, including parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest. The park, which is also included as a UNESCO world heritage site, was created on 19 July 1976. Sagarmatha in Sanskrit means "Forhead of Universe" (Sagar: Sky or Heavens; Matha: Forhead) and is the modern Nepali name for Mount Everest. The park covers an area of 1,148 km2(443 sq mi) and ranges in elevation from its lowest point of 2,845 m (9,330 ft) at Jorsalle to 8,848 m (29,030 ft) at the summit of Mount Everest (highest peak in the world).[8] Other peaks above 6,000 m (20,000 ft) are Lhotse, ChoOyu, Thamserku, Nuptse, Amadablam, and Pumori. The upper watershed of theDudh Koshi river basin system lies in the park. The types of plants and animals that are found in the park depend on the altitude. The forests provide habitat to at least 118 species of birds, including Danphe, Blood pheasant, Red-billed chough, and yellow-billed chough. Sagarmatha National Park is also home to a number of rare species, including musk deer, wild yak, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear and red panda. Moreover, many other animals such as Himalayan thars, deer, langur monkeys, hares, mountain foxes, martens, and Himalayan wolves are found in the park. In the lower forested zone, birch, juniper, blue pines, firs, bamboo and rhododendron grow. Above this zone, all vegetation is dwarf plants or shrubs. As the altitude increases, plant life is restricted to lichens and mosses. Plants cease to grow at about 5,750 m (18,900 ft), in the permanent snowline in the Himalayas. The park's visitor centre is located at the top of a hill in Namche Bazaar, also where a company of the Nepal Royal Army is stationed to protect the park. The park's southern entrance is a few hundred metres north of Mondzo at 2 835 m (9,300 ft), a one-day hike from Lukla.

The presence of the Sherpas, with their unique culture, adds further interest to this park.[9] UNESCO listed the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979 for its unique natural, cultural and landscape characteristics.[8] Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve is a wetland situated in the flood plains of the SaptaKoshi River in Nepal's Eastern Terai. Gazette-notified as a wild life reserve in 1976, it covers a reserve area of 175 km2 (68 sq mi) and is one of the Outstanding Important Bird Areas in the Indo-Gangetic grasslands. The park has large population of Swamp Francolin, breeding Bristled Grass-warbler, records of White-throated Bushchat and Finn's Weaver.[10] The Koshi river forms the major landmark of the reserve and is home to 80 fish species, around 441 species of birds, 30 shore birds, 114 water birds, 20 ducks and 2 ibises. The endangered swamp partridge and Bengal florican are also found here. The Koshi Barrage is an extremely important resting-place for migratory birds (87 nos winter visitors). In view of its rich biodiversity it was declared a Ramsar site of international significance in 1987.[11] The endangered Gharial crocodile and Gangetic dolphin locally known as sons in Bihar and a further endangered species (freshwater dolphin) have been recorded in the river. The last surviving population of wild buffalo or arna in Nepal is found in the reserve (number at present is estimated to be 150). The reserve is a habitat of 20 other animal species such as hog deer, spotted deer, wild boar, blue bull and rock python. The vegetation mainly includes tall khar-pater grasslands with a few patches of khairsissoo scrub forest and deciduous mixed riverine forest. During the monsoon, the reserve is flooded with depths ranging from 10 to 300 cm (3.9 to 120 in). Birdwatching along the eastern embankment at dusk and dawn is one of the most exciting tourist attractions in the reserve.[12] Gangetic River Dolphin, locally known as sons in Bihar, is an endangered species (freshwater dolphin).[13] [edit]Floods The Kosi is known as the “Sorrow of Bihar”[14]when it flows from Nepal to India, as it has caused widespread human suffering in the past through flooding and very frequent changes in course [2] [3] [4].

