Social Studies Standard

NBPTS Social Studies–History STANDARDS

for teachers of students ages 7–18+

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he National Board would like to express appreciation to the U.S. Department of Education for its support of

the cost of developing this standards document.

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his project is funded in part with grants from the U.S. Department of Education and the National Science

Foundation. Through September 2000, NBPTS has been appropriated federal funds of $90.8 million, representing approximately 55 percent of the National Board Certification project. More than $75.5 million (45 percent) of the project’s cost will be financed by nongovernmental sources.

The contents of this document were developed under a grant from the Department of Education. However, the contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the Department of Education, and the reader should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards™, National Board Certification®, National Board Certified Teacher®, and the NBPTS logo™ are trademarks and service marks of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.

© 1998 National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. All rights reserved. Third Printing 2001 Note: This third printing has been reformatted and reedited.

Table of Contents Social Studies–History STANDARDS (for teachers of students ages 7–18+)

Preface .............................................................................v Introduction .....................................................................1 Overview ..........................................................................5 The Standards .................................................................7 Preparing for Student Learning I.

Knowledge of Students .........................7

II.

Valuing Diversity..................................11

III.

Knowledge of Subject Matter ..............15

Advancing Student Learning IV.

Advancing Disciplinary Knowledge and Understanding ..............................27

V.

Promoting Social Understanding.........33

VI.

Developing Civic Competence ............37

Supporting Student Learning VII.

Instructional Resources........................41

VIII.

Learning Environments .......................45

IX.

Assessment.........................................49

X.

Reflection ............................................53

XI.

Family Partnerships .............................57

XII.

Professional Contributions ..................61

Epilogue ........................................................................65 Standards Committees................................................67 Acknowledgments .......................................................71

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Preface

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he world-class schools the United States requires cannot exist without a world-class teaching force; the two go hand in hand. Many accomplished teachers already work in the nation’s schools, but their knowledge and skills are often unacknowledged and underutilized. Delineating outstanding practice and recognizing those who achieve it are important first steps in shaping the kind of teaching profession the nation needs. This is the core challenge embraced by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards™ (NBPTS). Founded in 1987 with a broad base of support from governors, teacher union and school board leaders, school administrators, college and university officials, business executives, foundations, and concerned citizens, NBPTS is a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization governed by a 63-member board of directors, the majority of whom are teachers. Committed to basic reform in education, NBPTS recognizes that teaching is at the heart of education and, further, that the single most important action the nation can take to improve schools is to strengthen teaching. The National Board’s mission is to advance the quality of teaching and learning by: • maintaining high and rigorous standards for what accomplished teachers should know and be able to do, • providing a national voluntary system certifying teachers who meet these standards, and • advocating related education reforms to integrate National Board Certification® in American education and to capitalize on the expertise of National Board Certified Teachers®. Dedication to this mission is elevating the teaching profession, educating the public about the demands and complexity of accomplished teaching practice, and making teaching a more attractive profession for talented college graduates with many other promising career options. National Board Certification is more than a system for recognizing and rewarding accomplished teachers. It offers an opportunity to guide the continuing growth and development of the teaching profession. Together with other reforms, National Board Certification is a catalyst for significant change in the teaching profession and in education.

The Philosophical Context The standards presented here lay the foundation for the Social Studies–History certificates. They represent a professional consensus on the aspects of practice that distinguish accomplished teachers. Cast in terms of actions that teachers take to advance student achievement, these standards also incorporate the essential knowledge, skills, dispositions, and commitments that allow teachers to practice at a high level. Like all NBPTS Standards, this standards document is grounded philosophically in the NBPTS policy statement What Teachers Should Know and Be Able to Do. That statement identifies five core propositions.

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Preface 1) Teachers are committed to students and their learning. Accomplished teachers are dedicated to making knowledge accessible to all students. They act on the belief that all students can learn. They treat students equitably, recognizing the individual differences that distinguish their students from one another and taking account of these differences in their practice. They adjust their practice, as appropriate, on the basis of observation and knowledge of their students’ interests, abilities, skills, knowledge, family circumstances, and peer relationships. Accomplished teachers understand how students develop and learn. They incorporate the prevailing theories of cognition and intelligence in their practice. They are aware of the influence of context and culture on behavior. They develop students’ cognitive capacity and respect for learning. Equally important, they foster students’ self-esteem; motivation; character; sense of civic responsibility; and respect for individual, cultural, religious, and racial differences.

2) Teachers know the subjects they teach and how to teach those subjects to students. Accomplished teachers have a rich understanding of the subject(s) they teach and appreciate how knowledge in their subjects is created, organized, linked to other disciplines, and applied to real-world settings. While faithfully representing the collective wisdom of our culture and upholding the value of disciplinary knowledge, they also develop the critical and analytical capacities of their students. Accomplished teachers command specialized knowledge of how to convey subject matter to students. They are aware of the preconceptions and background knowledge that students typically bring to each subject and of strategies and instructional resources that can be of assistance. Their instructional repertoire allows them to create multiple paths to learning the subjects they teach, and they are adept at teaching students how to pose and solve challenging problems.

3) Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning. Accomplished teachers create, enrich, maintain, and alter instructional settings to capture and sustain the interest of their students. They make the most effective use of time in their instruction. They are adept at engaging students and adults to assist their teaching and at making use of their colleagues’ knowledge and expertise to complement their own. Accomplished teachers command a range of instructional techniques and know when to employ them. They are devoted to high-quality practice and know how to offer each student the opportunity to succeed. Accomplished teachers know how to engage groups of students to ensure a disciplined learning environment and how to organize instruction so as to meet the schools’ goals for students. They are adept at setting norms of social interaction among students and between students and teachers. They understand how to motivate students to learn and how to maintain their interest even in the face of temporary setbacks. Accomplished teachers can assess the progress of individual students as well as the progress of the class as a whole. They employ multiple methods for assessing student growth and understanding and can clearly explain student performance to students, parents, and administrators. vi

Preface 4) Teachers think systematically about their practice and learn from experience. Accomplished teachers are models of educated persons, exemplifying the virtues they seek to inspire in students—curiosity, tolerance, honesty, fairness, respect for diversity, and appreciation of cultural differences. They demonstrate capacities that are prerequisites for intellectual growth—the ability to reason, take multiple perspectives, be creative and take risks, and experiment and solve problems. Accomplished teachers draw on their knowledge of human development, subject matter, and instruction, and their understanding of their students, to make principled judgments about sound practice. Their decisions are grounded not only in the literature of their fields but also in their experience. They engage in lifelong learning, which they seek to encourage in their students. Striving to strengthen their teaching, accomplished teachers examine their practice critically; expand their repertoire; deepen their knowledge; sharpen their judgment; and adapt their teaching to new findings, ideas, and theories.

5) Teachers are members of learning communities. Accomplished teachers contribute to the effectiveness of the school by working collaboratively with other professionals on instructional policy, curriculum development, and staff development. They can evaluate school progress and the allocation of school resources in light of their understanding of state and local educational objectives. They are knowledgeable about specialized school and community resources that can be engaged for their students’ benefit and are skilled at employing such resources as needed. Accomplished teachers find ways to work collaboratively and creatively with parents, engaging them productively in the work of the school.

The Certification Framework Using the Five Core Propositions as a springboard, NBPTS sets standards and offers National Board Certification in nearly 30 fields. These fields are defined by the developmental level of the students and the subject or subjects being taught. The first descriptor represents the four overlapping student developmental levels: • Early Childhood, ages 3–8; • Middle Childhood, ages 7–12; • Early Adolescence, ages 11–15; • Adolescence and Young Adulthood, ages 14–18+. The second descriptor indicates the substantive focus of a teacher’s practice. Teachers may select either a subject-specific or a generalist certificate at a particular developmental level. Subject-specific certificates are designed for teachers who emphasize a single subject area in

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Preface their teaching (e.g., Early Adolescence/English Language Arts, Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Mathematics); generalist certificates are designed for teachers who develop student skills and knowledge across the curriculum (e.g., Early Childhood/Generalist, Middle Childhood/Generalist). For some subject-specific certificates, developmental levels are joined together to recognize the commonalities in teaching students at those developmental levels (e.g., Early and Middle Childhood/Art).

Standards and Assessment Development Following a nationwide search for outstanding educators, a standards committee is appointed for each field. The committees are generally made up of 15 members who are broadly representative of accomplished professionals in their fields. A majority of committee members are teachers regularly engaged in teaching students in the field in question; other members are typically professors, experts in child development, teacher educators, and other professionals in the relevant discipline. The standards committees develop the specific standards for each field, which are then disseminated widely for public critique and comment and subsequently revised as necessary before their adoption by the NBPTS Board of Directors. Periodically, standards are updated so that they remain dynamic documents, responsive to changes in the field. Determining whether or not candidates meet the standards requires performance-based assessment methods that are fair, valid, and reliable and that ask teachers to demonstrate principled, professional judgments in a variety of situations. A testing contractor specializing in assessment development works with standards committee members, teacher assessment development teams, and members of the NBPTS staff to develop assessment exercises and pilot test them with teachers active in each certificate field. The assessment process involves two primary activities: (1) the compilation of a portfolio of teaching practice over a period of time and (2) the demonstration of content knowledge through assessment center exercises. Teachers prepare their portfolios by videotaping their teaching, gathering student learning products and other teaching artifacts, and providing detailed analyses of their practice. At the assessment center, teachers write answers to questions that relate primarily to content knowledge specific to their fields. The portfolio is designed to capture teaching in real-time, real-life settings, thus allowing trained assessors from the field in question to examine how teachers translate knowledge and theory into practice. It also yields the most valued evidence NBPTS collects—videos of practice and samples of student work. The videos and student work are accompanied by commentaries on the goals and purposes of instruction, the effectiveness of the practice, teachers’ reflections on what occurred, and their rationales for the professional judgments they made. In addition, the portfolio allows candidates to document their accomplishments in contributing to the advancement of the profession and the improvement of schooling—whether at the local, state, or national level—and to document their ability to work constructively with their students’ families. Teachers report that the portfolio is a professional development vehicle of considerable power, in part because it challenges the historic isolation of teachers from their peers. It accomplishes this by actively encouraging candidates to seek the advice and counsel of their

