Suppression Of Technology In The Music Industry.

Technology In The Music Industry 1 RUNNING HEAD: Technology In The Music Industry

The Suppression Of Technology In The Music Industry

Keith Tivon Gregory

English 1A (0019) Spring 06 Merritt College Professor C. Foster May, 2006

Technology In The Music Industry 2 The Suppression Of Technology In The Music Industry In order to maintain a profitable position in the recording industry many major recording labels have organized and exercised their power in the democratic system to curtail the rapid swing of digital music technology. This research paper will explore the trends of technology and the music industry in which they effect. Over the past decade technological advances have extremely curbed the music industry and the way it operates. With the use of the internet becoming more widespread over the past several years, in many ways the record company organizations have found themselves becoming more dispensable with the swing of technology.

Key Ideas: Innovation, Technology Aspects, Music Sales, Music Trends, Music mediums, Recording Organizations, RIAA, Internet, Pre and Post Napster Era, Copyright Legislation, Digital Piracy, Peer 2 Peer

Technology In The Music Industry 3 Abstract This paper will explorer several questions raised by the conflict of interest in the recording industry and the use of digital music technology which went mainstream in the late 1990’s. A brief history of digital and MP3 technology are surveyed along with statistics of computer and internet usage throughout the United States. Organizations such as International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA) and Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and their roles in the digital music era are covered, along the several forms of legislation introduced by these organizations. Music trends of the new millennium and real brief overview statistical sales of the RIAA are also included. A Summery of four different forms of legislation are also included; The Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA), Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), Music Online Competition Act (MOCA), and Consumer Broadband and Digital Television Promotion Act (CBDTPA). The effects of the internet will also be placed into evaluation and what type of effect does it have on society as a whole.

Technology In The Music Industry 4 Digital Technology Over the past decade music artist and consumers have found themselves submerged in the wake of the digital technology age. Many artist have crossed over with the times, no longer using analog recording technologies of past decades. With the basic timeline of the recording industry being known as; vinyl, magnetic tape (8 track & cassette tape), compact disc, and now digital media (MP3 being the most common) we have reached an era where the physical presence of a medium for music is not absolutely necessary. With the passage of time, the access to newer technology is filtering its way down the social economic ladder; it has allowed artists to embrace newer forms of digital media. With many record companies and artist all finding it economically sound to use innovation and technology to record and store their products, such innovation has also found its way to much more common places in our society and into the homes of many consumers. According to a study by the Scarborough Research Company Personal/Home computer Ownership per home/family in the United States was at 145,711,200 / 67.2%; this means that a majority of families and individuals had access to digital technology, in the same study it was found that 130,071,600 / 60.0% had internet access (“Washington Market Delineations” 2004). MP3 Technology The history of the MP3 is a very important facet when analyzing the trends of digital music technology. The MP3 format has come into dominance when speaking of digital music and is synonymous with music piracy. According to About.com (2004) The Fraunhofer Institute in Germany began research on Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) in

Technology In The Music Industry 5 1987. The very first patent for the MP3 format was issued in April of 1989 to the Fraunhofer Institute. MP3 stands for MPEG Audio Layer III and it is a standard for audio compression that makes any music file smaller with little or no loss of sound quality. MP3 is part of MPEG, an acronym for Motion Pictures Expert Group, a family of standards for displaying video and audio using lossy compression. Standards set by the Industry Standards Organization or ISO, beginning in 1992 with the MPEG-1 standard. MPEG-1 is a video compression standard with low bandwidth. The high bandwidth audio and video compression standard of MPEG-2 followed and was good enough to use with DVD technology. MPEG Layer III or MP3 involves only audio compression. (“The History of MP3” 2004). MP3 technology has become amazingly widespread in recent times by virtually all companies who produce home and car stereo systems. As reported by About.com (2004) Fraunhofer Gesellschaft says: "Without Data reduction, digital audio signals typically consist of 16 bit samples recorded at a sampling rate more than twice the actual audio bandwidth (e.g. 44.1 kHz for Compact Discs). So you end up with more than 1.400 Mbit to represent just one second of stereo music in CD quality. By using MPEG audio coding, you may shrink down the original sound data from a CD by a factor of 12, without losing sound quality." (“The History of MP3” 2004). Tools developed for the playback of MP3 begin soon after Fraunhofer received its patent. In the early 1990s, Frauenhofer developed the first, however, unsuccessful MP3 player. In 1997, developer Tomislav Uzelac of Advanced Multimedia Products invented the AMP MP3 Playback Engine, the first successful MP3 player. Two university students, Justin Frankel and Dmitry Boldyrev ported AMP to Windows and created Winamp. In 1998, Winamp

