Students' Pack - Academic Writing Skills

The following pages have been selected from a useful website consisting of online resources for students carrying out and writing about research. It was produced by the Flexible Learning Centre of the University of South Australia. At various points in the text, you are invited to download files – ignore this as the files have already been downloaded and form part of the text. Pages 1 – 13 consist of the information pages, the rest of the document link up to these 13 pages as they represent the practice side and consequently require working out.

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oxidisation. Certainty with evidence Duty, obligation, expected behaviour

The effect is clearly due to oxidisation. I should talk to them

Permission You may talk to them never, rarely, occasionally, possibly, seldom, tentatively, seemingly, apparently, sometimes, provisionally, evidently, often, presumably, surely, probably, usually, clearly, obviously, certainly, definitely, always

The preparation of materials for this site was funded by a DEETYA Quality Round 3 Grant awarded to Helen Johnston, Associate Professor Margaret Sharpe and Dr Esther May, and is a result of collaboration between the Flexible Learning Centre and the Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences. Project Coordinator Helen Johnston Writer Trish McLaine Online developers Moya Costello, Loene Doube and Rebecca Miller Designer Kelly Martin Produced by the FLC Copyright ©1998 University of South Australia Last update August 1998 URL: http://wwwi.roma.unisa.edu.au/flc/sls/publictns/researchwrite/acadwriting.htm

Thinking precedes writing Imagine the millions of bits of information that you deal with all the time. It would be impossible to articulate or even understand them all together, and so humans have evolved storage and retrieval systems which help our brains to locate certain items on demand. An important way of positioning knowledge is through classification, in which certain specific items are grouped together and subsumed within higher class labels in hierarchical fashion. This method can deal with abstract notions with arbitrary boundaries as well as with concrete items with well-defined placements. The image in the planning sheet 'Information icebergs' is designed to help you to visualise how a single label in the top or central position can represent an elaborate, detailed and complex set of ideas in an orderly fashion which remains in the control of the thinker or writer. From here, it is a short step towards 'Brainstorming and mind-mapping', and this process in turn can easily provide the writer with a sequence of ideas for 'Paragraph construction' shaped by the articulation of 'Topic

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sentences'. Finally, in acknowledgement that it is not always so simple even to get started, you are encouraged, in 'Expressing yourself', to initiate that important first flow of words. See the following planning sheets as a downloadable Word 6 file thinkpw: • • • • •

Information icebergs Brainstorming and mind-mapping Paragraph construction Topic sentences Expressing yourself

Writing about the work of other authors Introduction A vital skill in research and all academic endeavours is the ability to summarise - that is, to reduce information to its essence without losing accuracy, by subsuming elaboration and detail into broad main points. In the planning sheets in this section you will be able to practise 'Summarising' from your own choice of materials. Similarly, you are frequently asked to bring your own critical faculties to bear on what you read - not to take anything in research at face value, but to question and evaluate so as to build up and apply a high level of informed judgement to activities and assertions in your field. Some techniques for 'Critiquing' are made explicit, and the planning sheets offer you an opportunity to practise these. When you are writing about other people's ideas, it is important for you to be in control of 'Voice' - that is, to make sure that your reader knows whether they are reading directly from the original source, or indirectly, filtered through your understanding and reiteration of the original. Finally, there are conventional ways of giving prominence either to an item of information, or to its original author, and you will discover some techniques for achieving this in 'Author orientation'. Summarising Summarising is a vital academic skill, useful for notetaking (from written and spoken delivery), for critical reference to previous research or theoretical frameworks as in a review of literature, for brief proposals or progress reports, for writing abstracts and for summarising your own findings. The planning sheets in this section help you to summarise an existing text to different levels of reduction, without substantially losing any essential information. You will be able to practise 'A summarising technique', and apply this to 'The short summary,' 'The expanded, informative summary', and 'The full summary'. You are urged to do so as often as possible with a variety of texts in order to gain confidence and facility in this process. The planning sheets are available as a downloadable Word 6 file summ:

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• • • •

A summarising technique The short summary The expanded, informative summary The full summary

Critiquing The word 'critique' is related to other words, such as critical, and critic, which are to do with having and stating an opinion about someone else's claim, statement or performance. You critique (verb) the literature when you write about ideas in your field that are not your own, both to show you know the field, and as a context for your own research or ideas. Usually, your critique (noun) follows your summary of the original. The reader can then appreciate your views about the validity of other writers' ideas. This summary/critique partnership gives you the basic building blocks for a literature review. In this subsection, you are given the planning sheet 'Starting points for critiquing' which helps you to ask critical questions of any text. A further planning sheet shows you 'A critiquing technique', and you have the opportunity to practise this using your own text. Lastly, some examples of authentic text from the Health Sciences illustrate the subtle use of 'Comparing and contrasting' to achieve a finely controlled critical tone while writing about the work of others. See the following planning sheets as a downloadable Word 6 file critiq: • • •

Starting points for critiquing A critiquing technique Comparing and contrasting

Voice Introduction By its very nature, the review of literature is a vehicle which conveys information and opinion from its writer to its reader about the existing work of other authors. The writer clearly has a commentator's role, offering the reader a stream of information which moves between what was said by the other authors, and what was said about this by the writer. It is vitally important, then, that the reader is able to tell 'Whose voice?' is being used at any one time. In a following subsection you will find further explanation and examples of how to vary the voice in your writing. Three common techniques in academic writing are 'Paraphrasing, reporting, quoting'; in the planning sheet 'Reducing text by paraphrasing, reporting and quoting', you will be given the opportunity to distinguish between the 'voices' inherent in each of these processes, and to practise each one.

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It is often the case that a 'Writer's commentary' (or a statement in the writer's own voice) is introduced in order to intrude an opinion or make clear a position. Similarly, subtle degrees of 'Emphasis' (a planning sheet) can be placed by a writer in order to advance an argument or direct the reader's attention. You can lead your reader to take notice of certain aspects of an idea or piece of information which is pertinent to your own purpose. Whose voice? '[Students] can treat published literature like any other data, the only difference being that it is not data they generated themselves.' (Brown R (1994). 'The "big picture" about managing writing'. In Quality in postgraduate education. Edited by O Zuber-Skerritt and Y Ryan. London: Kogan Page, p 97.) When you report on your own findings, you are likely to present them something like this: 'Table 2 shows that sixteen of the twenty respondents preferred the Carlyle method.' You could also say: 'The Carlyle method was preferred by 80% of the respondents (see Table 2).' Or: 'From the results shown in Table 2, it appears that the majority of respondents were in favour of the Carlyle method.' In this case, your source of information is Table 2. Had you found the same results in Smith (1988, p 17), you would naturally substitute the name, date and page number for Table 2. In each case, this is your voice introducing a fact that can be verified somewhere else. Note that the tense used here is past for the fact itself ('preferred'; 'were in favour of'), and present for your part (or the source's part) in the reporting ('Table 2 shows that'; ' it appears that'). This is because the reported fact occurred specifically in the past, whereas both you and your sources are presenting it 'now' - that is, at the time that the reader is reading your document. You use the two time frames to indicate the difference between what actually happened and how it is being presented right now. Sometimes you may need to use present perfect to refer to the recent past ('have discovered that ...' ) or past perfect ('had realised that ... ') which refers to a time prior to a specified time in the past. It is also, of course, possible to present an idea in the present tense - for example, 'the sky is blue'. You do this when the idea is generalisable and undisputable. In an academic context, when new (not 'common') ideas are presented, the author makes a strong claim to validity by using the present tense, and thus needs to be very sure of his/her ground, providing irrefutable evidence in support of the statement. When you yourself are making a statement about your own research, whether specific to a point in time (usually past tense) or generalised as a claim (usually present tense), the voice you use is your own, and no references need be made. However, as soon as you introduce ideas or information from another source, your voice must be combined with that of the 5