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Preface professional colleagues—whether across the hall or across the country—as they build their portfolios. It also requires teachers to examine the underlying assumptions of their practice and the results of their efforts in critical but healthy ways. This emphasis on reflection is highly valued by teachers who go through the process of National Board Certification. The assessment center exercises are designed to complement the portfolio. They validate that the knowledge and skills exhibited in the portfolio are, in fact, accurate reflections of what candidates know and can do, and they give candidates an opportunity to demonstrate knowledge and skills not sampled in the portfolio because of the candidate’s specific teaching assignment. For example, high school science teachers assigned to teach only physics in a given year might have difficulty demonstrating in their portfolio a broad knowledge of biology. Given that the NBPTS Standards for science teachers place a high value on such capabilities, another strategy for data collection is necessary. The assessment center exercises fill this gap and otherwise augment the portfolio. Each candidate’s work is examined by trained assessors who teach in the certificate field. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards believes that a valid assessment of accomplished practice must allow for the variety of forms sound practice takes. It must also sample the range of content knowledge that teachers possess and must provide appropriate contexts for assessments of teaching knowledge and skill. Teaching is not just about knowing things; it is about the use of knowledge—knowledge of learners and of learning, of schools and of subjects—in the service of helping students grow and develop. Consequently, NBPTS believes that the most valid teacher assessment processes engage candidates in the activities of teaching—activities that require the display and use of teaching knowledge and skill and that allow teachers the opportunity to explain and justify their actions. In its assessment development work, NBPTS uses technology for assessment when appropriate; ensures broad representation of the diversity that exists within the profession; engages pertinent disciplinary and specialty associations at key points in the process; collaborates closely with appropriate state agencies, academic institutions, and independent research and education organizations; establishes procedures to detect and eliminate instances of external and internal bias with respect to age, gender, and racial and ethnic background of teachercandidates; and selects the method exhibiting the least adverse impact when given a choice among equally valid assessments. Once an assessment has been thoroughly tested and found to meet NBPTS requirements for validity, reliability, and fairness, eligible teachers may apply for National Board Certification. To be eligible, a teacher must hold a baccalaureate degree from an accredited institution; have a minimum of three years’ teaching experience at the early childhood, elementary school, middle school, or high school level; and have held a valid state teaching license for those three years or, where a license is not required, have taught in schools recognized and approved to operate by the state.

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Preface Strengthening Teaching and Improving Learning The National Board’s system of standards and certification is commanding the respect of the profession and the public, thereby making a difference in how communities and policymakers view teachers, how teachers view themselves, and how teachers improve their practice throughout their careers. National Board Certification has yielded such results in part because it has forged a national consensus on the characteristics of accomplished teaching practice in each field. The traditional conversation about teacher competence has focused on beginning teachers. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards has helped broaden this conversation to span the entire career of teachers. Developing standards of accomplished practice helps to elevate the teaching profession as the standards make public the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of accomplished teachers. However, making such standards the basis for National Board Certification promises much more. Since National Board Certification identifies accomplished teachers in a fair and trustworthy manner, it can offer career paths for teachers that will make use of their knowledge, wisdom, and expertise; give accomplished practitioners the opportunity to achieve greater status, authority, and compensation; and accelerate efforts to build more successful school organizations and structures. By holding accomplished teachers to high and rigorous standards, National Board Certification encourages change along several key fronts: • changing what it means to have a career in teaching by recognizing and rewarding accomplished teachers and by making it possible for teachers to advance in responsibility, status, and compensation without having to leave the classroom; • changing the culture of teaching by accelerating growth in the knowledge base of teaching, by placing real value on professional judgment and accomplished practice in all its various manifestations, and by encouraging teachers to search for new knowledge and better practice through a steady regimen of collaboration and reflection with peers and others; • changing the way schools are organized and managed by creating a vehicle that facilitates the establishment of unique teacher positions, providing accomplished teachers with greater authority and autonomy in making instructional decisions and greater responsibility for sharing their expertise to strengthen the practice of others; • changing the nature of teacher preparation and ongoing professional development by laying a standards-based foundation for a fully articulated career development path that begins with prospective teachers and leads to accomplished teachers; • changing the way school districts think about hiring and compensating teachers by encouraging administrators and school boards to reward excellence in teaching by seeking to hire accomplished teachers.

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Preface Although National Board Certification has been designed with the entire country in mind, each state and locality decides for itself how best to encourage teachers to achieve National Board Certification and how best to take advantage of the expertise of the National Board Certified Teachers in their midst. Across the country, legislation has been enacted that supports National Board Certification, including allocations of funds to pay for the certification fee for teachers, release time for candidates to work on their portfolios and prepare for the assessment center exercises, and salary supplements for teachers who achieve National Board Certification. Incentives for National Board Certification exist at the state or local level in all 50 states and in the District of Columbia. As this support at the state and local levels suggests, National Board Certification is recognized throughout the nation as a rich professional development experience. Because National Board Certification provides states and localities with a way to structure teachers’ roles and responsibilities more effectively and to allow schools to benefit from the wisdom of their strongest teachers, National Board Certification is a strong component of education reform in the United States.

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Introduction

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he world and its people compose a consistent and ever-changing tableau. At this time, globalization and technology have accelerated the process of change, causing many people to reflect on where they have come from and where they are going. The dismantling of the Berlin Wall brought live by satellite to our living rooms and the establishment of free and open elections in South Africa are but two examples of such change. Across the United States social studies and history teachers have the important job of helping students understand and begin to build their own informed perspectives on the times in which they live. These teachers, with their wide-ranging curiosity, passion for teaching and learning, and concern for students’ intellectual growth and well-being, explore alongside their students the compelling issues of the day. They use these issues and others as a springboard to the study of the broad spectrum of ideas that can be found within the disciplines of social studies and history, recognizing the unique way events from the distant and not so distant past can enrich students’ understanding and recognition of human possibilities.

The Challenge and Promise of Social Studies–History Teaching Some students face a nightmare of decay in their own communities, with violence and drug abuse all too common. Some are fortunate to live in relatively secure environments. All need to understand their role in society, their relationship to government at all levels, and how the well-being of the entire nation affects their individual futures. Social studies and history teachers see promise in the lives of all students. They meet directly the challenging task of helping develop the skills, knowledge, and frames of reference that enable students to understand what works well in this society; to imagine solutions to some of the pressing problems in their own communities; and to see how they can become productive, active, and contributing members of a democratic society. To meet the needs of their students, social studies and history teachers must not only keep abreast of new scholarship but must also consider the implications of current events and the impact of cultural and technological change on what they ultimately will accomplish with their students. For example, in the world of American business there has been a fundamental shift from labor-intensive, low-skill manufacturing toward more capital-intensive, highprocess/high-skills technologies. The communication revolution has eroded the boundaries between countries and cultures across the globe. Advancements in the fields of science and medicine raise interesting and difficult questions about the uses and purposes of technology as individuals confront, at the most personal level, their own anxieties and fears while they make decisions about their own health or that of a family member. The legal system also struggles to keep up with these changes, while being simultaneously overburdened with the results of social malaise and the peculiarly litigious character of American society. Accomplished teachers strive to incorporate these kinds of developments into their teaching so they may better equip their students to meet the challenges of tomorrow. This is not a trivial task. Many students see the study of history, geography, civics, and economics as “talking about the olden days” or as boring and irrelevant to their lives. They are burned out from memorizing facts and are disinclined to seek on their own the connections between past events and their current realities. Or worse, when given decontextualized information, they may create bizarre, ahistorical, or even dangerous interpretations that risk gaining currency in an already pervasive culture of misinformation. Accomplished social studies

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Introduction and history teachers work with these youngsters to build understandings from across the disciplines that will help them develop their own ways of understanding the world and themselves. Clearly, in terms of subject matter, teachers in these fields have a large territory to cover. Just think of the staggering amount of information that falls under the rubric of United States history. Truthfully, the debate about whether teachers should honor facts as opposed to understanding or theory as opposed to skills is a red herring. Accomplished teachers know that a foundation of information is the key to disciplinary understanding, and that it is equally important to help students make connections between what they learn and the world in which they live. For instance, in working with their students to understand the causes and consequences of racism in America, teachers help students appreciate not only the social and historical background of racial conflict, but also its effects, both subtle and overt, on their own lives. And as students build knowledge and concepts, they also develop analytical skills. Scholars have identified a number of essential analytical abilities, including the ability to interpret and combine source materials; the ability to deal with diverse interpretations of issues concerning society and culture; the ability to mount arguments directed at analytical questions; the capacity to test models applied to social and cultural phenomena; the ability to assess causation and the impact of historical change; the capacity to assess the impact of cultural factors in shaping human institutions and behaviors; and the ability to compare societies and cultures in order to enhance understanding. Whereas this is one attempt to put into words the complex analytical skills teachers are developing in their students, and whereas other organizational schemes exist to categorize the important purposes of social studies–history teachers, this framework embraces the kinds of serious, purposeful, and rigorous challenges students need and deserve. This report attempts to define the central aspects of practice that distinguish accomplished teachers of social studies and history. It has the difficult task of capturing in a linear and abstract form what is known about the very sophisticated and complex behavior of professionals practicing in a wide range of settings. We know that accomplished social studies–history teachers:

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care for and understand their students; enjoy the diversity, energy, curiosity, and kindness of young people; and appreciate their physical, cognitive, and social development;

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are distinguished both by what they teach and the ways they teach it; rely on accomplished teaching techniques so students may see the human enterprise in its entirety; relate their teaching to the students in their classrooms and provide young people with the opportunity to direct their own learning;

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have a vision of their field, knowing data and facts as well as having a conceptual framework that guides their teaching; have a commitment to teaching and a love of learning;

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understand that teaching is about more than just the presentation of large amounts of seemingly unrelated information or the rote memorization of facts and that a wide variety of teaching and learning strategies must be used— particularly those that actively engage students of all abilities, promote collaboration as well as independent exploration, and provide for various levels of concrete and abstract thought;

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are especially cognizant of their students’ individual differences, including their prior learning experiences, varied approaches to learning, and cultural backgrounds; tailor their instruction and evaluation procedures with these factors in mind, creating a classroom environment of high standards, common goals, and mutual support;

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are dedicated to their students and their craft; are staunch advocates of the teaching of social studies and history, eager and ready to engage others with their enthusiasm; exemplify a high level of professionalism, constantly seeking to improve their practice, exercising sound, disciplined, and principled judgment, while acting in the best interest of their students.