Flooded north Bihar,India The Koshi has an average water flow (discharge) of 1 564 m³/s or 55,000 cu ft/s. During floods, it increases to as much as 18 times the average. The greatest recorded flood was 24,200 m3/s (850,000 cu ft/s) on 24 August 1954. The Kosi Barrage has been designed for a peak flood of 27,014 m3/s (954,000 cu ft/s)(2). Owing to extensive soil erosion and landslides in its upper catchment by factors both natural and human, the silt yield of the Kosi is about 19 m³/ha/year (10 cu yd/acre/yr), one of the highest in the world. (2). The Arun, with its origins in Tibet, brings the greatest amount of coarse silt in proportion to its total sediment load. The river is able to transport its heavy sediment load down the steep gradients and narrow gorges in the mountains and foothills, but on the plains beyond Chatra where slopes are flatter the sediment load is deposited in an immense alluvial fan that has grown to an area of about 15 000 km². This fan extends some 180 km from its apex where it leaves the foothills, across the international border into Bihar state and on to the Ganges. Instead of a single well-defined channel, the river has numerous interlacing channels that shift laterally over the fan from time to time. Without sufficient channelisation, floods spread out very widely. The record flow of 24 200 m³/s is equivalent to water a meter deep and more than 24 kilometers wide, flowing down the slight slope of the alluvial fan at one meter per second. The Kosi's alluvial fan has fertile soil and abundant groundwater in a part of the world where agricultural land is in acutely limited supply in relation to population. Subsistence farmers must balance the threat of starvation with that of floods. As a result, the flood-prone area is densely populated and subject to heavy loss of life. Floods have caused the Kosi to be called the “River of Sorrow”{3). It contributes disproportionately to India having more deaths in floods than any other country except Bangladesh.

The Kosi before it flooded in August 2008 The Kosi during the August 2008 flood [edit]2008 flood in Bihar Main article: 2008_Bihar_flood On 18 August 2008, the Kosi river picked up an old channel it had abandoned over 100 years ago near the border with Nepal and India. Approximately 2.7 million people were reported affected as the river broke its embankment at Kusaha in Nepal, thus submerging several districts of Nepal and India. 95% of total flow of the Koshi was reported flowing through the new course.

[15] [16]

The worst affected districts

included Supaul, Araria, Saharsa,Madhepura, Purnia, Katihar, parts of Khagaria and northern parts of Bhagalpur, as well as adjoing regions ofNepal. Relief work was carried out with Indian Air Force helicopters by dropping relief materials from Purnia in the worst hit districts where nearly two million persons were trapped.[15] It has not been possible to assess the magnitude of deaths or destruction, because the affected areas are totally inaccessible. 150 persons are reported to have been washed away in a single incident (Dainik Hindustan, Darbhanga edition). Another news item stated that 42 people had died in the flood in Bihar.[17] The Government of Bihar has constituted a technical committee, headed by a retired engineer-in-chief of the water resource department to supervise the restoration work and closure of the breach in the East Kosi afflux embankment.[17] Indian authorities were working to prevent further widening of the breach and channels would be dug to direct the water back to the main river bed.[18] The fury of the Kosi river left at least 2.5 million people marooned in eight districts of Bihar and inundated 650 km². The prime Minister of India declared it a national calamity. The Indian army and non-government organizations were operating the biggest flood rescue operation in India in more than 50 years.[19]. It is reported as the worst flood in the area in 50 years.[20]. [edit]Glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF At present, in the Himalayan region, glaciers are melting and retreating resulting in formation of lakes insecurely dammed by ice or moraines. These dams are at risk of failing, causing a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) with flows as great as 10,000 cubic meters a second. Such floods are likely to destroy communication systems and various infrastructures like bridges roads, hydropower projects (directly or indirectly),