source's voice. The skill with which you manage this combination - that is, the way in which you manipulate the various elements (idea, source(s) and voice) - is often significant in assessing the merit and rigour of your work. So it is important. Paraphrasing, reporting, quoting Every time you repeat someone else's idea, you are providing a kind of summary - that is, your version is a very small part of a larger body of writing. You can choose to summarise in different ways for different purposes. In academic writing, it is important to include accurate references, using either the author-date or the numbering system. There are three basic ways in which you can combine an idea and its source with your own voice: 1. direct quote 2. paraphrase 3. report Each of these can be varied in many ways, but the distinction between them is important; the quality, depth and subtlety of your presentation may depend on the use you choose to make of each method. Start with an idea expressed in one or more sentences as originally stated by the source. For example, Jones who wrote these words in 1997: 'Physiotherapists work with a multitude of problem situations, many of which can be characterised by complexity, uniqueness and ambiguity.' (Jones, M (1997). 'Clinical reasoning: the foundation of clinical practice'. Part 1. Australian journal of physiotherapy, 43:167.) Below are some examples of how this idea may be expressed by direct quote, paraphrase and report, combining your voice with that of Jones in ways which are endlessly variable for your purposes. 1. Direct quote: what were Jones' exact words?

You can choose a single sentence or phrase from the original text which, in itself, sums up the main point being made by the author. If you quote directly in this way, you must surround the exact original wording with single inverted commas, or choose to indent longer passages in smaller font, with no inverted commas. In each case, include in your reference the page number from which the extract is derived. Jones (1996: 167) wrote, 'Physiotherapists work with a multitude of problem situations, many of which can be characterised by complexity, uniqueness and ambiguity'. As Jones observed in 1996, 'Physiotherapists work with a multitude of problem situations, many of which can be characterised by complexity, uniqueness and ambiguity' (page 167). 'Physiotherapists work with a multitude of problem situations' points out Jones (1996: 167), returning to the professional context for clinical reasoning. Many of these, he adds 'can be characterised by complexity, uniqueness and ambiguity'. 6

Physiotherapists work with a multitude of problem situations, many of which can be characterised by complexity, uniqueness and ambiguity (Jones 1997: 167). 2. Paraphrase: what was Jones' idea?

This process basically means repeating or rewriting a statement in your own words from an 'inside' stance. You can restate the content in reduced form without mentioning the author by name, but writing as if you were using the author's 'voice'. This gives prominence to the information itself, while the author is (must be) added simply as a reference, either by name/date or by number. Many complex, unique, even ambiguous problem situations are familiar to physiotherapists (Jones 1997). That many of the problem situations encountered by physiotherapists can be imbued with complexity, uniqueness and ambiguity, is a phenomenon pointed out by Jones (1997). 3. Report: what did Jones do?

You can report the content by describing indirectly what the author wrote, as if you were an observer reporting the author's action or intention. Use your own 'voice' as if speaking about this author to someone else and restate the main points from an 'outside' stance. This gives greater prominence to the presence and authority of the original writer. It also allows you to imply your own level of acceptance of the author's point. Although Jones (1997) claimed that many of the problem situations faced by physiotherapists can be characterised by complexity, uniqueness and ambiguity, he did not pursue this line of argument. Jones (1997) characterises the multitude of problem situations faced by physiotherapists, describing them as complex, unique and ambiguous. Referring to the complexity, uniqueness and ambiguity of problem situations that arise in physiotherapy, Jones (1997) provides a professional context for the significance of clinical reasoning. Jones' claim (1997) that the characteristics of problem situations for physiotherapists demand sensitive clinical reasoning, is supported by several recent research studies (refs). Use each of these methods to suit your own purposes, especially in a review of literature, where you should be displaying control over the way in which ideas and counter ideas are understood in relation to each other. The planning sheet for this subsection is a downloadable Word 6 file reduce: •

Reducing text by paraphrasing, reporting, quoting

Writer's commentary (This subsection is modified from materials prepared for the School of Geoinformatics, 7

Planning and Building in 1977 by D Boerema, Student Support Services, University of South Australia.) Note that the writer may include a comment or statement of their own (rather than paraphrasing the work of others). For example: 'Ironically, in real life situations, the practice often differs from the theory'. Note that such statements are immediately followed by supporting evidence. Comment statements may begin with some of the words or phrases below: Clearly, ... It is clear that ... Ironically, ... Interestingly, ... Unfortunately, ... Broadly, ... Words and phrases such as those listed below allow you to use your own voice to link the text by showing connections between ideas or directing the reader to your 'argument'. However, ... On the other hand, ... Moreover, ... Thus, ... Lastly, ... Hence, ... See the relevant planning sheet for this subsection as a downloadable Word 6 file emphasis: •

Emphasis

Author orientation (This subsection is modified from materials prepared for the School of Geoinformatics, Planning and Building in 1977 by D Boerema, Student Support Services, University of South Australia.) There are three main ways of reporting on previous research: 1. Strong author orientation In this style of reporting, you refer to previous research findings, focussing on what the researcher did or said. The researcher's name is often at the beginning of the sentence: Stoffregen et al (1987) determined the use of central and peripheral optical flow in stance in young children. 2. Weak author orientation

In this style of reporting, you will present research in terms of researchers doing it or

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writing about it, but the researchers are not the primary focus. Therefore, what is being discussed is the focus of the sentence: Dissatisfaction with the reflex-hierarchical model of postural control led researchers to develop the 'systems model', evolved from the work of Bernstein (1967). According to Smith (1989) ... 3. Information prominence

In this style of reporting, a statement is presented first, and reference to the author follows, which simply adds credibility or verification to the information itself. Visual control of balance depends on the visual perception of a stationary environment; this can be used as a reference to judge self-motion (Schulmann et al 1987). The first model, namely the 'reflex-hierarchical model', was developed by Sir Highlings Jackson in the last century (Horak and Shumway-Cook 1989). (Modified from Boerema D (1997) Student Support Services, University of South Australia, Materials prepared for the School of Geoinformatics, Planning and Building.)