Technology In The Music Industry 6 became a free MP3 music player boosting the success of MP3. No licensing fees are required to use an MP3 player (“The History of MP3” 2004). A record company known as SubPop was one of the first of its kind; in February 1999 they officially distributed tracks from artist in MP3 format. In 1999 portable MP3 players begin to hit the market, the first official MP3 player to receive any praise was the Diamond Rio. By many the Diamond Rio was considered to be the future of personal audio. The tiny Diamond Rio player plays MP3-encoded digital music, the open Internet standard that shook up the music industry we have come to know today. It stores music files in 32 MB of RAM instead of on CD or tape. The true innovation in the Diamond Rio was that it had no moving parts and it could not skip. After MP3 hit the main stream of the internet other programmers jumped in to create a vast array of toolsets for the MP3 format. New encoders and players were sprouting up every week, and MP3 usage was growing strong. Search engines made it easy to find the specific MP3 files people wanted and portable players like the Diamond Rio allowed for the convenient usage of MP3. Another advantage of MP3 format is that there is no security features associated with the files. The files are small enough to be downloaded easily, or even attached to an email and sent to a friend. It is all this downloading and swapping of music that has attracted the attention of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), which represents the major labels and the owners of millions of sound recordings (“Behind the Music” 2000). Many of these labels view MP3 as a huge piracy threat, and the RIAA has tried to shut down several MP3related businesses. Until the ruling against Napster, the RIAA had very little success. Organizations

Technology In The Music Industry 7 Well known organizations with the interest of maintained copyright laws and intellectual property laws have found themselves aggressively fighting the battles of the digital pirating age. For this study we will simply focus on the 2 major world wide professional organizations, The International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA) and RIAA. These too organizations spearhead the fight against digital piracy and have become very influential in the democratic system leveraging economic assets and power. The IIPA is a private sector coalition formed in 1984 to represent the U.S. copyright-based industries in bilateral and multilateral efforts to improve international protection of copyrighted materials. IIPA is comprised of seven trade associations, each representing a significant segment of the U.S. copyright community. These member associations represent 1,900 U.S. companies producing and distributing materials protected by copyright laws throughout the world – all types of computer software including business applications software and entertainment software (such as videogame CDs and cartridges, personal computer CD-ROMs and multimedia products); theatrical films, television programs, home videos and digital representations of audiovisual works; music, records, CDs, and audiocassettes; and textbooks, trade books, reference and professional publications and journals (“About the IIPA” 2005). The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) is a trade group that represents the U.S. recording industry. Its mission is to foster a business and legal climate that supports and promotes their members creative and financial vitality. RIAA members are record companies that comprise the most active national music industry. RIAA members create, manufacture and/or distribute approximately 90% of all legitimate sound recordings produced and sold in the United States. The RIAA works to protect

Technology In The Music Industry 8 intellectual property rights worldwide and the First Amendment rights of artists; conduct consumer industry and technical research; and monitor and review state and federal laws, regulations and policies. The RIAA also certifies Gold, Platinum, Multi-Platinum, and Diamond sales awards. (“About the RIAA” 2003) Economy Throughout the digital era the main concern for many has been the economic impact of digital piracy. Many conflicting interest come about when economic issues are at hand. In Justin Moore’s analysis of market trends “RIAA Vs the Economy” Hillary Rosen, the RIAA lobbyist is frequently quoted talking about the billions of dollars each year the industry is losing in the wake of digital piracy. At the same time the RIAA was reporting record loses in their industry, the entire U.S. economy was falling short of predicted economic goals. In order to obtain a high-level view of trends in sales figures for the economy at large, sales data from RIAA members was taken and compared against those of thirty other members of the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA). The thirty companies used in comparison include banks, manufacturers, technology companies, medical research companies, and production companies. The majority of the figures here will study on the differences in sales and other statistics between 2000 and 2002. 2000 is the year that RIAA sales peaked, and coincidentally it's also the year that the dot-com bubble hit its peak. For both the RIAA most of and the rest of the economy it's been a steady downhill march to the sales figures of 2002. (“Analysis: RIAA vs. the Economy “ 2002) This section will present the raw sales data for the thirty DJIA members and the two categories of RIAA sales, both in tabular and graphical form:

Technology In The Music Industry 9

Raw Sales Figures, 1999-2002 (in millions)

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There are two measurements for the RIAA data. The first simply labeled “riaa” are the net sales for RIAA-member media, including CDs, CD singles, cassettes, vinyl, and music videos. The second labeled “riaa-cd” is the sales for CD albums only. There are two reasons for this split. The first is that CDs comprise over ninety-five percent of total RIAA-member sales. The second is that Hillary Rosen and other RIAA spokespeople have insisted that the loss in sales is in the CD market, that they're losing sales of $15 - $20 albums to digital pirates. (As cited in “Analysis: RIAA vs. the Economy “2002) An article in the Time Magazine titled “Downloader Dragnet” by Chris Taylor August 4, 2003 has the testimony of Hank Barry Chief Executive Officer of Napster Inc. quoting an RIAA survey the 1999 sales of music was actually up 11% and not down, which makes one question the true sales figures presented by the RIAA. What can be told from the raw sales data? The first is that the RIAA comprises a very small percentage of the overall economy. The DJIA company with the largest sales is Wal-Mart which in sales of 2002 totaled approximately twenty times that of all RIAAmember sales. The next is that the RIAA net sales have indeed dropped by one-and-threequarter billion dollars per year since its peak in 2000, with slightly over two-thirds of that (68.5 percent) being a decline in CD sales.

Technology In The Music Industry 11 This observation brings up two questions: •

With claimed losses of four billion dollars annually, but only an observed change of less than two billion dollars since 2000, was the RIAA already suffering twoand-a-quarter billion dollars of losses per year to digital piracy in 2000?

•

While CD sales accounted for over 95.5 percent of RIAA sales in 2002, they only account for 68.5 percent of the decline in sales. The other 31.5 percent decline in sales -- comprising $539 million -- comes from the other 4.5 percent of sales -originally $1.1 billion in 2000. Where are these losses coming from?

Justin Moore would venture that the answers to those questions are: •

We don't really know. Of course the RIAA will gladly make that claim, blaming those losses on Napster and other P2P tools. But is that actually the case? Justin Moore says "no", given that the sales figures for the RIAA exhibited a steady climb over the 1990's, peaking at 2000. For there to be another two billion dollars of lost sales on top of their record-breaking year is unlikely.

•

The answer to this one is much easier. Let's prune out CD sales from the RIAA data and look at those trends from 1990 - 2000. This includes cassettes, vinyl records, music videos, and DVD sales. Each line will be plotted separately, and the sum total. (“Analysis: RIAA vs. the Economy “ 2002)

Technology In The Music Industry 1

Non-CD Sales, 1990 - 2000

What can clearly be seen in the table above is that sales of non-CD items DVDs excluded have either barely held steady or have plunged dramatically since 1990. Net sales from these items plunged from nearly four billion dollars in 1990 to slightly over one-and-three-quarters billion dollars in 1998, the year that Napster went online. That's an average of $250 million per year in declining sales before P2P even got off the ground. Thus, the losses of $530 million in non-CD sales over two years (2000 to 2002) should come as no surprise. (“Analysis: RIAA vs. the Economy “2002)

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Expected Net Sales & Error (1999-2002) Business

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Immediately one can see a bit of a problem. The estimates are consistently off, oftentimes by large amounts; the 2002 sales estimates for Wal-Mart alone are off by almost forty billion dollars, more than the sales of the three smallest companies combined. You can assume that the largest companies are skewering the results, simply given the scale of their sales. Wal-Mart is large enough that a small blip in their sales, even less than one percent is more than a two-and-a-half billion dollar shift in the statistics. This is natural given the scale of their distribution chain. (“Analysis: RIAA vs. the Economy “2002) The RIAA would not be considered a large company that could possibly benefit from skewering their predicted sales date, so why are they consistently off year by year? The answer can not clearly be known, but it is these predicted sales figures and actual sales that the RIAA used to build their case against digital piracy. It can be assumed that the RIAA actually begin to lose control of their market, and thought their product was in higher demand then the public truly wanted. Many would also go out on a limb and say that the public begin to switch medium interest, and the RIAA simply was not in a position to provide what was in growing demand. Music Trends In 1999 the first portable MP3 player was released, and Napster went online. The trend of the digital age was clearly a growing interest in digital music. Individuals wanted their music in digital formats that at the turn of the century the RIAA simply did not provide. Many say the benefit of digital music could be ease of use, storage capacity, and