Developing High and Rigorous Standards for Accomplished Practice In 1992, committees of elementary, middle school, and secondary social studies–history teachers and other social studies and history professionals began the process of developing advanced professional standards for social studies and history teachers of students ages 7 to 18+. The committees were divided by student developmental level: Middle Childhood (ages 7–12); Early Adolescence (ages 11–15); and Adolescence and Young Adulthood (ages 14–18+). The three Social Studies–History Standards Committees were charged with translating the National Board’s Five Core Propositions into standards that define accomplished teaching of social studies and history. This NBPTS Standards document describes in observable form what accomplished teachers should know and be able to do. The standards are meant to reflect the professional consensus at this point about the essential aspects of accomplished practice. The deliberations of the Social Studies–History Standards Committees were informed by various national and state initiatives on student and teacher standards that have been operating concurrently with the development of NBPTS Standards.1 As the understanding of teaching and learning continues to evolve over the next several years, Social Studies–History Standards will be updated again. An essential tension of describing accomplished practice concerns the difference between the analysis and the practice of teaching. The former tends to fragment the profession into any number of discrete duties, such as designing learning activities, providing quality explanation, modeling, managing the classroom, and monitoring student progress. Teaching as it actually occurs, on the other hand, is a seamless activity. Everything an accomplished teacher knows through study, research, and experience is brought to bear daily in the classroom through innumerable decisions that shape learning. Teaching frequently requires balancing the demands of several important educational goals. It depends on accurate observations of particular students and settings. And it is subject to revision on the basis of continuing developments in the classroom. The professional judgments that accomplished teachers make also reflect a certain improvisational artistry. The paradox, then, is that any attempt to write standards that dissect what accomplished teachers know and are able to do will, to a certain extent, misrepresent the holistic nature of how teaching actually takes place. Nevertheless, the fact remains: Certain identifiable commonalties characterize the accomplished practice of teachers. The 12 standards that follow are designed to capture the craft, artistry, proficiency, and understandings—both deep and broad—that contribute to the complex work that is accomplished teaching.

1. National Council for the Social Studies. Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum Standards for Social Studies (Washington, D.C.: Author, 1994). Geography Standards Education Project. Geography for Life (Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Research & Exploration, 1994). Center for Civic Education. National Standards for Civics and Government (Calabasas, Calif.: Author, 1994). National Center for History in the Schools. National Standards for History K–4, National Standards for United States History, National Standards for World History (Los Angeles: The Center, 1994).

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Introduction The Standards Format Accomplished teaching appears in many different forms, and it should be acknowledged at the outset that these specific standards are not the only way it could have been described. No linearity, atomization, or hierarchy is implied in this vision of accomplished teaching, nor is each standard of equal weight. Rather, the standards are presented as aspects of teaching that are analytically separable for the purposes of this standards document but that are not discrete when they appear in practice. The document follows a two-part format for each of the 12 standards: I. Standard Statement—This is a succinct statement of one vital aspect of the practice of the accomplished social studies–history teacher. Each standard is expressed in terms of observable teacher actions that have an impact on students. II. Elaboration—This passage provides a context for the standard, along with an explanation of what teachers need to know, value, and do if they are to fulfill the standard. The elaboration includes descriptions of teachers’ dispositions toward students, their distinctive roles and responsibilities, and their stances on a range of ethical and intellectual issues that regularly confront them. The National Board does not believe there is a single right way to teach; therefore, the examples cited do not compose a prescriptive handbook of correct practice. Indeed, the examples presented here represent some of the many that could have been cited to describe accomplished social studies–history teaching. Finally, a word about order of presentation. The 12 standards have been organized around the critical nexus of education—student learning—and into three categories: (1) teacher knowledge and actions that prepare the way for productive student learning; (2) teacher actions that directly advance student learning in the classroom; and (3) teacher actions that support student learning.

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Social Studies–History STANDARDS (for teachers of students ages 7–18+)

OVERVIEW he National Board for Professional Teaching Standards has developed the following 12 standards of accomplished practice for social studies–history teachers. The standards have been ordered as they have to facilitate understanding, not to

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assign priorities. They each describe an important facet of accomplished teaching; they often occur concurrently because of the seamless quality of teaching. The standards serve as the basis for the National Board Certification in this field.

Preparing for Student Learning

Advancing Student Learning

I.

Knowledge of Students (p. 7) Accomplished teachers understand the cognitive, physical, and social development of young people and the diversity among them, observe them insightfully, and use this information to guide their practice and to form constructive relationships with the students they teach.

IV.

Advancing Disciplinary Knowledge and Understanding (p. 27) Accomplished teachers have a repertoire of strategies and techniques that engage student interest in and advance student understanding of United States History, World History, Economics, Political Science, and Geography.

II.

Valuing Diversity (p. 11) Accomplished teachers understand that each student brings diverse perspectives to any experience. These teachers encourage all students to know and value themselves and others.

V.

III.

Knowledge of Subject Matter (p. 15) Accomplished teachers draw on a broad knowledge of social studies and history to establish important and challenging instructional goals that engage and empower students, and they plan an integrated curriculum based on the major concepts, themes, principles, relationships, and processes illuminated by history and social studies.

Promoting Social Understanding (p. 33) Accomplished teachers promote in their students an understanding of how the social aspects of the human condition have evolved over time, the variations in societies that occur in different physical environments and cultural settings, and the emerging trends that seem likely to shape the future.

VI.

Developing Civic Competence (p. 37) Accomplished teachers develop in their students the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to be responsible citizens of a constitutional democracy.

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY

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Supporting Student Learning VII.

VIII. Learning Environments (p. 45) Accomplished teachers create and foster for students dynamic learning environments characterized by trust, equity, risk taking, independence, and collaboration. IX.

X.

Reflection (p. 53) Accomplished teachers reflect on their practice, on students’ performance, and on developments in their field to steadily extend their knowledge, improve their teaching, and refine their philosophy of education.

XI.

Family Partnerships (p. 57) Accomplished teachers understand and value the distinctive role of parents and guardians, and they continually seek opportunities to build strong partnerships with them.

XII.

Professional Contributions (p. 61) Accomplished teachers regularly work with others to foster the growth and development of their colleagues, their school, and their field.

Instructional Resources (p. 41) Accomplished teachers select, adapt, and create rich and varied resources for social studies and history and use them productively.

Assessment (p. 49) Accomplished teachers employ a variety of assessment methods to obtain useful information about student learning and development and assist students in reflecting on their own progress.

The pages that follow provide elaborations of each standard that discuss the knowledge, skills, dispositions, and habits of mind that describe accomplished teaching in the field.

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SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY

Preparing for Student Learning

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he first three standards form the foundation for the instructional decisions taken by social studies–history teachers and are the basis for all the other standards. Only by knowing their students well can teachers consistently make instructional decisions that

will further students’ learning. And only by having deep and broad understandings of social studies and history can teachers organize and deliver instruction that helps students build their own broad and deep understandings of these fields.

Standard I: Knowledge of Students Accomplished teachers understand the cognitive, physical, and social development of young people and the diversity among them, observe them Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/English Language Arts teachers insightfully, and use this information to guide their practice and to form systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners. constructive relationships with the students they teach.

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o chart an educationally sound course, teachers2 must know their students. This begins with the knowledge of how young people develop and grow into adulthood. Accomplished middle childhood teachers recognize that their students’ expanding interest in the world beyond their neighborhoods is fertile ground for developing lifelong interest in geography. Teachers of young adolescents know that their students’ concerns about fairness—or lack of fairness—provide an important entry point into the discussions of the justice system. Capitalizing on the growing ability of young adults to comprehend abstract ideas, teachers of adolescents and young adults facilitate reasoned discussions among their students about important contemporary and historical issues. In every part of their day, teachers guide their practice on the basis of what they know about human development and their observation of the students they teach.

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY

Understanding the Cognitive, Social, and Physical Development of Young People Teachers are knowledgeable about the forms and the pace that cognitive, social, and physical development takes in young people, and they are aware that each individual grows and develops at a different pace. They join their knowledge of general development with their knowledge of individual students to design and provide appropriate instruction for them as well as to choose the most effective classroom procedures that stretch and challenge students at all levels of competence. Teachers of younger children know the importance of working at a concrete level, providing materials such as maps, timelines, and tools for organizing and interpreting data. They understand that their students may have a developing temporal sense and recognize how this might limit their ability to comprehend fully such historical processes as change over time. They know that as children develop cognitively, so does their ability to consider multiple perspectives. As students mature and their analytic- and abstract-thinking abilities develop, teachers

2. All references to teachers in this document, whether stated explicitly or not, refer to accomplished social studies–history teachers.

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Social Studies–History Standards also provide opportunities to stretch and challenge them along those lines. They understand that even the youngest student has the capacity for evaluation and analysis. They recognize that although children are shortchanged if schooling is confined to rote memorization, teaching facts and techniques for locating information is important because analytical thinking is ordinarily supported by factual evidence. Teachers understand that factors such as language, socioeconomic condition, ethnicity, and gender can influence learning. They see student diversity as an asset that can facilitate the pursuit of academic, social, and civic aims. For example, immigrant children might be invited to share their experiences of arrival in the United States. Or students who have learned English as their second language might be invited to explain how a concept or an idea is expressed differently in their native tongue. Teachers make judgments about the readiness of children to participate in such sharing and the risk involved, establish safe and tolerant environments where individual experience is welcomed, and help all students recognize the uniqueness of each individual experience. These teachers know that culture may affect the interactions they have with students, because children from various cultural backgrounds might be accustomed to differing authority structures or forms of social interaction. They are aware of stereotypes and use evidence, reason, and other teaching strategies to counter their influence. Their knowledge of the life challenges many young people face—such as poverty, family violence, divorce, and the social ills of many communities—guides them as they design curricula, teaching strategies, and evaluation techniques. Teachers take advantage of the inquisitiveness, energy, and sense of fair play students often manifest, and as students get older, teachers challenge their cynicism and skepticism. They use these characteristics as

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assets to enhance the learning community and use the wide variety of knowledge, skills, talents, and abilities students bring to their classrooms as a basis for learning. Whereas they acknowledge and make use of students’ differences, teachers also take advantage of the similarities that serve as a common bond for young people. For example, they know that the interest shared by young people in aspects of popular culture—such as music and sports—can be employed as a bridge to both classroom learning and cohesion. Teachers are aware that not all young people learn in the same way. Some are more comfortable than others working in teams. Some express themselves more easily through writing or in group discussions. Others thrive while conducting field work or when there are abundant visual cues, and still others come alive when challenged by the potential of technological resources. Accomplished practice encompasses a range of techniques and a variety of approaches that alternate as needed in order to foster learning in all students and to expand students’ repertoire of learning techniques.