Writing about your own thoughts Introduction In the previous section 'Writing about the work of other authors' you learned how to deal with ideas that have already been expressed in words. Some writers find it harder to deal with their own thoughts, since they are fully responsible for generating the appropriate expression for good communication. In this subsection, we use a framework that is about ways of seeing: literal, lateral, critical, speculative. You can find this explained further in 'Organising your ideas: Conceptualising: Critical analysis'. Not only are structured levels of analysis useful in conceptualising, but also you will find that you can actually control your use of language in academic writing by understanding the intention, vocabulary and expressive style commonly used at each level. A fundamental process in communication is 'Describing and defining - literal' in which we find out what is the focus of attention, and what type of thing it is. The next step is to know how it works and where it fits into the whole. Language use for this stage can be found in 'Explaining and exploring - lateral'. At a more abstract level, the academic approach involves informed questioning and weighing up of ideas. Writing at this level demands some subtlety; you will find some suggestions in 'Discussing and disputing - critical'. Finally, the driving force behind all research is the will to find out whether ... . Again, the language we use for wondering, 'Certainty and speculation speculative', provides the academic writer with an expressive range if selected with care.

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Describing and defining - literal In all academic writing, a concise, accurate definition, or statement of certainty, is nearly always central to the elaboration that follows. It is the foundation for clear communication of both facts and ideas. In order to make a comparison, or have a critical opinion about a fact, idea or item of information, you must first know and be able to describe exactly what it is you are focusing on. Your ability to describe and define an item will reflect your skills of analysis, that is, your ability to look very closely and report on what is there and how it is made up, so that someone else can visualise and understand the item from your description. The planning sheet in this subsection helps you to be clear about the formation of a basic statement in which an identified something (subject) is being or acting in a certain way (verb), possibly with other players on the receiving end (object). The following is a downloadable Word 6 file state: •

Statements

Explaining and exploring - lateral At the lateral level of understanding, a piece of knowledge is looked at in terms of where it fits in and how it happens. No judgements are made or opinions given, but the focus is on the factors surrounding the item, from which it derives its own character and context. In this subsection, we look at vocabulary appropriate to making an 'Objective comparison' - that is, for comparing items in terms of objective, measurable differences. For a more judgemental approach: see 'Discussing and disputing - critical'. In the table of the planning sheet 'Cause and effect', you will see how subtleties of meaning can be achieved by selecting vocabulary appropriate to its context. In this case, the starting point for the table is the word 'because'. You may increase your vocabulary range by developing a similar table for any word or phrase, and entering synonyms found in any dictionary or thesaurus. Objective comparison Comparison Comparative terms of measurement must remain factual: larger than, less than, more than, fewer than, smaller than, to a greater/lesser extent/degree. Both of the subjects showed signs of increased self-esteem, one to a greater extent than the other. The bruises on Subject A were fewer and less discoloured than those on Subject B. I have more marbles than my brother. 10

Comparative terms of degree use adjectives and adverbs in conjunction with 'more': Equipment A offered more precise calibration than Equipment B, and for this reason was able to give more accurate results more frequently. The following is a downloadable Word 6 file c&e: •

Cause and effect

Discussing and disputing - critical Academic scholarship is built on the tradition of argument - that is, an interplay between the assertions of one idea or one author and the claims of another. This very convention has given researchers and academics a useful language for scholarly and seemingly respectful communication, in which they can declare themselves quite forcefully either for or against existing or possible ideas in the process of laying claim to specialised knowledge, or putting forward a new theoretical viewpoint. You can use either 'Evidence and generalisation' (a planning sheet) in the form of empirical, generalisable statements or Subjective comparison to make judgements and to argue the force of our convictions. Look also at the 'Language for argument' subsection to find examples of how language is used to define turning points or emphasise main components in your critical direction or your line of argument. The following is a downloadable Word 6 file for this subsection evid&gen: •

Evidence and generalisation

Subjective comparison Vocabulary We can use words with a range of meanings to convey judgement: A poor /strong /unclear /definitive /indecisive /valid /limited /remarkable /weak result. Objective assessments are made by increasing the degree of measurable meaning in the words: The sample’s behaviour was considered to be dramatic/unexpected/significant/ average. Subjective judgements are made by varying the degree of value-laden meaning in the words: Their behaviour was considered to be excellent/ fine/ acceptable/ normal/ disgraceful. Most comparative words and phrases incorporate judgement in their meaning: better, worse, stronger, weaker, more advantageous, less lucky

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no better than, no worse than not as good as, at least as strong as more likely to (+ verb), less susceptible to (+noun or gerund) The Wankel engine has many advantages over the reciprocating piston engine. Fewer moving parts are necessary because it produces a rotary movement without using a connecting rod and a crankshaft. Because of this rotary movement it has no vibration. In addition it has no valves, it is smaller and lighter than conventional engines of the same power, and it runs economically on diesel and several other fuels. Language for argument In academic writing, vocabulary is usually formal, information rich, and limited to the subject matter and intention in hand. Control of your writing comes from confidence in sentence construction and conscious use of words and phrases which add, negate, compare or turn whatever direction or argument you have been taking. Words and phrases which add weight: and; also; additionally; in addition; not only...but also; then; firstly; finally; in conclusion Words and phrases which invite comparison: comparatively, in comparison (feature),by comparison (process), in relation to, with respect to Words and phrases which modify what has been said: but, however, although, nevertheless, providing that, by contrast, in opposition to, even though, on the other hand, in spite of, despite, while, whilst, alternatively, whether or not Words and phrases which negate what has been said - deny validity or describe a negative state: there is no ... no, not any, ... it is not ... rarely the case, absence of, neither ... nor, under no circumstances, Prefixes un-... in- ... do not (+verb) few

Certainty and speculation - speculative In writing up research, you deal not only with concrete and specific events, instruments, plans and outcomes, but also with the more nebulous abstractions, ideas, truth and falsehood. Researchers always wish to say ‘This is the case’ but are often constrained by simply not knowing for sure, or not being able to demonstrate with sufficient certainty to impress. The English language provides us with a magnificent range of options in the areas of abstraction and speculation. You are able to distinguish between 'Finite and conditional events' using certain verb formations to examine the imaginary dimension of ‘if’, and you are 12

able to use modal verbs to finely communicate the 'Degrees of will and certainty' that you hold as the writer of your own text. Finite and conditional events In certain circumstances, or under certain conditions, certain events will, might or could happen, and you have various ways of writing about the likelihood. You can convey whether a statement is about a straightforward or factual foreseen event (certain) or whether an imaginary or speculative possibility is being tested out in words (conditional). Placing the possibility in a time frame If the temperature goes down, (then) the experiment will be successful. Certain/definite If the temperature is going down, (then) the experiment is successful. If the temperature went down (then), the experiment was successful. If it rains now, the experiment will not be successful. If it should rain, the experiment would not be successful. Conditional/speculative If it rained, the experiment would not be successful If it were to rain, the experiment would not be successful If it had rained, the experiment would not have been successful If this were the case, then the argument would be different. Degrees of will and certainty I will talk to them

Certain/definite It will happen The material does behave in this way

Conditional/speculative

I may talk to them if I might talk to them if

Possible not certain

It may happen

Probable but not certain

It is likely to happen

Capability without certainty

It can happen

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One of many possibilities

The substance could behave in this way

Expected outcome

This should be the result

Supported by some evidence This effect seems to be due to setting Deducted by elimination

This effect must be due to setting.