Technology In The Music Industry 1 portability. Other factors also may have had a huge influence when Napster went online. Fact still remains today that 85% of all music is released by 5 major labels Sony, EMI, UMG, Time Warner, and BMG but at any given point in time approximately 20% of all music ever recorded is available legally. The rest is locked away by labels and it is highly possible that labels are depriving creators of potential sources of income. (“Downloader Dragnet” 2003) The MP3 movement is one of the most amazing phenomena that the music industry has ever seen. Unlike other movements take for example the introduction of the cassette tape or the compact disc, The MP3 movement started not with the industry itself, but with a huge audience of music lovers on the internet. The MP3 format for digital music has had and will continue to have a huge impact on how people collect, listen to and distribute music. Not only did this form of digital technology take the world by surprise, but it definitely took the music industry by surprise. In an article by Tony Smith titled ”Half a billion downloads by June?” published April 14, 2005 in the British Magazine The Register, iTunes music store has sold more than 350 million songs worldwide since it opened its doors to US consumers in April 2003. The market for digital music downloads via the Internet and mobile phones nearly tripled in 2005, the value of digital music downloads rose to $1.1 billion in 2005, up from $380 million in 2004. The growth of the digital market looks exponential. In a statement by Apple the company has sold more than 5.3 million iPods during first quarter of 2005 and takes its potential customer base to 15.33 million, based on the quarterly figures Apple has published (“Half a billion downloads by June?” 2005). The digital market has grown tremendously since it’s introduction in the 1990’s, and it finally seems that the recording

Technology In The Music Industry 1 industry has found a way to capitalize and profit off the digital market. In order to establish its place in the digital market place several forms of legislation was introduced by the RIAA and IIPA. It is thought by many that these forms of legislation are what may have hampered possible technological innovations that brought about such ideas as Napster and other Peer to Peer networking schemes, and possibly the digital music area as a whole. Legislation Legislative power has been a huge benchmark in the digital era. Different forms of legislation have been introduced to the public with the interest of the music industry, this section will focus on and summarize only the five most important and cornerstone acts of congress which affect the digital age. First being the Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA) of 1992. According to a summary of digital copyright laws by The Digital Rights Management (DRM) Watch, The AHRA was an amendment to the U.S. federal Copyright Act of 1976. According to the AHRA, the manufacturers and importers of digital audio recording devices and media must pay a royalty tax to the copyright holders of music that is presumably being copied in order to compensate them for lost royalties due to consumers copying audio recordings at home. The payments are made to the U.S. Copyright office, which then distributes the royalties accordingly. Digital audio recording devices also must include a system that prohibits serial copying. The most common system in use is the Serial Copy Management System (SCMS), which permits first-generation digital-to-digital copies of prerecorded music but prohibits serial copies of those copies. In exchange, the copyright holders waive the right to claim copyright infringement against consumers using audio recording devices in their homes

Technology In The Music Industry 1 for noncommercial use. The royalty requirements do not apply to computers as they are not considered digital audio recording devices. (“Webopedia” 2003) Another form of legislation is the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), an act of Congress that was signed into law on October 28th, 1998, by President Clinton. DMCA's purpose is to update U.S. copyright laws for the digital age. Briefly, the DMCA stipulates the following conditions; it is a crime to circumvent anti-piracy measures that are built into commercial software. It is a crime to manufacture, sell or distribute codecracking devices that illegally copy software. However, it is not a crime to crack copyright protection devices in order to conduct encryption research, assess product interoperability or test the security of computer systems. Under certain circumstances, nonprofit libraries, archives and education institutions are exempt from the anticircumvention provisions. The copyright infringement liability of internet service providers that simply transmit information over the Internet is limited. However, ISPs must remove material from users' Web sites that appears to constitute copyright infringement. The liability for copyright infringement by faculty members and graduate students of nonprofit institutions of higher education is limited when the institutions serve as ISPs and under certain circumstances. Web casters must pay licensing fees to record companies. The Register of Copyrights must submit to Congress recommendations regarding how to promote distance education through digital technologies while "maintaining an appropriate balance between the rights of copyright owners and the needs of users." (“Webopedia” 2003) According to a summarized article by Patrick Gorman MP3.com CEO Michael Robertson was forced to pay over $150 million dollars in damages to record labels and