foot trails, villages, fields and terraces, irrigation canals, and could cost hundreds or even thousands of lives. Such floods also transport huge amounts of sediment. In the past two decades GLOF has become a topic of intense discussion within the development community in Nepal. Studies of the glaciers and glacier lakes were carried out in 1988 by a joint Sino-Nepalese team. In the Arun-Koshi river basin, there are 737 glaciers in Tibet and 229 glacier lakes, out of which 24 glacier lakes are potentially dangerous. Similarly, there are 45 glacier lakes in the Sun-Koshi basin, out of which 10 are potentially dangerous. The Dig Tsho GLOF on 4 August 1985, completely destroyed the nearly completed Namche hydropower plant and also all the bridges, trails, cultivation fields, houses and livestock along its path to the confluence of the Dudh-Koshi and the Sun-Koshi rivers at a distance of 90 km (56 mi) from the Dig Tsho glacier. The Dig Tsho glacier is on the terminus of the Langmoche Glacier. This event brought into focus the seriousness of such events and the studies to assess the glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF followed. According to a Sino-Nepalese study, since the 1940s, there have been at least 10 cases of glacier lake outbursts within the basins investigated. Among them there have been five bursts in three glacier lakes of the Arun River Basin, and four in three glacier lakes of the Sun Koshi River Basin. [edit]Development scenario Multipurpose projects After India attained independence in August, 1947, the development scenario in India has been resolute on technological development. In keeping with this approach, the National Flood Control Policy in 1954 (following the disastrous floods of 1954 in a large part of the Koshi river basin) stated that floods could be controlled through a series of flood protection works like dams, embankments and river training works. One such work which drew the immediate attention of the policy planners after independence was a solution to the recurring flood menace faced by people of North Bihar due to the Kosi and other rivers, flowing from Nepal to India. The Kosi project was thus conceptualized (based on investigations between 1946 to 1955), in three continuous interlinked stages – the first was a barrage to anchor this wayward river that had migrated about 120 km (75 mi) westward in the last 250 years laying waste to a huge tract in north Bihar and to provide irrigation and power benefits to Nepal and India. The second part was to build embankments both below and above the barrage so as to jacket the river within the defined channel. The third part envisaged a high multipurpose dam within Nepal at Barakshetra to provide substantial flood cushion along with large irrigation and power benefits to both countries. This was followed up by signing of the Kosi Agreement between Nepal and India on 25 April

1954 and which was revised on 19 December 1966 to address the concerns of Nepal. Further letters of Exchange to the Agreement between the two countries provided for additional schemes for providing benefits of irrigation. While the first two parts of the concept plan have been implemented at the cost of the Government of India, the third part, namely, the Koshi High dam, the kingpin of the whole concept, for various political reasons precluded any action for several years but has since been revived under a fresh agreement, in a modified form for further investigations and studies(1,2,3,4 & 5). Details of the above projects are elaborated below. Kosi barrage and irrigation(4&5) Kosi Barrage, also called Bhimnagar Barrage after the name of the place where it was built between the years 1959 and 1963 straddles the Indo-Nepal border. It is an irrigation, flood control and hydropower generation project on the Kosi river built under a bilateral agreement between Nepal and India: the entire cost of the project was borne by India. The catchment area of the river is 61,788 km2 (23,856 sq mi) in Nepal at the Barrage site. The highest peaks – the Mount Everest and the Mount Kanchenjunga — lie in its catchment. About 10% of this catchment is snow-fed. The Eastern Canal and the Western Canal taking off from the barrage have been designed for a discharge capacity of 455 cubic metres per second (16,100 cu ft/s) to irrigate 6,125 square kilometres (1,514,000 acres) and 210 cubic metres per second (7,400 cu ft/s) to irrigate 3,566.1 square kilometres (881,200 acres) respectively. A hydropower plant has been built on the Eastern Canal, at a canal drop (3.6 km (2.2 mi) from the Koshi Barrage), to generate 20 MW. The Western Kosi Canal provides irrigation to 250 square kilometres (62,000 acres) in Nepal. A valuable bridge over the barrage opened up the East-West highway in the eastern sector of Nepal An inundation canal taking off at Chatra, where the Kosi debouches into the plains, has been built to irrigate a gross area of 860 km² in Nepal. The project has been renovated with IDA assistance after Nepal took over the project in 1976.