Statement of fact

The effect is due to setting.

Confident surmise

The effect is undoubtedly due to setting.

Certainty with evidence

The effect is clearly due to setting.

Duty, obligation, expected behaviour

I should talk to them

Permission

You may talk to them

never, rarely, occasionally, possibly, seldom, tentatively, seemingly, apparently, sometimes, provisionally, evidently, often, presumably, surely, probably, usually, clearly, obviously, certainly, definitely, always

Thinking precedes writing Contents Information icebergs Brainstorming and mind-mapping Paragraph construction Topic sentences Expressing yourself

2 4 6 8 9

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Information icebergs Since humans cannot talk about everything all at once, it is useful to be able to pick out a central and essential component to any topic so that no detail is lost and all details are represented. This really is the art of knowing what is a main point and what is peripheral or secondary. Humans do it all the time with words and phrases, and this very feature of the English language allows us to derive or 'construct' immense complexity from simple shorthand communication. What do the following words represent to you? Your associations may well be endless. Childcare, fabric, culture, government, recreation, school, law, hospital, retail, telephone, tennis, media, kindergarten, disco, health, spider, drains, bowling club, lawnmower, technology, dance, station wagon, embroidery. Now add a further word - 'Australia'. Does this change, narrow or connect the ideas in a new way? What happens when the key topic is 'Human behaviour'? 'My early years'? 'The village in the jungle'? 'The mayor's report'? Whatever concept that takes the key or central position it has a clear effect on our understanding of any subsets of information. In the triangle below, map out all the words and concepts in the above list, together with a key word at its apex: Some words have been entered already for the key concept 'Australia', and you will notice that these words take up positions which reinforce the conceptual hierarchy on the triangular shape: broad, general ideas towards the top, detailed, concrete items towards the bottom. Try filling in the gaps with your own items appropriately placed. Try changing the key word and see whether that effects the hierarchy. Try placing a word from the bottom of the triangle in the key word position - say, 'Spider' or 'Drains'. Can you see that subsets would obviously change, but that this principle of classification holds true for words and concepts on any scale? Australia environment

culture media

government law

health education technology

hospital

school kindergarten

work recreation climate retail

fauna

childcare dance

disco drains

embroidery fabric

station wagon telephone lawnmower

bowling club spider

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Now consider a series of key topic words ranged along a series of triangles, as in the Information icebergs' below. If they are separate and equivalent concepts, then they will occupy separate triangles but could well be connected by some other association, such as a heading that is of a higher level again. The point is that you have control of this system, because you place the topic words and decide on the criteria for division under each one. These divisions will not always be the same, of course. They will change according to your purpose, so this is a most flexible and dynamic system. Abstract General

Main points

Concrete/ Specific

Millions of items

Analysing: Summarising:

Knowing how the knowledge is divided and subdivided Making sure the 'peaks' say it all, but are still accurate. Representing the details with 'overview' statements. Using generic wording - higher order statements: More general - less specific (main points) More concrete - less abstract (details)

Mapping: Looked at from above, each set of related icebergs could form a mind map.

1.1.3.1

1.1.4

1.1.3

1.3.1

1.2

1.1.3.2

1.3

1.1

1.1.2 1.1.1

1.3.2

TOPIC 1

1.7.1

1.4

1.7 1.7.2 1.7.3

1.7.4

1.5 1.6

This is a useful way of 'mapping' out what you are thinking about. Just place the topic in the middle and work outwards towards the more concrete and specific details.

But be sure you put the right topic in the middle!

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Brainstorming and mind-mapping Practise planning an essay or report using listing and mind-mapping techniques. In this planning sheet you are asked to work through a process which helps you to identify items you wish to write about in relation to the main topic with which they are associated. Once the idea is formed and expressed, you can accept, reject or modify it according to your purposes, and at least you have a useful starting point. Work on this as with your own choice of title (you may pick your own research topic, or try an item from the suggestions below). Essay: 'Explain 'a' in the light of 'b' and 'c' (you name the elements of the topic) Practical Report: (you name the experiment) Report on specific ttem: (you name a single item - eg Honda Civic) Field Report on specific event or site:(you name the event or site - eg Visit to laboratory) Progress Report: (you name current project - eg Building project update) Brainstorming Write down every thing you can think of relating to your title. Everything. (Get a friend to help you expand the list). Don't worry if it is ungrammatical or irrelevant. You can achieve a great deal using 'scribbles' at this stage. Just keep adding whatever way occurs to you to the list in. Work very fast. Mind-mapping Find ideas and facts on your 'Brainstorm' sheet which are linked together logically. Reformulate your list, perhaps in diagrammatic form (see 'Information icebergs' above), so that you can clearly visualise the relationships between points. Cluster the facts and ideas together under common themes. Think of how you can classify or group items in terms of main points and subpoints. Now find clusters which are linked together logically and use words or lines to indicate the connections between each group. Arrange the structure of this 'map' in light of the main purpose of the report, turning themes into headings and subheadings. Some of your first ideas will be discarded at this stage. What you are left with will be well organised and can always be added to further.

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Subject map

A subject map is a useful variation which will expand with your knowledge throughout your course. On a large piece of paper start with the name of your course written in the centre. Keep adding component parts - eg subjects and their applications in real life - until you have filled the paper. This diagram will give you a marvellous overview and understanding of your course as a whole entity.

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Paragraph construction Having identified the components of your written text through a process of brainstorming and mind-mapping, use the resulting organisation of concepts to set up the best possible sequence for your text. Use the report numbering system (see 'Information icebergs') to establish main and subsidiary items, and introduce each paragraph with a topic sentence which introduces the topic label from the relevant part of your mind-map. There is a pattern to a series of paragraphs, which you will find in the diagram below: Topic/question:.............................................................................................. Introduction

Preliminary topic sentence using key word(s) from the topic/question What Identify the elements/issues that will be examined Why Explain why this combination of elements is significant, or why they are being examined together in this paper How Prepare your reader for what is to come, by providing a brief outline of the way you have addressed the question, and touching on each of your main points in turn by ascribing them a key word or phrase

(Heading - optional) Main point 1

Topic sentence incorporating the key word or phrase ascribed to the single main point covered in this paragraph. Keep this sentence short, simple, clear and strong. Support sentences which may be more complex but must relate in an obvious way to the single main point: - detail(s) - example(s) - explanation(s) - elaboration - illustration(s) Concluding sentence which 'wraps up' the examination of this particular point and moves towards the next (though you do not need to contrive a 'link sentence' if you paragraphs are already logically sequenced)

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(Subheading - optional) Subpoint 1 or Main point 2

Topic sentence incorporating the key word or phrase ascribed to the single main point covered in this paragraph Keep this sentence short, simple, clear and strong.