Technology In The Music Industry 1 music publishers for multiple copyright infringements he went to Congress for help. The result was a form of legislation introduced by congressmen Rick Boucher (D) of Virginia and Chris Cannon (R) of Utah called the Music Online Competition Act (MOCA) and was passed in 1998. MOCA has been greatly opposed by the RIAA. MOCA was introduced in hopes to develop healthy competition between online music businesses and remove legal obstacles that are prohibiting the growth of internet music services (“One step forward or one step back?” 2002). MOCA amends statutory license payments to artists and creates an assurance of nondiscriminatory licensing allowing smaller Internet companies to license songs under the same terms and conditions as the largest media conglomerates. It was anticipated by the creators of MOCA that joint ventures formed between large record companies and Internet services, like CDNow.com and EMusic.com, would possibly result in “discriminatory licensing policies” in which conglomerates could refuse to grant licenses to unaffiliated Internet music businesses. If the distribution services owned by the Big Five(Warner Music Group, Bertelsmann AG, EMI Group PLC, Sony Music Entertainment and Vivendi-Universal) also decide to cross license with each other, then the Internet companies affiliated with the Big Five would distribute approximately 80 percent of all recorded music over the Internet. Through the creation of nondiscriminatory licensing policies, MOCA directly prevents the large music companies from licensing songs to each other at favorable rates and then charging higher fees to other companies. Provisions of MOCA specify that royalty payments generated through online distribution of musical recordings are shared equally by performing artists and recording companies. MOCA expanded the “In-Store Sampling” exemption for retail establishments. This change allows online retail establishments, like Amazon.com and

Technology In The Music Industry 1 CDNow.com, to offer music samples to promote record sales, just like traditional retailers are allowed to do. MOCA adapts existing law to allow consumers to make archival back-up copies of music that they lawfully acquired over the Internet without risking copyright infringement, so as to protect their collections against hard drive crashes, accidental damage, or viruses. The bill instructs the Copyright Office to study and report to Congress on the impact of restrictions placed on digital music service providers which do not allow them to play more than 3 selections from a particular CD or more than 4 selections from a particular artist within a 3-hour period. Finally, MOCA allows online music services to notify the Copyright Office of the use of the statutory license and to deposit royalty funds with the Copyright Office to enable songwriters to obtain the payments to which they are entitled. MOCA instructs the Copyright Office to: develop and implement an electronic filing system to receive such notices as a replacement for the current paper filing system; to consider limited downloads separately from permanent downloads, when setting royalty rates; and to examine the economic value of a limited download as compared with a permanent arrangement (“One step forward or one step back?” 2002). In order to show some of the extreme measures the recording industry has taken one must discuss the Consumer Broadband and Digital Television Promotion Act (CBDTPA). Although the billed was killed in 2002 the excessiveness of the CBDTPA shows a glimpse into the true mindset of lobbyist in support of the RIAA. The CBDTPA as described by Wikipedia.com(2005) was a proposed US bill which would have prohibited any kind of technology which can be used to read digital content without DRM, which prohibits copying any content under copyright without permission of the

Technology In The Music Industry 2 copyright owner. The bill was known in early drafts as the "Security Systems and Standards Certification Act" (or SSSCA), and sometimes sarcastically called the "Consume but Don’t Try Programming Anything" bill. The CBDTPA was proposed by South Carolina Senator Fritz Hollings. Senator Patrick Leahy, Chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee, had stated that he could not support the proposed legislation and as chairman block consideration of the controversial bill in his committee which essentially killed the bill in 2002. Proposed penalties for violating the CBDTPA ranged from five to twenty years in prison and fines between $50,000 and $1 million. Other U.S. senators named as sponsors of the controversial CBDTPA bill included; John Breaux (D-LA), Dianne Feinstein (D-CA), Daniel Inouye (D-HI), Bill Nelson (D-FL), Ted Stevens (RAK) (“Consumer broadband and digital television promotion act” 2005). The CBDTPA would inevitably prevent the entire process of innovation. It was recognized as the most far-reaching regulation of the information technology sector in history. The proposed bill would have given content companies the ability to veto devices such as the VCR and the walkman. Requiring any digital media device to incorporate government mandated copy-protection technology to work, this copy-protection technology would have to “know” the legal and illegal uses of any given consumer media. After determining the legality of the medium it would then have to allow the use of legal ones and prevent the use of illegal ones. That would require content companies to anticipate ahead of time all possible legitimate uses of the device and its mediums. It would have given them effective veto control over all unanticipated uses. Innovation can be defined as discovering and imagining unanticipated uses of technology. This process would directly conflict with the approach of the CBDTPA. Imagine if the CBDTPA had