Silt deposition near Kosi embankment at Navbhata, Saharsa, Bihar, India Kosi embankment system (4&5) The Kosi barrage with earth dams across river, afflux bunds and embankments above and below the river confines the river to flow within embankments. Embankments on both sides downstream of the barrage with a length of 246 km (153 mi) has been constructed to check the westward movement of the river. The embankments have been kept wide apart, about 12 to 16 km (9.9 mi), to serve as a silt trap Sapta Kosi High Multipurpose Project (Indo-Nepal) Government of India (GOI) and His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMGN), have agreed to conduct joint investigations and other studies for the preparation of Detailed Project Report (DPR) of Sapta Kosi High Dam Multipurpose Project and Sun Kosi Storage-cum-Diversion Scheme to meet the objectives of both the countries for Development of a) hydropower generation, b) irrigation, c) flood control/management and d) navigation. A 269-metre (880 ft) high concrete/Rock fill dam on the Sapta Koshi River with a dam toe underground power house with an installed capacity of 3000 MW at 50% load factor, a barrage on river Sapta Kosi about 8 km (5.0 mi) downstream of Sapta Kosi High Dam to re-regulate the water being released from the Sapta Koshi dam with two canals, Eastern Chhatra Canal and Western Chhatra Canal, off-taking from the either bank from barrage site to provide water for irrigation both in Nepal and India and Navigation through Koshi up to Kursela and also in the reservoir of Sapta Koshi dam are envisaged. A Power Canal off-taking from the Eastern Chatra Canal is proposed for conveying the water required for irrigation at existing Kosi barrage at Hanuman Nagar and also the water which may be required downstream of Hanuman Nagar Barrage for the purpose of navigation. To utilize the head available between Chatra and Hanuman Nagar barrages for power generation, three canal Power Houses, each of 100 MW installed capacity are also proposed on power canal. Necessary cushion in storage capacity of Sapta Kosi High Dam would be provided to moderate the flood downstream of dam. Chatra Canal System would provide irrigation to large areas in Nepal and India (particularly in Bihar). A Joint Project Office (JPO) has been set up in Nepal for investigation of the project. Hydropower Nepal has a total estimated potential of 83,290 MW out of which economically exploitable potential is 42,140 MW. The Koshi river basin contributes 22,350 MW of

this potential.(360 MW from small schemes and 1875 MW from major schemes) and the economically exploitable potential is assessd as 10,860 MW (includes the Sapta Koshi Multipurpose Project [3300MW] mentioned above).[21] [edit]Adventure sports [edit]River rafting River rafting, also known as White Water Rafting, is an adventure sport that challenges one’s ability to row against the current of rivers. This is usually done on whitewater or different degrees of rough water, in order to thrill and excite the passengers riding on an inflatable rubber raft. It became popular as as sport during the mid 1970s and is now the third most popular adventure sport in Nepal; after mountaineering and trekking. The Sun Koshi river (The Golden River) presents the longest river trip in Nepal, traversing 270 km (170 mi) and meandering its way through the picturesque Mahabharata range of mountains. The river rafting trip in the Sun Koshi is listed as one of the world’s top ten classic river journeys. Other rivers where this adventure sport is a popular tourist attraction in Nepal are the Kali Gandaki, the Trisuli, the Bhote Koshi, the Marsyangdi and the Karnali.[22] and

[23]

A classic multi-day River trip (9 days) with around 40 rapids of grade 2-5 (Rivers are graded on a scale from one to six based on rapids and difficulties in rafting through the river) is recommended for advanced Rafters and Kayakers.[24] [edit]Sport Fishing The Koshi and other rivers draining the Himalayas have populations of Mahseer which are esteemed as gamefish and known as Indian Salmon. Mahseer can weigh up to 50 kg. and are said to put up a greater battle than any other type of fish of equivalent weight. They will take tied streamer flies as well as bait

Tarbela Dam (Urdu: ‫ ) تربیل بند‬is a dam on the Indus River in Pakistan.It is located 50 kilometers North-West of Islamabad near the Haripur District. It is the largest earth filled dam in the world and it produces much of Pakistan's hydroelectricity. Tarbela Dam is part of the Indus Basin Project, which resulted from a water treaty signed in 1960 between India and Pakistan, guaranting Pakistan water supplies independent of upstream control by India. Construction began in 1968, and continued until completion in 1976. The dam has a volume of 138,600,000 cubic yards (106,000,000 m³). With a reservoir capacity of 11,098,000 acre-feet (13.69 km³), the dam is 469 feet (143 m) high and 8,997 feet (2,743 m) wide at its crest. It helps to maintain the flow of the Indus during seasonal fluctuations. A new, smaller hydro-electric power project has been developed downstream known as the Ghazi Barotha Hydel Power Project. Its is solely for generating electricity and has a water channel with the highest flow in the world. While the dam has fulfilled its purpose in storing water for agricultural use in Pakistan, there have been environmental consequences to the Indus river delta. Reduction of seasonal flooding and reduced water flows to the delta have decreased mangrove stands and the abundance of some fish species.