Forming Constructive Relationships with Students Teachers form productive relationships with students that allow better interpretation of student behavior and performance and understanding of student needs. They make themselves available to advise students on a wide range of issues, including academic progress, peer relationships, and extracurricular activities. This interaction not only supports student learning and development, but also provides teachers with a window to see more sharply aspects of student character, values, interests, and talents they might have overlooked. Teachers employ their knowledge of human growth and development as a guide to the formation of their relationships with SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY

Knowledge of Students

students. They understand the different stages children go through as they begin to form bonds outside the family, the importance of peer acceptance, and the tensions between autonomy and conformity. They also recognize the need some students have to develop a relationship with a concerned adult from outside the family and are comfortable filling this role.

Observing Students Insightfully Accomplished teachers develop a keen capacity for listening to and observing students. They listen willingly and actively in whatever setting students express themselves, be it a formal classroom discussion, an individual

conference, or an informal gathering. They observe students working in groups and individually, noting their strengths and work styles. They further enhance their understanding through discussions with parents, guardians, or other caregivers (see Standard XI—Family Partnerships), and colleagues, and by making note of individual students’ interactions with the larger student body. They use the information they gather, including their identification of students with special talents, unusual needs, or educational or physical disabilities, to ensure that they are equitably meeting every student’s unique needs and that all students have access to a rich and rigorous curriculum.

Reflections on Standard I:

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Standard II: Valuing Diversity Accomplished teachers understand that each student brings diverse Accomplished and Young Adulthood/English Language Arts teachers perspectives Adolescence to any experience. These teachers encourage all students to systematically acquire knowledgeand of their students as individual language learners. know and value themselves others.

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ccomplished social studies–history teachers are committed to the cognitive, social, emotional, physical, and ethical development of all of their students. They understand that each of their students is an individual learner and that the sum of the learning backgrounds of the students in a single classroom invariably includes a tremendous wealth and diversity of human experience. These teachers view the many forms of diversity manifest in their students—language background, culture, ethnicity, gender, household income, religious affiliation, physical or mental condition, literacy experience, and others—as opportunities for creating a richer social and learning environment for all. They are committed to providing all their students the help they need to progress as language learners and as inquisitive, informed, responsible human beings. The development of each student’s individual voice is encouraged by teachers, in part through the emphasis and modeling of democratic values. Teachers further understand that this growth is best supported by full membership in a collaborative learning community (see Standard VIII— Learning Environments) and full participation in an ambitious, meaning-centered curriculum.

Supporting the Development of All Students Teachers have a welcoming attitude and are eager to work with each of their students, and they create a classroom culture in which all students feel safe and respected and are therefore willing to take risks. They understand

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the many dimensions on which students will distinguish themselves from their peers, and they respond appropriately with strategies that will not only advance each student’s learning but also help teachers and students better understand themselves and each other. Teachers are sensitive to their students as cultural beings. For example, they are aware of the impact culture has on how students learn, what they expect of themselves, how they use language, and how they view their community and the world. Teachers understand the importance of respecting the cultural norms students bring with them from home. Teachers are also conscious of their own cultural views and how these affect the interpretation of texts and their interactions with students. They choose texts for whole-class consideration that draw from a variety of literary traditions and that promote accurate, unbiased, and objective images of different races, cultures, languages, and genders. (See Standard VII—Instructional Resources.) In interpreting materials, they often help students become aware of the particular cultural view presented in the text, call attention to the use of dialect or to varying social conventions, and promote a discussion of the social and ethical issues involved. Teachers are also aware of and attuned to the special needs of particular students— from those who may be classified as learning disabled or as gifted and talented to those who have particular cognitive, social, emotional, linguistic, or physical needs. They accept and support all their students. Teachers regard students who have been raised speaking a language other than English as assets to the entire learning community, as

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Social Studies–History Standards resources the whole class can consult with and benefit from in ways that are directly and indirectly related to social studies and history. In working with students for whom English is a new language, as with all students, teachers keep the focus on using both oral and written language as tools for making and exchanging meaning. They engage in a great deal of conversational assistance, supplying the child, when asked, with appropriate English words that bear on what he or she has just experienced or is trying to express. They understand that children learn a language in part by using it to exchange ideas with others, and they encourage the use of a student’s home language as an asset to be developed in its own right and as a tool for making sense of English. These teachers teach to each student’s strengths, building on what he or she can do as the foundation for further progress. They create a learning environment in which the ideas of each student—whatever his or her academic skill level—are solicited and taken seriously and in which the identity of each student as a learner is respected.

as individual learners. They frequently arrange students in heterogeneous small groups to bring pupils from different backgrounds into contact with one another. They allocate instructional resources, including one-on-one attention, fairly. At the same time they recognize that students’ needs differ dramatically and that the most equitable distribution is not necessarily the arithmetically equal one. They are aware of biases that result from using assessment practices that limit opportunities for students to express their understanding; they avoid these biases by providing a variety of assessment practices that allow for a range of response modes. They retain an absolute sense of responsibility for the learning progress of each of their students and work collaboratively with other school professionals to ensure that all of their students are engaged in pursuing the same high-quality curriculum. By showing respect for all members of their communities, and by maintaining the expectation that their students treat each other fairly and with dignity, social studies–history teachers model and promote the behavior essential to an equitable multicultural society.

Creating Environments Where Equity is Modeled, Taught, and Practiced Teachers place a high value on fostering equity in their classrooms. They encourage all students to participate in class activities in ways that are instructionally sound for them

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Valuing Diversity

Reflections on Standard II:

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Standard III: Knowledge of Subject Matter Accomplished teachers draw on a broad knowledge of social studies and history to establish important and challenging instructional goals that Accomplished and Young Languagecurriculum Arts teachers engage and Adolescence empower students, andAdulthood/English they plan an integrated systematically acquire knowledge of theirthemes, students principles, as individual relationships, language learners. based on the major concepts, and processes illuminated by history and social studies.

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aving a sound foundation in the disciplines that are comprised in social studies–history is essential to each aspect of a teacher’s practice. If teachers are to select and create powerful tasks for students, if they are to choose topics and materials that use students’ time wisely, and if they are to recognize when a shift in focus might help develop opportunities that emerge during instruction, they must possess a solid base of subject-matter knowledge. Accomplished teachers are well grounded in subject matter. They keep up on the literature and research in their fields, know the large controversies and debates that are under way in the scholarly community, and appreciate the impact these might have on their work with students. They understand the recent history of their field and how thinking in this area has developed over time. They know the ways of thinking, talking, and writing about their field and have enough experience with these conventions to share them with their students. They teach students processes such as how to follow the rules of evidence, the way researchers document their findings, and how to collect and tabulate various economic information. These teachers know their field well enough to understand the challenges associated with establishing the body of knowledge that constitutes the field. They can manipulate with some degree of comfort the symbols of the discipline in order to create a variety of analogies, metaphors, and similes that make the problems of the field more comprehensible to students.

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Knowing Subject Matter Accomplished teachers have a broad and rich understanding of the knowledge base that informs the social studies and history curriculum: in particular, United States History, World History, Economics, Geography, and Political Science.3 Within these areas, teachers are able to call upon their disciplinary knowledge—the facts, topics, generalizations, concepts, and themes—from each discipline. They use this knowledge alongside their command of disciplinary thinking—abilities, skills, and dispositions about the disciplines— to conceptualize powerful learning experiences for students. Even if they have particular strength in one area, they know the importance of having a knowledge base that stretches across the other areas as well. For example, they understand the role of geography in the development of modern industrial and economic centers such as New York, London, and Hong Kong. They know that, when debating issues of government policy in contemporary society with their students, it is helpful to have an understanding of the economic challenges the nation faces. Teachers are also aware of the role the social sciences can play in advancing student learning (e.g., they might take advantage of cultural anthropology in explaining an important idea in geography or social psychology to examine the nation’s political culture). Consequently, these teachers demonstrate breadth as well as depth of knowledge to support their teaching. They integrate concepts and ideas both within

3. Because the behavioral sciences (Anthropology, Psychology, Sociology, etc.) are less frequently part of school curricula, these standards do not identify specific subject matter knowledge for these disciplines. Accomplished teachers, however, often draw on knowledge and understandings from these fields to inform their teaching and guide student learning.

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Social Studies–History Standards and beyond the traditional boundaries of social studies–history. All social studies–history teachers have a breadth of knowledge across these disciplines. In making curricular choices, they select significant topics and themes that are most appropriate for their students’ developmental levels and align tasks and materials accordingly. Because Adolescence and Young Adulthood (AYA) teachers often specialize in a single discipline or content area, the National Board’s expectation is that AYA/Social Studies–History teachers command a depth of knowledge in one of these five disciplines or areas, along with an understanding of how this one discipline relates to the others.

History Accomplished teachers know that history is an interpretive enterprise, that there are better and worse analyses of every event or time period, and that understanding of such analyses may change over time. They also view history as stories well told. They help their students begin to understand some of the ways of telling the stories and to realize that within the realm of history each person can be simultaneously a reader, an interpreter, and a participant. They know that there are compelling and important reasons for teaching history to students, including the way the study of history helps broaden perspectives and helps prepare students to make informed judgments about the direction of their communities and country. These teachers develop in their students a sense of historical perspective, helping them enter the patterns of the past and see them through the eyes of the people who were there. They understand that events and social processes have causes and consequences and that neither the reasons nor the results are

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always clear or definitive. Therefore, they work with students to review evidence about the event or idea in question in order to understand how the descriptions and interpretations were created. They recognize that history is part of a nation’s identity and that differences in the interpretation of history often arise from—and can lead to—political and international disputes. They also understand the importance of belief systems in explaining why certain events happened or did not happen. Teachers use history to help students analyze the ways societies change over time. They organize their teaching in ways that provide students experience assessing the nature and causes of change; at the same time, they understand that even in the face of great political, social, or economic upheaval, there can be substantial continuity when factors such as ideology and religion remain the same. Teachers have a strong base of disciplinary knowledge that informs their teaching of history. These include the facts, topics, generalizations, concepts, and major themes of history, particularly as detailed in the following sections on United States and world history. In addition to this knowledge base, they are also disciplinary thinkers, able to bring to their teaching the abilities, skills, and dispositions that mark the work of historians. For example, they see the past on its own terms, understanding the inappropriateness of bringing contemporary interpretations to past events. They draw on a repertoire of procedural knowledge of the kind historians use in their work, including the ability to use primary and secondary sources, to analyze other people’s interpretations of history, to assess the merits of arguments, and to determine the frame of reference of the interpreter and the ways of constructing historical arguments.