Support sentences which may be more complex but must relate in an obvious way to the single main point: A subpoint will 'unwrap', - detail(s) analyse and elaborate on a - example(s) component introduced in the - explanation(s) 'Main point' paragraph above. - elaboration - illustration(s) A 'Main point' 2 will develop Concluding sentence which 'wraps up' the examination a further aspect as of this particular point and moves towards the next 'Introduction' (though you do not need to contrive a 'link sentence' if you paragraphs are already logically sequenced)

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Topic sentences This quick exercise shows quite dramatically the contribution made to a paragraph by its topic sentence. 1. Read the first paragraph and in lines below, give a brief account of what the paragraph was about. 2. Then (and not until then), read the second paragraph and write a brief account of it. Paragraph 1 They must be laid in good time and there are several ways of doing this, but first you must clear away the debris, make sure of easy access, and have everything ready to move in fast and on demand. You must plan carefully to incorporate the various inlets and outlets at this stage, since you will never have the opportunity again. You will need to keep an eye out and be patient because it may take a very long time to cure, and until it does, you are stuck with not much to do. Eventually, you will be able to check it over to your satisfaction, and get on with the rest of the process. If all goes well, you will have a solid base to build on, and you can be sure that the rest will be sound and secure. ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… Paragraph 2 The construction of any building starts with its foundations. They must be laid in good time and there are several ways of doing this, but first you must clear away the debris, make sure of easy access, and have everything ready to move in fast and on demand. You must plan carefully to incorporate the various inlets and outlets at this stage, since you will never have the opportunity again. You will need to keep an eye out and be patient because it may take a very long time to cure, and until it does, you are stuck with not much to do. Eventually, you will be able to check it over to your satisfaction, and get on with the rest of the process. If all goes well, you will have a solid base to build on, and you can be sure that the rest will be sound and secure. ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… What is the difference between the two paragraphs? ………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… What difference does a clear topic sentence make? ………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………

21

Expressing yourself Practise using your own words in good English to express your thoughts. 1 Decide on a particular idea that you have in your mind eg: your research topic (investigative) a technical concept (scientific) an observation about a person or event (detached) your views on a current issue (critical) your memories of an experience (experiential) your feelings about a certain incident (personal) 2 Start writing immediately. Write only for yourself. Do not be concerned about grammar or

structure, at this stage. Think of this as brainstorming - in sentences rather than diagrammatically. You can re-order the thoughts later, but now it is important to give words to what you are thinking. Write only until you feel you have no more to say right now. 3 If you have trouble with this stage try talking onto a voice recorder, then use any portions

of the recording that you feel expresses your idea well, or closely. 4 Practise looking (or listening for) your most clearly expressed ideas. What is it that makes them clear? What makes them communicate? Try this feature again next time. 5 Read over what you have written. Keep the best and cross out the rest. Re-order the points if necessary. Go from step 2 again to fill in any gaps in the logical sequence of your idea. 6 Now you are ready to finally structure, edit, polish your writing according to its purpose. For example: Personal journal entry informal, unstructured Academic journal article formal, logical structure Report formal, informative sequence Essay formal, critical argument Thesis different chapter, different purpose Review of literature formal summary, critique and juxtaposition This is also a useful series of steps to go through if you are preparing a talk or presentation. Either write or use a cassette recorder. The value of this exercise is that, by putting your own words to an idea you reach a more thorough understanding of the idea, and can more easily express it again when required. A variation Try the above steps using your own language, if other than English. Take notice of the differences in the process for each language. What exactly do you do in your mind when looking for words in each language? Once you have an idea of your own thinking methods, you will have better control over using words to express yourself in both languages.

22

Summarising Contents A summarising technique The short summary The expanded, informative summary The full summary

2 3 5 6

23

A summarising technique Summarising in an academic context nearly always means reducing someone else’s text or idea to a brief account, without losing the intention or the structure of the original. Try the step-by-step technique which follows and you should find that your notes and other summaries are more useful to you in the end, with less time wasted and greater accuracy and internal logic.

1. Select and read any piece of writing of 1-3 printed pages long. http://www.journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/link.asp?id=yq062x9j4mm757n3 2.

Briefly list the six most important main points from the passage. Check back for accuracy.

· ................................................................................................... · ................................................................................................... · ................................................................................................... · ................................................................................................... · ................................................................................................... · ...................................................................................................

3.

Read the text one more time trying to gain its full meaning.

4.

Put the original passage away, and, using only your list, write a short version in your own words using only the space provided below. Check back for accuracy.

................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................

24

The short summary The text below can be found in full by clicking on the title. Either read it directly from the screen or print a copy. Follow the step by step directions as a way of achieving a short summary which still represents the main points from the original. Shortcut to Educational Leadership Journal Article.lnk

http://www.journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/link.asp?id=3w9bmpymnlakktjc (The principles below can be applied to original texts of any length and any degree of complexity). Step 1

The short summary in note form

What is this text about? Write one single, very broad statement, as if notifying a friend of the article. .................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................……………………………………………….. Step 2 What are the 6 main points. Write in brief note form, but keep the sequence of the original. If there appear to be more than six, then join some together under a new, broader heading · ................................................................................................... · ................................................................................................... · ................................................................................................... · ................................................................................................... · ................................................................................................... · ................................................................................................... Step 3 What is the author’s conclusion, or the major, most distinctive general statement in the article? ....................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................

25

Step 4

The short summary in prose

Put away the original and combine the single statement from Step 1, the six dot points from Step 2, and the conclusion from Step 3 in a paragraph of continuous prose (in your own words). Check back for accuracy.

26

The expanded, informative summary Is a six point skeleton too brief to represent the original? Using the appropriate lines below, enter first the main points that you identified in the previous planning sheet, The short summary, then add a little detail to each point in turn. Remember only to use information from the original text, and in the same sequence. Point 1

Point 2

................................................................................................................ ·

..................................................................................................

·

..................................................................................................

·

..................................................................................................

................................................................................................................ ·

..................................................................................................

• ..................................................................................................

· Point 3

..................................................................................................

................................................................................................................ ·

..................................................................................................

·

..................................................................................................

·

..................................................................................................

Point 4................................................................................................................ ·

..................................................................................................

·

..................................................................................................

·

..................................................................................................

Point 5................................................................................................................ ·

..................................................................................................

·

..................................................................................................

·

..................................................................................................

Point 6................................................................................................................ ·

..................................................................................................

·

..................................................................................................

• .................................................................................................. Writing up research 4 Specific writing skills

27

The full summary In summarising, you should not add any comment or opinion of your own; keep your own views for critiquing. However, you can control the reader’s interpretation of the content of your summary to a certain extent, even without your own opinion, by conscious insertion or omission of your voice and by varying the degree of ‘author orientation’ (click on highlighted items to find out more about this). Using your entries from the previous planning sheets, The short summary and The expanded, informative summary, (relevant parts repeated below) combine your single statement from Step 1 of The short summary with the six expanded dot points from The expanded, informative summary, and write them out as several paragraphs of continuous prose. Add a conclusion in your own words, which reiterates the author's own conclusion, or the major, most distinctive general statement in the article. Step 1 What is this text about? Write one single, very broad statement, as if notifying a friend of the article. .................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................……………………………………………….. Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

Point 5

Point 6

Conclusion

28

The summary that you have just completed is probably a direct reiteration of the ideas from the original, without the presence of the author. In this you have at least two choices, and the ‘author orientation’ you choose will depend on your purpose for the summary (click on the highlighted items to find out more about this). You may use the summary as an ‘information prominent’ piece of text, or you may rephrase it as either strong ‘author prominent’ or weak ‘author prominent’ text. Practise by going through the same steps as before, but this time give the piece strong (or weak) author prominence.