Technology In The Music Industry 2 been in place soon after the invention of the television, the creators of the television never imagined the invention of the VCR. Any definition of a legal use would not have included the ability to record a program and watch it later. Therefore, that use would have been deemed illegal by the CBDTPA. Any attempt to invent a device like the VCR would have been forbidden because the creators of the law would have not anticipated it. No one can predict the future of technology. Implementing a law that tries to make such predictions is dangerous to society as a whole (“Take a stand against the recording industry alliance of America” 2006). The Internet The dynamic force behind all these objects has been the internet. In everyway the internet has been involved in our economy, lifestyles, music, and legislation. The whole time the internet has been changing its complete dynamics. From the introduction of Napster the concern of digital piracy has grown to an unanticipated pinnacle, the renaissance of peer to peer networks has shown the recording industry how to capitalize on the digital market with such programs and companies like Apple’s iTunes. Today with the intensifying use of online communities like Myspace.com the record industry will once again run into an unanticipated partition and be forced to find its place in the fast paced changing times the digital age has brought about in our society. It is a growing concern for many after seeing how the mammoth recording industry reacted to the first hurdle in the digital age, how they will react to future innovations that will possibly make them even more dispensable in the future distribution channels the world has yet to see. Conclusion

Technology In The Music Industry 2 After piecing together all aspects in which a common person such as myself may find important. I have come to the personal conclusion that without the steps the recording industry has taken to maintain their dominant position in the music business one could only imagine the different and convenient ways society as a whole could be listening to music. The recording industry just simply does not offer all the possible music it could that has clearly been in demand, and is just now reaching a point in the year 2005 where they are offering legitimate resources to obtain music using technology that has been available since the mid to late 1990’s. This in my eyes is a definite suppression of technology. Due to the lack of positional stability of the recording industry to deal with digital music era, it took political steps in order to make using such technological breakthroughs illegal to the common member of society. Not only were political steps taken, but propaganda schemes and public statements in the mass media were used as virtual scare tactics in order to sway users to use services that were established by such organizations as the RIAA. These types of practices being used by our some of our world’s largest companies should always be explored in depth and the information should be shared with as many people as possible in order to maintain an informed populists. Without the endowment of information common people would be extremely hard pressed to know what the true issues are in any facilitation of politics or industry.

Technology In The Music Industry 2 I)

Technology In the music industry a. Digital Technology b. MP3 Technology

II)

Organizations a. International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA) b. Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)

III)

Economy a. Music Sales b. Music Trends

IV)

Legislation a. “Audio Home Recording Act” – AHRA b. “Digital Millennium Copyright Act” – DMCA c. “Music Online Competition Act” – MOCA d. “Consumer Broadband and Digital Television Promotion Act” – CBDTPA

V)

Internet a. Napster b. Piracy c. Peer 2 Peer d. iTunes e. Myspace

Technology In The Music Industry 2 References About.com (2004) The history of mp3 Retrieved May 7, 2006, from http://inventors.about.com/od/mstartinventions/a/mpthree.htm Boycott-RIAA.com (2006) Take a stand against the recording industry alliance of america Retrieved April 15, 2006, from http://www.boycott-riaa.com Digital Rights Management Watch (2003, October 27) Webopedia Retrieved May 14, 2006, from http://www.drmwatch.com Gorman, P. (2002) One step forward or one step back? Retrieved May 16, 2006, from http://www.piercegorman.com/ International Intellectual Property Alliance (November 2005) About the iipa Retrieved May 7, 2006, from http://www.iipa.com Jones, C. (2000, July 27) Behind the Music: The History of MP3. Wired News Magazine Moore, J. (2002) Analysis: riaa vs. the economy. Retrieved April 10, 2006, from http://www.boycott-riaa.com/education/analysis Recording Industry Alliance of America (2003) About the riaa Retrieved May 5, 2006, from http://www.riaa.com Taylor, C. (2003, August 4) Downloader dragnet, Time Magazine Scarborough Research Company (2004) Washington market delineations Retrieved April 29, 2006, from http://advertising.washpost.com/the_market Smith, T. (2005, April 14) Half a billion downloads by june, The Register Magazine Wikipedia.org (2005, November 27) Consumer broadband and digital television promotion act Retrieved May 15, 2006, from http://www.wikipedia.org