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Knowledge of Subject Matter

On a regular basis, teachers make choices among the compelling stories to be told and the perspectives to which they expose their students. In order to ground curricular and instructional decisions, they draw on a broad and deep base of historical knowledge. The knowledge base of history for the three certificates described in these pages has been captured on two matrices—one for United States history and one for world history. On one dimension of each matrix are major themes teachers often use to organize their teaching and to help students think about history. On the other dimension, United States history and world history are divided into key chronological periods. Teachers know how the themes described below play themselves out in each period; they know the key events, movements, and developments in each period; and they can discuss why historians have defined the beginnings and endings of periods as they have. History teachers bring to their practice an understanding of the following: • the evolution of the nation-state from political forms that preceded or accompanied it, including families, clans, and multinational empires; • the ways in which independent and interdependent systems of trade and production developed; • the changes that have occurred over time in the nature and impact of war and peace; • the impact that religion and other belief systems have on historical processes, as well as the ways in which the arts, popular culture, and technology have both influenced and affected the interpretation of history; and • the evolution of social inequality and the quest for equality that underlies many human endeavors.

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Teachers employ these themes in different ways. Some organizational schemes might involve clustering stories that illuminate a common thread. Others might look crossculturally at different societies in search of similarities and differences. The matrices are designed to serve as a convenient way to organize the large and dynamic study of history by recognizing that across time there have been significant shifts in the functioning of human societies.

United States History In dealing with the major themes and periods in United States history, teachers help students understand the unique features of the national experience, including the distinctive aspects of United States democracy and its origins. They emphasize in their practice central national values, such as justice, individual rights, responsibility, freedom, privacy, and human dignity, while acknowledging that inequality, intolerance, and conflict have also played a role in the nation’s history. They recognize that America is now and has always been a pluralistic society and that, at the same time, the country’s story involves many people with broad interpretations of widely shared ideals. They understand that the American story is unfinished and that many of its ideals and aspirations are not yet fully realized. To provide such instruction, teachers have command of the key events, social movements, and individuals that mark the following periods: • First Americans (early history to 1756) • Formation of the Nation (1756–1861) • Civil War and Reconstruction (1850–1877)

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Social Studies–History Standards • Development of the Industrial United States (1860–1939) • Emergence of the Modern United States (1939–Present). The period of the first Americans, from early history through 1756 C.E., covers a wide range of time from the first human habitation of the North American continent through the establishment of permanent European settlements and the early attempts of Europeans to establish independent nations. Using the themes described above and other organizing frameworks, teachers explore the central historical events, topics, and issues of this period and others. For example, in applying the theme of the emergence of the nation state from early political forms, teachers might depend on their knowledge of how explorers from Spain, in establishing missions and other settlements throughout the American West, contributed to the development of a culture that was distinctly different from what developed in the eastern colonies. On the issue of dependent and interdependent systems of trade, these teachers would know the ways in which the economies of various American Indian nations worked and the effect that contact with European explorers and settlers had on those systems. To explore the theme of social inequality, teachers might draw on their knowledge of the beginnings of the Atlantic slave trade. On the nature and impact of war and peace, the causes and consequences of the French and Indian wars would allow teachers to highlight the cooperation and conflict among indigenous people, colonial Americans, and larger international forces. They might compare these wars to later conflicts such as the Revolutionary War. And, in examining the impact of religion and other belief systems, teachers might employ their knowledge of the ways in which religious oppression in Europe contributed to the migration of large numbers of people to the

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American continent. This crossing of themes and chronology has a reciprocal property that deserves attention. Just as each of the themes elucidated above helps students understand the distinguishing character of a particular period, so does the distinctive nature of each period help illuminate the character of the central theme. The Formation of the Nation (1756–1861) is the second period in United States history, and it includes many critical events, such as the struggles for independence from Europe; the development of a Constitution; the establishment of a new form of government; the central roles played by Jefferson, Washington, and Madison in these events; and the initial westward expansion of the new nation. Teachers might explore the development of dependent and interdependent systems of trade during this period by utilizing their knowledge of ways the expanding market economy fostered feelings of independence among European colonists and new social class divisions after the Revolution. Period three, the Civil War and Reconstruction (1850–1877), features the nation’s pivotal military conflict with all its concomitant political, economic, and social ramifications. This is the period of the Dred Scott Decision, of Abraham Lincoln and his Gettysburg and Second Inaugural Addresses, of Harriet Tubman and Walt Whitman. In considering the theme of social equity, teachers might build on their understanding of contemporary hate groups and the parallel emergence of the Ku Klux Klan during the period of Reconstruction, as well as their knowledge of African American aspirations and accomplishments during and after slavery. The fourth period describes the development of the industrial United States from 1860 to 1939—a rich and dynamic time in the nation’s history, encompassing the continued westward expansion of the country’s boundaries and the clashes with the

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Knowledge of Subject Matter

nations that already existed in those areas. Thousands of migrants arrived from Europe, Asia, and Latin America or moved from South to North, populating America’s cities and interior regions, irrevocably changing the character of the places they left and the United States. It was also the age of powerful industrialists, such as Andrew Carnegie, and the rise of industries that made the nation economically powerful. It was the time of Frances Willard, Woodrow Wilson, the First World War, the League of Nations, race riots, Eugene Debs, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and women’s suffrage, the Great Depression, the founding of the CIO, and the advent of Social Security. When considering the impact of the arts on society at this time, teachers might call on their knowledge of how the development of northern industrial cities led to the migration of large numbers of African Americans from the South and, consequently, to a period of vital creative expression in New York City known as the Harlem Renaissance. In developing the social inequality and quest for equality theme, teachers might draw upon their knowledge of the background and impact of feminism. The final period is the emergence of the modern United States (1939–Present), which finds the United States developing into a world power involved in international conflicts, including World War II, and learning to deal with its increasingly complex domestic social structure. It is the period of the Cold War, Martin Luther King Jr., and Cesar Chavez. In considering the nature and impact of war and peace in this period, teachers might utilize their knowledge of the Vietnam War era to explore the many ways it affected American diplomatic and military policy.

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World History In addressing the leading themes and periods of world history, accomplished teachers help students compare major civilizations while addressing the evolution of interactions among people from many different points of the globe. They maintain a healthy balance between specific attention to major civilizations and the forces of change that accompanied new forms of commercial and cultural contacts among them. The world history dimension line for the matrix discussed above is subdivided into the following periods: • Rise of Civilization (to 1000 B.C.E.) • Creation of Regional Empires (1000 B.C.E.–500 C.E.) • Development of Interregional Contacts (500–1450) • Rise of the West and Transformation of World Trade (1450–1918) • Emergence of the Contemporary World (1918–Present). The first segment on the world history periodization, Rise of Civilization, covers the time from humans’ earliest existence through approximately 1000 B.C.E., including the establishment of civilizations in the river valleys of Africa and Asia and the rise of other major cultures. When considering the development of dependent and interdependent systems of trade during this period, accomplished teachers would know, for example, the ways in which early river valley civilizations, such as those of the Indus, Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates, began trading relationships with others and the effect those relationships had on culture. The Creation of Regional Empires is the second period of world history (1000 B.C.E. to 500 C.E.). Among other important events, this

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Social Studies–History Standards historical period includes the development of democratic institutions in the Aegean city states, the rise and decline of the Chinese and Roman imperial systems, the influence in world trade and culture of important societies in the Near East, the existence and disappearance of cultures on the American continents, and the beginning of the Christian era. It is the period of Jesus and Confucius. In examining the nature and impact of war and peace during this time, teachers might draw on their knowledge of the transition in China from the warlike Ch’in dynasty to the 400 years of relative peace under the Han rulers, as well as the influences of competing philosophies on both leaders and populace. The next period, the Development of Interregional Contacts (500–1450), is the period of Mohammed and includes the rise of Islam and its influence in Asia and Africa; the establishment of feudal monarchies in Africa, Asia, and Europe; the writing of the Magna Carta; the flowering of the Renaissance; and the development of world trade. To illustrate the theme of social equality at this time, teachers would know how land ownership in Europe and in parts of Asia led to the establishment of rigid class structures. To illustrate the impact of religion, teachers might compare the effects of Christianity and Islam on the political forms of this period. The Rise of the West and Transformation of World Trade (1450–1918) includes the European exploration and subsequent colonization of much of the rest of the world; the French Revolution; the establishment of new empires in the Middle East and Asia; the rise and decline of the Atlantic slave trade; the scientific and industrial revolutions, including the influence of Arab and Asian innovations; and the first major worldwide military conflict. Societies experimented with different political forms. Some flourished and some failed. In examining the theme of

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dependent and interdependent systems of trade, teachers might draw on their knowledge of how the demand for spices and other goods from Asia and gold from Africa drove European countries toward global exploration and led to the colonization of large parts of the world. The last period is Emergence of the Contemporary World (1918–Present), a period that includes a second major worldwide military conflict. It is the period of Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin, Hitler, and Mao and the proliferation of political philosophies such as fascism and communism, the results of embracing such systems, widespread decolonization, and the emergence of East Asia as an economic power. When examining the impact of technology on historical processes, teachers might employ their knowledge of the effect of nuclear power on war and diplomacy. Whereas the examples given above are intended to be neither inclusive nor prescriptive, they represent the kinds of knowledge, understandings, perspectives, and dispositions accomplished teachers bring to the endeavor of studying history. These teachers not only have specific in-depth knowledge of events, people, and important ideas, they are also able to employ that knowledge to address substantive questions about their field as well as to participate in the ongoing telling of the human story.