29

Critiquing Contents Starting points for critiquing A critiquing technique Comparing and contrasting

2 3 6

30

Starting points for critiquing Whenever you wish to form a critical opinion about something (a television show, a movie, a journal article, a text book, a research study), try asking yourself the following questions: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

What is this? What is it all about? Does it work? If so, on what grounds? If not, why not? How was it achieved? Was this the best possible way? Who is saying/presenting it and what authority do they have (what do they know about it)? Is it significant? What use is it? Why is it significant? Who says so? What is its context? Do any contextual factors change your views about it? How good is it? On what criteria? How valid is it? What inconsistencies or unsubstantiated claims to you see? How reliable is the evidence in support of it? What has been gained by it? What do the authors say about it? Are they right? How does it contribute to the human condition? So what?

Write a paragraph about any topic, in which the primary aim is to answer as many of the above questions as you can. Write in continuous prose, and clearly indicate the subject matter with a clear topic sentence. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................……………………….............. ……………….........................................................................................………………………..............

31

A critiquing technique Like some forms of summarising, critiquing is a form of indirect reporting - that is, you observe something and you relate or explain it to someone else as if they are hearing about it for the first time through you. In the case of critiquing, your readers are given the added dimension of your interpretation and opinion, so they do not get a 'neutral' report as they would with a summary. Depending on the 'voice' you use (paraphrasing, reporting or quoting), and the degree of 'author orientation', you can imply a great deal about your own position by selecting from a wide range of verbs to write about other authors. (See the planning sheets for 'Voice' in the downloadable Word 6 file and on the Web under 'Academic writing skills: Writing about the work of other authors: Voice'. Jones (claims, asserts, agrees, suggests, states, theorises, argues, denies, refutes) that ... See how, in the above statement, these words give a subtly different flavour to how you introduce Jones and his ideas. The following is an extract from the Review of Literature chapter in the thesis of 1 Nualnetr (1996) Age-related decreases in total number of muscle fibres were demonstrated in both type 1 (slowtwitch) and type 11 (fast twitch) fibres (Lexell et al 1983 and 1988). However, a reduction in muscle fibre size with increasing age appears in type 11 muscle fibres, whilst type 1 fibres are much less affected (Essen-Gustavsson and Borges 1986, Jakobsson et all 1990, Larsson et al 1978, Lexell and Taylor 1991, Scelsi et al 1980, Tomonaga 1977). After seven years of their longitudinal study of older subjects, Aniansson et al (1986) showed 14 per cent to 25 per cent reduction in the type 11 fibre area, and no significant change in the type 1 fibre area. They also found that muscle strength losses were accompanied by decreases in type 11 fibre area. It should be noted that the muscle examined by the majority of these studies was the vastus lateralis. It therefore remains to be determined whether the same changes in muscle morphology occur in other muscles. Try each of the following verbs of indirect reporting in a sentence about one or more of the authors in Nualtr's paragraph. Or you may prefer to enter some authors from your own readings whose statements you find more appropriate to the given verbs. The first two are given as examples: Nualtr (1996) points out that, while most previous studies had examined the vastus lateralis muscle, the effects of ageing on other muscles was still open to investigation. Aniansson et al (1986) affirm that no significant change occurs with ageing in the type 1 fibre area. ……………… insists that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… agrees that ............................................................……………………............. ……………… asserts that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… remarks that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… claims that ..............................................................……………………............. 1

Nualnetr N (1996): The effects of exercise on balance in older women: fallers and nonfallers, Unpublished PhD thesis, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences, University of South Australia.

32

……………… adds that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… reports that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… disagrees that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… doubts that ............................................................................. ……………… emphasises that ..............................................................……………………............ ……………… maintains that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… indicates that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… shows that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… proves that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… finds that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… stresses that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… feels that .............................................................……………………............. ………………warns that ..............................................................……………………............. ……………… concludes that ..............................................................……………………............. Jones (1997) ………………… that ..............................................................……………………....... ……………………………… that ..............................................................……………………....... ……………………………… that ..............................................................……………………....... ……………………………… that ..............................................................……………………....... ……………………………… that ..............................................................……………………....... ……………………………… that ..............................................................…………………….......

Some of your comments may involve direct reporting rather than indirect reporting. For this use verbs transitively, that is, give them a direct object. What difference in tone and inference do you see between these and the indirect reporting statements above? describes (the results) ................................................................ determines. ............................................................................ points out ............................................................................. clarifies................................................................................. 33

challenges.............................................................................. questions............................................................................... outlines................................................................................. presents................................................................................ analyses................................................................................ Locate and identify in your own readings as many verbs of direct and indirect reporting as you can.

34

Comparing and contrasting It is part of the critiquing process to assess and point out the similarities and differences that you have discovered between writers in relation to theory, hypothesis, techniques, results, equipment, research design and other features of research and reporting. When you find commonality of experience, it is useful to be able to show that a number of researchers have found the same thing. This adds considerable strength and credibility to your reporting of the experience itself. On the other hand, polarisations within your field are likely to be based on differences in approach and experience amongst researchers. You can use techniques of contrasting to explain the details and implications of any such differences, as you will find in the following examples and planning sheets. The following is an extract from the Review of literature chapter in the thesis of 2 Nualnetr (1996): Age-related decreases in total number of muscle fibres were demonstrated in both type 1 (slow-twitch) and type 11 (fast twitch) fibres (Lexell et al 1983 and 1988). However, a reduction in muscle fibre size with increasing age appears in type 11 muscle fibres, whilst type 1 fibres are much less affected (Essen-Gustavsson and Borges 1986, Jakobsson et all 1990, Larsson et al 1978, Lexell and Taylor 1991, Scelsi et al 1980, Tomonaga 1977). After seven years of their longitudinal study of older subjects, Aniansson et al (1986) showed 14 per cent to 25 per cent reduction in the type 11 fibre area, and no significant change in the type 1 fibre area. They also found that muscle strength losses were accompanied by decreases in type 11 fibre area. It should be noted that the muscle examined by the majority of these studies was the vastus lateralis. It therefore remains to be determined whether the same changes in muscle morphology occur in other muscles.

Below you will find some examples of further commentary on the situation described above by 3Nualnetr (1996). Paraphrasing: According to a number of authors (Essen-Gustavsson and Borges 1986, Jakobsson et all 1990, Larsson et al 1978, Lexell and Taylor 1991, Scelsi et al 1980, Tomonaga 1977), the effect of ageing on type I muscle fibres is insignificant when compared to the reduction in muscle size found occurring on type II fibres. This is supported by the similar findings of Aniansson et al (1986).