Economics Accomplished teachers have an understanding of basic economic concepts. They know the characteristics of the market system. They can explain the relationship between supply and demand and the effect on prices of the interaction between buyers and sellers in the market prices. They can describe the role incentives such as the profit motive have

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within a market, helping to foster efficiencies in the functioning of markets and maintaining a competitive framework within an economy. They can articulate the difference between a purely competitive market and one that is purely monopolistic and the effect each has on consumer activities. They can accurately point out trends in consumer behaviors that result from a society’s use of scarce resources. These teachers also recognize and can explain the importance of a measurement device such as the Consumer Price Index and its effect on wages. Teachers understand and communicate the interrelationship of each of the four factors of production (land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurial techniques). They can also identify those governmental policies that either stimulate or retard economic activity within a society. Teachers understand the role businesses have in an economy. They are familiar with the different types of financial institutions and their purposes and know the various ways central banks and fluctuations in interest rates influence an economy. They understand the business cycle and can articulate the difference between an inflationary and recessionary gap during the business cycle. Teachers understand the role of a government in the economy, including the important role of the United States Federal Reserve System in setting monetary policy and the various tools the Federal Reserve Bank has at its disposal to control the money supply. They understand how governments obtain and spend money and can analyze the impact of deficit spending and the resultant national debt on the economy. In addition to understanding a free market economy, teachers are familiar with other basic economic models, such as command economies and traditional economies. They understand the basic ideas of Marxist economics and can compare those ideas with

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what actually takes place in communist countries. They understand the concept of socialism and can explain the way it is manifest in different nations. They know about the necessity, benefits, and costs of world trade and the various treaties and covenants that regulate it, and they understand the effects the balance of trade has on the U.S. economy and businesses. Along with this knowledge base of economics, accomplished teachers demonstrate the abilities, skills, and dispositions that are the hallmarks of disciplinary thinking in economics. They understand that competing economic theories often prevail and that the reality of the marketplace often is at odds with those theories. Teachers bring a variety of tools of the trade to their practice, such as the ability to employ graphic representations (e.g., tables; charts; and bar, circle, or line graphs) to illustrate economic trends and the ability to manipulate and interpret various kinds of economic data. They also recognize the opportunity that the study of economics provides to extend learning across disciplinary boundaries, particularly mathematics.

Geography Accomplished teachers of geography are well grounded in the disciplinary knowledge and the disciplinary thinking that are at the core of their field. They know the five themes of geography: location, place, human/environment interactions, movement, and region. They know that location refers to the absolute location of places on Earth as well as the relative location of places to one another. They know that place refers to the describable physical and human characteristics of places. They understand that human/environment interactions refers to how people alter the physical environment and how it shapes their culture; movement refers to ways that people,

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Social Studies–History Standards products, and ideas travel on Earth; and, finally, that regions are areas that share some common characteristic such as governmental unit, language group, or landform type. Teachers use these five themes to organize the geographical ideas they teach their students. Teachers see the world in spatial terms. They understand how to use maps, globes, and other graphic tools and technologies to acquire, process, and report information from a spatial perspective. They create mental maps to put people, places, and environments into perspective, and employ maps and other spatial concepts in solving problems such as the factors a community should consider before deciding the best location for a school or hospital. These teachers understand that places have physical and cultural characteristics that can be described. They know that people help define regions and use those definitions to understand the way the world is organized. They understand that culture influences people’s perceptions of places and regions. Teachers understand the physical processes that shape Earth’s climate and topography, and they understand the characteristics and distributions of ecosystems on Earth’s surface. They also know the characteristics and the distribution of human populations across Earth’s surface, as well as the nature and complexity of their cultures and the ways that the populations have evolved through migration and continue to do so. They understand how geography shapes patterns of economic interdependence. They know the physical and political divisions of the United States and the world and the role those divisions have played in the cooperation and competition between various nations. They know that the physical and human systems that compose the world are connected and interact, and they understand the consequences of those interactions. They understand the workings of ecosystems and the

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patterns of ecoregions on Earth’s surface. They know the processes, patterns, and function of human settlements, as well as the conflicts and decisions that shape the political divisions of Earth’s surface. Accomplished teachers understand changes in the value, distribution, and importance of resources. They apply geography to interpret the past and the present and to plan for the future.

Political Science Accomplished teachers understand the importance of government in our lives. They understand the ways in which it organizes people and provides for the needs of the larger community. They know the competing ideas about the sources of political authority—such as divine right or the consent of the governed—as well as the different and competing ideas about the purposes of government, from the protection of individual rights to the promotion of the common good. These teachers also know the importance of the role of law in the American justice system: how it is designed to protect individuals from arbitrary actions on the part of the state and to promote fairness for all. Teachers also understand the various forms of government and the relative strengths and weaknesses of each. They know about limited forms of government, such as constitutional monarchies and constitutional democracies, and unlimited forms, such as dictatorships and totalitarian states. They understand the costs and benefits of government, including the ways in which all governments restrict freedom to a greater or lesser extent. They know how constitutions serve as descriptions and organizing principles for governments. They understand the alternative ways governments can be organized (e.g., federal systems, confederate systems, and unified systems), and the strengths of each, as well as how the powers

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are balanced—whether through a system of shared power, such as in the United States, or through parliamentary systems. Additionally, teachers know that governments are influenced by nongovernmental phenomena such as mass movements (e.g., universal suffrage in the United States, the nonviolent quest for independence in India led by Gandhi) and effective lobbying by grassroots organizations. They also understand how activities such as political patronage and gerrymandering affect the functioning of governments. Teachers are well-grounded in the history and workings of the American political system. They understand the historical foundations of the United States Constitution and of the major ideas that eventually found a home there. They know the essential ideas and purposes of the Constitution as stated in its preamble and can explain how the document gives government the power to fulfill the purposes for which it was established. They also know how the Constitution limits powers through a system of checks and balances and protects the rights of individuals through the early amendments known as the Bill of Rights. In addition, these teachers understand the principles that are embedded in and gave rise to the Constitution, such as equality before the law and a belief in pluralism and the common good, and the difficulty in defining them. They can trace the ways these values have evolved throughout the nation’s history and how they have been reflected in the amendments to the Constitution. They know that although people can agree on the importance of these values in the abstract, individuals and communities continue to challenge the ways in which the Constitution is applied and interpreted. They recognize the discrepancies between the ideals most Americans espouse and the realities of political and social life and how ideals have led the nation to confront such discrepancies (e.g., the Civil Rights movement). Teachers are aware of distinctive and unique aspects of American culture that

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provide opportunities and challenges to our system of government. They know the ambivalence Americans have toward power, as well as the value placed on individuality. They know the antipathy toward a rigid class system, the importance placed on equal opportunity, and the way in which both have interacted with the history of civil rights. They are also aware of other salient qualities of American life, such as the importance of education and the work ethic, the emphasis on volunteerism, the pivotal role of religious belief, and the pride Americans have in their country, and how these characteristics have contributed to the nature of society. They understand the importance of the nation’s diverse cultural traits and the opportunities and difficulties faced by a multicultural nation. They are also aware of the ways that such important characteristics as individual responsibility, civility, and civic-mindedness work to preserve and improve the American constitutional democracy. Teachers understand the organization of the federal government, including the roles it has in domestic and foreign affairs and how its work is financed through a system of taxes. They also know the ways state and local governments are organized, their functions, and the changing relationships between the federal government and state and local government. These teachers know the ways that the United States relates to the other nations of the world. They know the mechanisms of international relations, including diplomacy and treaties, and the ways that economic and military power and the threat of force support and complicate those relationships. They understand the purposes and functions of major international organizations, both governmental and nongovernmental, and the powers and responsibilities that the United States government and its leaders have to establish and maintain a foreign policy. Teachers understand the rights and responsibilities of citizens in the American

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Social Studies–History Standards political system and how citizens access those rights and participate in the system. They know that the rights of citizens as established in the Constitution are varied and broad, but carry with them important responsibilities. They know that participation in the system is key to maintaining these rights and that there are many ways in which citizens can and do contribute to society. They understand how citizens access the political process, the ways in which political parties and other organizations facilitate access and participation, and the role of the media in promoting political discourse. This kind of disciplinary thinking—including, for example, understanding the basic tools of political scientists, such as opinion polling— composes the core of accomplished political science teaching.

Integrating Curriculum Complex and challenging ideas are never fully understood through the tools and knowledge of a single discipline. Consequently, teachers accept the special challenge of helping students understand that some ideas cut across the disciplinary lines of social studies and history—including the behavioral sciences—as well as across other subject areas, such as science and language arts. For example, when helping students to understand the Spanish and Mexican influence in the Southwestern United States, they are sure to include a discussion of how the geography of North America contributed to the development of a distinctly different culture in the American West. Or, when inquiring with students into the social and ethical issues surrounding the public policy debate on genetic engineering, they help students make use of pertinent scientific information. They are aware of the special qualities of the arts and literature that are particularly useful in helping young people understand important

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concepts in social studies and history. If studying the Iroquois nation, for example, they might incorporate examples of the various ways the nation and individuals have been portrayed in novels and in painting. These teachers create their own crossdisciplinary studies and collaborate with colleagues in areas where their own knowledge base is limited. At the same time they avoid the pitfalls of superficial linkages or forced connections between disciplines.

Establishing Important and Challenging Goals As they design curriculum, accomplished teachers draw on broad understanding of social studies and history, special strengths in particular disciplines, and knowledge of the lively and compelling issues that can be found at the intersection of various disciplines to set important and challenging goals for their students. They take account of the large state and national objectives that have been elucidated for this field. They also consider their students’ interests, levels of development, and the particulars of the communities in which they live. However, without regard to the mix of students in the classroom, their standards and expectations remain high for all students; they know that through careful planning and imaginative assignments students can be engaged productively in the big ideas that characterize these fields. Though open to new perspectives and ideas, these teachers do not sway with the ideological winds, nor do they get carried away with the latest fad. They are clear about their purposes and have the good judgment to sort through the many, and often conflicting, demands and requests involved in educating students.

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Knowledge of Subject Matter

Reflections on Standard III:

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Advancing Student Learning

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he way teachers make decisions and implement their curriculum in a flexible, appropriate, and creative manner provides the most visible and, arguably, the most important demonstration of excellence in teaching.

The next three standards describe the ways teachers advance knowledge and understanding in their students and the important goals and purposes that guide teachers in their planning and instructional decision making.

Standard IV: Advancing Disciplinary Knowledge and Understanding Accomplished teachers have a repertoire of strategies and techniques that Accomplished Adolescence Young Adulthood/English Language of Arts teachers engage student interest inand and advance student understanding United systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners. States History, World History, Economics, Political Science, and Geography.

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eaching is more than just the dissemination of facts. Accomplished teachers of social studies and history use disciplinary and subject-matter knowledge as a springboard for presenting a world of questions and ideas to their students. They employ powerful strategies to motivate and stimulate their students, always keeping in mind the main goals for student learning. They know how to teach their subjects to students and can justify their decisions about what is essential for students to learn.

Helping Students Understand the Disciplines and Subject Matter An understanding of the field is the basis for learning in any area. Accomplished teachers have a repertoire of strategies to help students come to grips with the key concepts, issues, principles, facts, people, and movements that they need to understand within the social studies and history curricula. Teachers know the particular demands associated with the development of these concepts and skills and help students understand the ways of knowing and inquiring in each discipline. For

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example, they might provide students with a set of differing interpretations of the due process clause of the Constitution in order to help them understand the principle of habeas corpus. This activity would also give students the opportunity to see the way individuals participate over time in the interpretation and creation of law and policy. Or, when working with students to examine the needs of their community in a unit about local governance, a teacher might invite an urban planner to tour the neighborhood with students and discuss the factors that go into zoning decisions and the kind of development the area would like to have. Teachers help students learn the way historians form questions, garner evidence to support their hypothesis, and then present their evidence in the form of the stories that make up history. They provide students with the opportunity to pursue their own historical inquiry and present their own hypotheses and conclusions. These examples of classroom activities illustrate the ways teachers bring students into the work of the fields of social studies–history. Recognizing that a solid foundation of information is key to disciplinary and subjectmatter understanding, teachers teach students how to find, organize, and evaluate a wide

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Social Studies–History Standards variety of data, including information accessible through new technologies and data emerging from original student research. They work with students to employ data in various learning contexts, such as to support or refute a claim for the need for more prison space or to argue for or against intervention in an international dispute. Teachers also show students how to create their own data, giving them opportunities, for example, to map their own communities in order to identify the availability of services for older citizens or to gather information on the spending habits of classmates as part of a study of the effectiveness of advertising aimed at young people. While students are doing such work, teachers help them understand the importance and limitations of scholarship, teaching them that there are standards against which such work is measured and that despite safeguards, bias can creep into the writings of well-established scholars as well as students. Teachers assist students in developing critical habits of mind that allow them to make sense of their learning. They help students to find patterns, make generalizations, marshall evidence, and formulate arguments and opinions. They encourage students to apply theoretical constructs to ideas, events, and information uncovered in their studies and to test theories against the available evidence. In addition to developing disciplinary and subject-matter knowledge, teachers work with students to develop skills in speaking and writing and give students the opportunity to put their skills into practice through letter, essay, and report writing; public speaking and debate; discussions and presentations; and the writing of history. They model appropriate use of Standard English in their own speaking and writing. They call on their background in disciplines outside social studies–history, developing and extending students’ knowledge and skills in those areas as well. For example, they help students sharpen mathematical skills in working through a stock

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market simulation or develop their capacities for aesthetic interpretation while using a painting as an artifact in a history lesson. Teachers anticipate the misconceptions and confusion students are likely to have about different topics and act to avoid them, clarifying them when they occur, or taking advantage of their potential to illuminate an important concept. For example, in economics students often have a difficult time understanding the difference between deficit and debt, giving teachers the opportunity not only to clarify the terminology, but also to examine one of the overarching public issues of the day. Teachers take special care to correct geographical misconceptions arising from the preponderance of Mercator projection maps in printed materials and on television. Teachers also understand that scant substantive learning occurs when students are presented large amounts of seemingly unrelated information or when students memorize facts divorced from major themes, concepts, or principles. Consequently, they ground their teaching in themes especially relevant to young people, such as freedom, justice, and the individual’s responsibility to the country.

Selecting Worthwhile Topics for Study and Providing Students Opportunities to Decide Which Topics Are Worth Exploring Teachers establish challenging goals for student learning and performance geared to the needs and interests of their students. They develop activities that are inviting to students and that model some of the ways that professionals in these fields work, such as the ways in which historians analyze original source material to interpret the meaning of a particular society’s written laws or the methods a marketing consultant might use when advising

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a restaurant owner on selecting the location for a new franchise. They also select topics and questions that have special relevance for their particular student population. A middle school teacher in an exurban area might choose to focus on issues of urban sprawl when putting together a unit in geography. A high school teacher with a large number of new immigrants might develop lessons around the students’ countries of origin and the specific issues that prompted their migration. These teachers take care that their curriculum honestly reflects the diversity of groups that are part of the American experience. Teachers value student involvement in designing instructional activities. They know the importance of connecting learning to students’ heritages and cultures, and they work with their students to accomplish this goal and to achieve a broader understanding and appreciation of other societies. As teachers listen to, interpret, and assess student responses, they consistently give students opportunities to frame the work of the class or shape independent studies in which students are free to explore their own questions and interests and focus attention on defining their purpose and audience. They do so to foster student engagement and self-confidence, while constructing a curriculum that remains attentive to the larger goals they hold for students. As accomplished teachers, they are not constrained by the prescribed curriculum, though they do not overlook it either. Instead, as students’ needs dictate and as their particular circumstances present opportunities for learning, they incorporate related topics and problems that stretch students’ minds, extend their knowledge and understanding of the world, and ultimately enrich their education. They pose realistic and compelling dilemmas with which students can struggle, and help them frame, pose, and explore their own questions surrounding these dilemmas. They

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design activities that, wherever possible, have some real-world application. Students might, for example, prepare a household budget for a week, making decisions about how limited resources should be allocated in light of the needs of each family member. Teachers might ask students to defend a position that they are inclined to oppose. Along with introducing students to the historical interpretations of others, they encourage students to weigh the evidence, form their own hypotheses, and create interpretations of their own. These teachers also make a constant effort not to force their views on others; while working with students to evaluate the relative merits of their theories and interpretations, their goal is to promote the free exchange of ideas. At the same time, they speak out against antidemocratic values if they are accorded legitimacy by students. Teachers encourage students to combine ideas, themes, and knowledge from social studies and history and from other disciplines in order to explore important issues and address problems. They might have their students research the sources of nuclear waste and the hazards involved in its disposal and use that information to inform a discussion of potential disposal sites. Or they might have students examine a hospital bill and spend time interviewing doctors, insurance company representatives, and politicians to begin to understand the complicated issues surrounding health care reform. When students observe how seemingly disparate ideas interrelate, they are more likely to develop their own connections between and among concepts and theories and appreciate the world’s complexities. Teachers guide students in promising directions without taking over their work. They help them use what they already know to address new problems. Encouraging such independence helps students gain confidence that they can solve problems they have never before encountered. Such teachers develop students who challenge assumptions, initiate

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Social Studies–History Standards projects and activities, take risks, share insights, persist in their exploration of difficult material, and demonstrate a commitment to build meaningful understanding about the topics under consideration. Teachers also know the difference between shallow and substantive learning and have myriad ways of engaging students in the latter. In some instances these teachers deliberately create tasks that allow them to work alongside their students and model how to proceed when encountering unfamiliar ground. This may include joining students in gathering, processing, and synthesizing information.

Interdisciplinary Teaching Some teachers and some topics lend themselves to a disciplinary focus. Many teachers, particularly those who work with middle grades children and young adolescent students, work across the disciplines within and beyond social studies and history to organize their curriculum. A common approach for such teachers would be to use literature that has a historical theme—Mildred Taylor’s Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry, for example—as a touchstone for inquiry. Such teachers call upon a repertoire of strategies to arrange concepts and skills in ways that are compelling to students and to meet the objectives they have established for learning. Some teachers pose questions such as “How might it be different to be the first African American student to attend a newly integrated school?” Others might ask students to work together to identify pressing issues in their community and then use these questions to explore the social and economic history of a region. Still others may use an event from history such as the establishment of the Nineteenth Amendment as a starting point for a broader study of the political and social forces that shaped the destiny of American women. Middle-school teachers might have

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students create a database of statistical information to compare regions of the United States or the world. These and other crossdisciplinary organizing techniques allow teachers to help students understand that what they are learning has both depth and breadth. Teachers of students at all levels understand the importance of developing strong discussion skills in their students, and those who work with the youngest students recognize their special role in starting students down the road to this important mode of learning. Although all accomplished teachers involve students in projects that require active learning, teachers of younger students recognize that it may be particularly difficult for them to understand some of the more abstract concepts of social studies–history, and therefore make use of more simulations, games, project work, and other hands-on activities. Whereas older students may be able to explore the idea of supply and demand through discussion or by considering the effect of a natural disaster on a particular commodity, younger students may better understand this concept by having the opportunity to participate in a trading card game or by running their own store. And, though younger students might not be able to understand the nuances of the First Amendment, teachers can help them address free speech issues by, for example, carrying on discussions about how their families make decisions about what TV programs may be watched in their homes. When dealing with historical understandings, teachers are especially sensitive to issues of time, knowing that even with visual aids, understanding the relative distance of events is difficult for many young children. By anchoring instruction to things with which children are familiar—such as making a map of the classroom or school neighborhood—they effectively communicate abstract concepts to younger students.

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Advancing Disciplinary Knowledge and Understanding

Reflections on Standard IV:

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Standard V: Promoting Social Understanding Accomplished teachers promote in their students an understanding of how the social aspects of the human condition have evolved over time, the variAccomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/English Language Arts teachers ations in societies that occur in different physical environments and cultural systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners. settings, and the emerging trends that seem likely to shape the future.

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ccomplished social studies–history teachers situate learning in a social and cultural context that goes beyond mere facts and information. They recognize that the ideas and skills students are learning through individual study and in discussion with classmates are an important part of how young people will come to understand their society and the way it operates. They take advantage of the particular opportunities provided by their field to give students a rich and wide understanding of how societies operate and affect the individuals who live within them. Their classrooms are places where students begin to see the connections between the past and the communities they live in today.

systems of their local communities and use this information as a starting place as their students begin to put learning into a larger context. Teachers use their knowledge of how societies function to contextualize their students’ social studies and history learning and to help their students begin to understand that what they are learning can have immediate applicability. They provide students with the opportunity to use the knowledge they are building as a tool for understanding their own communities and others. Such understanding is a critical part of the development of civic competence.

Understanding How Societies Function

Appreciating the Variety of Cultures and Integrating and Applying Learning

Teachers have a solid grounding in how communities functioned in the ancient world, in recently extinct cultures, and in cultures that exist today. In each case they are knowledgeable about how families are structured; how the legal system functions; how work is organized; the place of religion and rituals; the importance of class and race; the state of gender relations; and the roles of education and the military. They understand how societies behave economically and how people govern their communities and nations. They know the ways in which values, ethics and ideals can help guide societies and their people. They also understand the social

Teachers understand that societies vary, depending on the cultural backgrounds and experiences of their members and on the physical environments that surround them. They are aware that the way a community views an institution, such as a school or the role of women in society, is affected by the community’s cultural values and history. They also recognize the importance that physical environment has in shaping culture. They understand that because societies and cultures evolve, their characteristics are often different today from what they were in the past and will be different in the future. They work with students to analyze the various

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Social Studies–History Standards economic, social, and cultural trends that have potential for shaping the future. They help students integrate and apply knowledge from a variety of disciplines to understand, analyze, and address problems surrounding societies and their people. The behavioral sciences, especially anthropology, sociology, and psychology, have particular usefulness in promoting the social understanding of students. Thus, teachers make use of these disciplines as they develop their curriculum. For example, many students are fascinated

with the kinds of discoveries cultural anthropologists have added to the understanding of ancient civilizations. As teachers help students come to understand the ways societies function, teachers seek to broaden the horizons of their students, moving them from concern about themselves to an awareness of the needs, views, and rights of others.