Reporting: 2

Nualnetr N (1996): The effects of exercise on balance in older women: fallers and nonfallers, Unpublished PhD thesis, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences, University of South Australia. 3

Nualnetr N (1996): The effects of exercise on balance in older women: fallers and nonfallers, Unpublished PhD thesis, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences, University of South Australia.

35

Lexell et al (1983 and 1988) amongst others, reports that (claims that, suggests that, shows that ... etc) type I muscle fibres are less affected by ageing than are type II fibres which show a comparatively significant reduction in muscle fibre size with increasing

age. Quoting: 4 Nualnetr (1996) points out the gap between (or contrasts) what is widely known and what is still conjecture in the physiology of ageing. Having described a number of studies on agerelated effects on muscle fibre, she warns: It should be noted that the muscle examined by the majority of these studies was the vastus lateralis. It therefore remains to be determined whether the same changes in muscle morphology occur in other muscles.

Note the use of words such as 'however', 'therefore' 'whilst' in the above passage. These and other connecting words and phrases such as 'but', 'because', 'whereas', 'on the other hand', 'by contrast', help to indicate a change of direction of thought or opinion, and so can be used to denote contrasting ideas. Words and phrases such as 'and', 'also', 'as well', 'in addition', 'moreover' are often used to move further in the same direction, and implies similarity of feature or intent.

4

Nualnetr N (1996): The effects of exercise on balance in older women: fallers and nonfallers, Unpublished PhD thesis, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences, University of South Australia.

36

5

Nualnetr (1996) links the fact of age-related effects on muscle types by first showing what

5

Nualnetr N (1996): The effects of exercise on balance in older women: fallers and nonfallers, Unpublished PhD thesis, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences, University of South Australia.

the two muscles types have in common: Age-related decreases in total number of muscle fibres were demonstrated in both type 1 (slow-twitch) and type 11 (fast twitch) fibres (Lexell et al 1983 and 1988).

She goes on to contrast the extent of age-related effects on each muscle type, thereby isolating and highlighting the very feature on which the remainder of the paragraph is focused. However, a reduction in muscle fibre size with increasing age appears in type 11 muscle fibres, whilst type 1 fibres are much less affected (Essen-Gustavsson and Borges 1986, Jakobsson et all 1990, Larsson et al 1978, Lexell and Taylor 1991, Scelsi et al 1980, Tomonaga 1977).

Voice Contents Reducing text by paraphrasing, reporting, quoting 2

37

Voice Contents Emphasis

2

Reducing text by paraphrasing, reporting and quoting Read the passage below and try reproducing the ideas using the three different techniques described under ''Academic writing skills: Writing about the work of other authors: Voice: Paraphrasing, reporting, quoting' on the Web. Repeat this exercise as often as you like with any text from your own body of literature. 38

In a three-year study of schools in the mid-west of the USA, Newmann et al. (2001) found that students whose teachers used authentic classroom tasks (defined as requiring construction, rather than reproduction of knowledge, disciplined inquiry, and value beyond school) out-performed students not given such work, and that the size of the effects (as measured by standardized effect size) was substantial. In reading, writing and mathematics, the standardized effect sizes were 0.43, 0.52 and 0.64 respectively, with significant aptitude-treatment interactions favouring high-achievers in reading and low-achievers in mathematics. In another three-year study of two secondary (11–16) schools in England, Boaler (2002) compared two schools. One school (Phoenix Park) used a ‘reform’ approach to the teaching of mathematics, emphasizing higher-order thinking, and students’ responsibility for their own learning, while the other (Amber Hill) used a ‘traditional’ approach emphasizing practice of test items. Although matched in terms of prior achievement, students at Phoenix Park outperformed those at Amber Hill in the national school-leaving examination (the General Certificate of Secondary Education, or GCSE) by, on average, one third of a grade, equivalent to a standardized effect size of 0.21. These studies are useful in pointing out that attention to higher-order goals in teaching can result in higher attainment, even when such attainment is measured principally in terms of lower-order goals. However, since these studies were not based on direct experiments, there is always the possibility that, in Newmann et al.’s (2001) study, the teachers using more authentic activities were just better teachers, and that the choice of authentic activities was incidental to their success. Similarly, in Boaler’s (2002) study, it could be that the teachers teaching at Phoenix Park were just better teachers, drawn to the school by its progressive ethos. Paraphrasing (use back of page for these three tasks) ...................................................................................................……………………………….. ...................................................................................................……………………………….. ...................................................................................................……………………………….. Reporting ...................................................................................................……………………………….. ...................................................................................................……………………………….. ...................................................................................................……………………………….. 39

Emphasis You can develop your own argument in the choice of language used to report on findings or viewpoints of various authors. Verbs used to report an author's idea may: 1 indicate if the writer agrees/disagrees with the author: 'Johnson (1996) claims that ... ' 2 indicate if the author agrees/disagrees with other authors in the field: 'Brown (1985) agrees that ... ' 3 indicate strong opinion/no opinion held by the author: Strong opinion: 'Cook (1979) asserts that ... ' No opinion: 'Adams (1993) reports that ... ' The following lists a range of verbs used for reporting on previous literature: add, affirm, agree, argue, assert, challenge, claim, clarify, conclude, deny, describe, determine, disagree, doubt, elaborate, emphasise, feel, find, indicate, maintain, outline, point out, present, question, refute, remark, report, show, state, stress, suggest, warn • Can you add to this list? • Browse through some of the literature in your field and see what sort of verbs are used by authors known to you. • Position each word from your list of verbs above in an appropriate position on the following table: You (as writer) agree with the viewpoint of the author

You (as writer) disagree with the viewpoint of the author

The author agrees with/adds to another author's questions/results/findings

The author disagrees with another author's opinion/results/findings

The author expresses strong judgment that they are correct/that their results are

The author expresses no judgement

Quoting ................................................................................................…………………… ...................................................................................................………………………………

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significant

Describing and defining - literal Contents Statements

2

41

Statements A statement can take the form of an equation where a verb or verb group substitutes for the equals sign: context group

By morning

Once aggravated

subject group

verb group

object group

a

=

b+c

Water

is

wet

That book

was found

some of the horses

had jumped over

the gate

The elephant

is referred to as

a gentle giant

nothing

would completely settle

the shoulder ache.

None of the arm movements that aggravated the shoulder area ache and pain

However, once

had

adjective or adverb group

under the desk into the next field by some people

an immediate effect on the ache/tension felt in the supraspinous fossa region early in the day,

the supraspinous fossa region use of the arm

had been aggravated, the ache in that area did increase as well.

See how the components of the following sentences fit into the syntax groupings: Analyze three more sentences in the same way, and add appropriately to the spaces below. context group

subject group

verb group

object group

elaboration group

All therapists

have

an element of routine

to their examination.

through experience

Individual therapists

will have identified,

the categories of information

which

they

have found to be

particularly useful.

While

a degree of routine

commonly

for problem identification and management decisions.

exists, the specific inquiries and tests

should be tailored to

each patient’s unique presentation.

42

Postural sway

is

the term used

to describe

the movement of the body from the vertical position and subsequent corrections during standing.

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Explaining and exploring - lateral Contents Cause and effect

2

44

Cause and effect The table below simply represents the variety of meanings, uses and nuances that can be derived from the word most strongly associated with the notion of cause and effect, the word because … . This is not intended as a reference list, though you may use it as such if you are looking for alternative vocabulary. In a more general sense, you are invited to think about all these words, and the subtlety of their meanings in relation to each other. You will find, for instance, that cause actually means contributor, and effect actually means outcome. Each tells the same story from a different angle or perspective. Knowing your perspective will always help you to achieve precision in writing. More than this is the ability to explain not just what something is, but, at a lateral level, how something happens, which is a fundamental skill in all research. Words in the table below were derived from the entries for ‘because’ and related words in a number of dictionaries and thesauruses. The sheer number of related words should encourage you to write with ever increasing variety and range. Try building up a similar table using any other word, especially one that you use very frequently. The exercise of looking through a few dictionaries will certainly benefit your repertoire of vocabulary and should give you more choices for more subtle nuances in your writing. Because ... nuance cause contributor to the result eg because of gravity, apples fall to the ground

effect result of prior act or condition eg because the train was late, I missed my appointment attribution ascribing cause

noun cause causality origin source principle influence key derivation intention production contribution responsibility precipitation input

adjective causative reliable original influential derivative derived intentional intended contributive

effect consequence derivative result outcome development product output repercussion ramificaton implication attribution attribute

dependent on reliant on

attributed to attributable to

verb cause be the cause of shape give rise to initiate generate affect bring about trigger originate make make happen influence lead to intend produce create contribute induce deduce promote engender be responsible for determine precipitate result from arise from grow from stem from be shaped by culminate in proceed emanate from follow from depend on

adverb causatively originally derivatively contributively intentionally determinedly subsequently

context phrase because due to as a result of owing to since therefore when ... .then if ... then since ... then

naturally consequently necessarily eventually reliably conditionally

account for attribute

accountably unaccountably

because owing to resulting from due to caused by depending on of course it follows that therefore as since because according to

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eg because of the accident, she never drove again

response reaction to stimulus eg because you said that, I’ll begin to think differently

ascription reference to explanation interpretation reason why

explained by

ascribe impute refer derive from assign as cause indicates shows points towards be associated with correspond to correlate with

response impact, reply defence explanation contradiction acknowledgeme nt discovery solution, clue inquiry, query satisfaction support evidence resolution reaction

conclusive inconclusive defended contradictory satisfactory interpretive apparent empirical

answer respond reply acknowledge explain interpret solve discover inquire query satisfy allow

imputedly derivatively

conclusively satisfactorily evidently interpretively apparently empirically

hence thence therefore on account of due to in view of owing to as a result of as a consequence of with reference to in respect of in light of from this point because in response to as a result in conclusion in reply in defence in acknowledgement of in light of considering while acknowledging that

nuance

noun

adjective

verb

adverb

reasoning inductive or deductive calculation eg

reason explanation argument generalisation rationale induction deduction discussion inquiry debate analysis synthesis

valid rational reasonable reasoned cogent logical forceful relevant appropriate correct persuasive conclusive dialectic polemical debatable controvertible

infer reason validate argue consider discuss debate dispute refute examine wrangle follow from contend insist

rationally validly reasonably arguably forcefully appropriately correctly conclusively consequently accordingly

reason

reasoned

stimulate

with reason

because it was a hot day, we took our bathers

motive

context phrase because since as for hence whence thence seeing that then so so that for this reason for that reason for which reason inasmuch as whereas considering in consideration of therefore wherefore thus in conclusion finally after all in the end on the whole because

46

reason for generating an effect eg because she was interested, she took up astronomy

intention direction towards an outcome eg because I have a goal, I will make it happen

ground(s) stimulus intention motivation inducement influence inspiration encouragement incentive concession purpose

intentional motivated persuasive enforceable inclined biased

induce prompt instigate provoke encourage attract activate actuate act on work on operate on determine bias incline dispose predispose persuade enforce concede

intentionally determinedly

therefore as for this reason by reason of on account of due to owing to

determination aim goal pathway aspiration

intentional determined decisive incisive deliberate conscious

be determined aspire intend ensure aim (for) set up work towards aim towards effect envisage

determinedly decisively intentionally deliberately consciously

because of in order to to with the intention of so that so

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Discussing and disputing - critical Contents Evidence and generalisation

2

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Evidence and generalisation There is nothing stronger than empirical proof to make a claim on an idea. However, it is almost impossible to find evidence of absolute strength, which is why the word ‘proof’ is seldom used except in mathematics. Nevertheless, as well as ensuring that sources of authority are correctly and strategically acknowledged through the referencing system, we do have some linguistic devices for implying strength or weakness in any piece of reported or experiential knowledge: You often use present tense to give authority to statements and to act as ‘given’ or background knowledge which cannot be disputed without even stronger counter-evidence. A sentence in the simple present tense may be: tied to a specific situation: This water is cold. common knowledge: Water is wet. generalised from evidence which can be produced: Water freezes at 0o C Which statement is confined only to a single time or situation? How? Which of the above is the stronger, more authoritative statement? Why? Read texts A and B There are surprisingly few differences between Passage A and Passage B below, and yet the strength and flavour of each paragraph is quite distinctive , according to the verb tenses used. What happens to the scope and sureness of the information in each case? How clearly in your mind can you see an actual (concrete) event happening for each passage? Which text refers to general, and which to specific understandings? Which paragraph contains knowledge that is transferrable? How can each of these passages be used in academic writing? With what purpose? In which section of a research report does each passage belong? A Visual manipulations include the use of a blindfold for eliminating visual information and a visual-conflict dome for producing inaccurate input. The dome provides sensory conflict by depriving the subject of peripheral vision and introducing a sway-referenced image. It moves in synchrony with head movement and thereby reduces the meaning of vision as a reference for body sway. Thus, the use of a blindfold and the use of a visual-conflict dome should examine different aspects of the sensory organisation of visual information. The use of a blindfold examines how well subjects maintain balance in the absence of visual input, and the use of a dome examines how well subjects maintain balance when visual input is present but conflicts with vestibular input (Cohen et al 1993). B Visual manipulations included the use of a blindfold for eliminating visual information and a visual-conflict dome for producing inaccurate input. The dome provided sensory conflict by depriving the subject of peripheral vision and introducing a sway-referenced image. It moved in synchrony with head movement and thereby reduced the meaning of vision as a reference for body sway. Thus, the use of a blindfold and the use of a visual-conflict dome should have examined different aspects of the sensory organisation of visual information. The use of a blindfold examined how well subjects maintained balance in the absence of visual input, and the use of a dome examined how well subjects maintained balance when visual input was present but conflicted with vestibular input (Cohen et al 1993).

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