Reflections on Standard V:

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Promoting Social Understanding

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Standard VI: Developing Civic Competence AccomplishedAdolescence teachers develop in their students the knowledge, and Accomplished and Young Adulthood/English Language skills, Arts teachers attitudes necessary to be responsible citizensas ofindividual a constitutional systematically acquire knowledge of their students languagedemocracy. learners.

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ccomplished teachers work to develop involved, knowledgeable, and committed citizens. At the deepest level, these teachers are aware of the importance of the still-evolving democratic experiment in which Americans are engaged, of the fragility of that experiment, and of the critical role each citizen has in maintaining and nurturing the nation’s democratic institutions. The skills and expertise of these teachers are critical to the development of the active and responsible citizenry the country needs. Therefore, one of their preeminent goals is developing civic competence in the students they teach. Such teachers know that the democratic traditions in the country are maintained through a commitment by the people to fulfilling civic responsibility, participating in civil discourse, and monitoring the health of civic institutions. They help students understand the historical and cultural roots of the ideals that support the best interests of all, and they develop in students the dispositions needed to promote the healthy functioning of a democracy, such as civility, civic-mindedness, and acceptance of diversity.

Developing Civic Knowledge Teachers develop in their students the necessary knowledge, values, skills, and habits of mind to enable them to become effective citizens. They help students understand the democratic principles and purposes that undergird government institutions in the United States, emphasizing the way representative govern-

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ment works at the local, state, and national level. Teachers help students understand the history of democratic institutions and how they have evolved from, for example, a system that largely recognized the rights of white, male land owners to one that guaranteed all citizens access to the vote. They work with students to build their understanding of how governments in the United States are organized and structured and to teach them about the changes that have occurred in the relationship among the branches of the federal government and between the federal government and state and local governments. These teachers help students understand the processes of government and how they as citizens are part of the process: how laws originate, are passed, and are enforced; how decisions are made at various levels; and how the process responds to external influences. Their students come to understand the role of political parties, opinion polls, interest groups, and the media in the creation of public policy. They also help students understand the rights granted under the Constitution, the Bill of Rights, and state and local laws, as well as under international laws such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Geneva Convention. Their students learn how citizens secure and protect these rights, and they begin to appreciate the significance of the right to vote and understand the workings and dynamics of the electoral process, including the evergrowing importance of the media in the nation’s public life. In the classes of these teachers, students also examine the judicial

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Social Studies–History Standards system and how it interprets laws in order to protect the minority from the majority, the responsibility citizens have to respect legitimate authority, and the individual’s right to dissent from wrongful laws and arbitrary authority.

Developing Civic Virtue and Civic Participation Teachers work with students to become effective participants in their communities. They understand that although activities such as voting are important responsibilities, effective engagement in one’s community also involves other kinds of decision making and participation. Therefore, urging students to pull the lever on election day is necessary, but insufficient. Teachers model and practice with students the kinds of reasoned decision making that conscientious citizens are called upon to do, encouraging students to consider their own beliefs, insights, and knowledge base to guide their thinking. Teachers help students see that the kinds of judgments they are called upon to make—such as whether to support an anti-tax referendum—do not take place in isolation from other persistent public policy issues, nor do they exist in an ethical vacuum. They place before students real cases in which two or more legitimate social goals are in conflict so that students can begin to appreciate that multiple parties in many debates may each be arguing responsible and principled positions. By doing so, teachers seek to ensure that when students cast ballots or raise their hands to be counted, they do so from an informed base or stance and that they have considered well the issues at stake, rather than acted out of blind passion or as a result of simple calculation or manipulation. Teachers also recognize the critical importance of civil public discourse in the civic life of the nation and work with students to practice and model the skills necessary to be effective participants in such

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public conversations. They know the importance of debate and conversation in adding ideas to the discussion as well as in enhancing those ideas and suggesting alternative perspectives. They encourage students to consult a variety of sources for information about the topic at hand. They teach students to construct informed positions on public issues, to express their positions orally and in writing, and to justify their positions with reasoned arguments. They value and model listening to other points of view, model strong interpersonal skills, and provide students with ample opportunities to work collaboratively and to debate issues with their peers and others. They allow students to see that even impassioned public discourse need not be acrimonious or mean-spirited and that each individual’s say is as important as the changing of anyone’s mind. Not all citizens agree with their governments, nor do the public or private institutions of a country or community always act in the best interest of everyone. Teachers help students understand the role of dissent and civil disobedience in the life of the community. They allow students to see the variety of ways people have expressed dissent and dissatisfaction, as well as the consequences of such actions on the individual protestor, how individuals and groups have made an impact on law and policy through their protests (e.g., the 1960s antiwar movement); and the ongoing presence of dissent in public discourse. Teachers know that there are many ways to be involved in one’s community and work with students to broaden their definition of community beyond politics per se to include social clubs, religious groups, community action organizations, and any of the many other groups that are part of the nation’s civic fabric. Their examples of community participation include activities such as volunteer work, door-to-door canvassing, writing letters to the editor, and serving on or testifying before advisory boards and committees. In

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Developing Civic Competence

addition to seeing the broader community in action and actively participating where possible, students are involved in the governance of these teachers’ classrooms, helping to develop rules and expectations. Such teachers also find ways for their students to become involved in the governance of the school community. Their teaching presents for students a variety of opportunities for leadership and participation. Accomplished teachers know that it is important for people to feel a sense of personal responsibility toward their communities and that apathy and neglect are among the greatest enemies of any democratic society. They know that they confront in their students a fair amount of cynicism and resentment

against what students perceive as irrelevance, unfairness, or abuse on the part of the government and its representatives. Therefore, they work hard to counter such cynicism and to help students understand that individuals do make a difference in their schools and their communities, that they have opinions that will be listened to and matter, and, finally, that the government of a democratic society is of their making. Their ultimate goal is for students to see that they can make a difference in their schools, their communities, their nation, and the world.

Reflections on Standard VI:

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Supporting Student Learning

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he most able teachers with the best intentions can be foiled by a poor classroom environment or the selection of weak or inappropriate materials. The standards that follow describe the other important decisions, actions, activities, and frames of mind that support and contribute to the practice of

accomplished teachers. These include the ways these teachers assess the progress of their students and reflect on their own professionalism, as well as the way they work with others, including parents and colleagues, to create intellectually lively and spirited classrooms that support their learning goals.

Standard VII: Instructional Resources Accomplished teachers select, adapt, and create rich and varied resources

Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/English Language Arts teachers for social studies and history and use them productively. systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners.

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ccomplished teachers of social studies and history understand the difference quality instructional resources can make in their teaching and are constantly seeking to build a rich array of resources that will enable them to improve student learning. These teachers know that resources mean more than just printed matter and look beyond the available textbooks to consider how a variety of people and materials—including electronic media—might be enlisted to their benefit. They are aware of how just the right document, artifact, or illustration can powerfully illuminate an important idea for students.

Developing a Diverse Resource Base Teachers select, adapt, and create materials to meet the differing needs and abilities of their students, including those with exceptional needs. They are resourceful and creative in locating or developing alternative resources. They often blend materials from a variety of sources to serve their broad curricular objectives.

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Teachers develop a deep and rich base of resources, choosing from written materials, electronic media, artifacts, and other visual aids. They are aware that technological resources are important sources of information as well as work management tools for their students. Technology also promotes active learning and can facilitate student discussions in peer groups. Teachers seek to expose their students to the broad assortment of resources, including primary and secondary sources, artifacts, video presentations, on-line services, CD-ROMs, and community resources, among others. Such resources serve to make their students more capable and independent learners. Unfortunately, some teachers find themselves in situations where resources are meager and funds are limited. Such teachers distinguish themselves by making the most of what they have and using their resourcefulness to locate additional resources.

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Social Studies–History Standards Choosing Instructional Resources Wisely To meet their instructional goals and to equip students better for a rapidly changing world, teachers are adept at selecting high-quality materials. They use these materials appropriately and creatively, employing them as necessary to present information or provide a useful experience. They are careful to choose from materials that are academically sound, rejecting flashy and facile items of little substance. They judiciously evaluate materials for quality and suitability, choosing those most appropriate to their student population and to the particular needs of individual students. They vary their resources in order to give students broad exposure to different types of information sources, as well as to capture different ways that students learn. They locate resources that are diverse along several dimensions, including form, style, theme, gender appeal and awareness, cultural background, level of difficulty, and intergenerational perspective. They also help students learn to locate and select high-quality materials for their own learning.

Viewing Colleagues and the Community as Important Resources To enrich the learning experience, teachers enlist the knowledge and expertise of their colleagues. They appreciate their fellow faculty members’ skills and know where they best complement their own. Their colleagues may share resources, serve as special consultants in specific areas of expertise, or work with them in planning and conducting interdisciplinary studies. They also encourage their students to view their peers and parents as valuable resources. These teachers extend their classroom beyond the school. They see their local community as an important resource and urge their students to do the same. They actively recruit families, community members, agencies, and businesses to become involved in their program, and seek meaningful ways for them to contribute to student learning and the overall goals of the school.

Reflections on Standard VII:

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Instructional Resources

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Standard VIII: Learning Environments Accomplished teachers create and foster for students dynamic learning enviAccomplished Adolescence by andtrust, Young Adulthood/English Language Arts teachers ronments characterized equity, risk-taking, independence, and systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners. collaboration.

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upportive, congenial, and purposeful learning environments, where students are intellectually challenged and encouraged to learn and grow, rest on the ability of teachers to create an atmosphere in which students feel welcomed, valued, and respected. Accomplished social studies–history teachers create such environments by demonstrating an interest in their students’ ideas, activities, lives, and work, and by creating a physically, emotionally, and intellectually safe environment where students feel empowered, where intellectual adventurousness is encouraged, and where students make decisions, knowing they belong and that their ideas matter. Students know that the classroom is a place where their participation is welcomed and that the teacher cares about them as individuals. They know that their investigations will sometimes reach dead ends, that promising hypotheses will sometimes prove false, and that testing new ideas and alternative theories is critical to gaining knowledge and building understanding. In such environments, students become partners with their teachers in establishing and maintaining a community of learners.

Providing an Orderly, Open, and Democratic Learning Environment Teachers value persistence, inquisitiveness, and good humor. They model these behaviors, refuse to accept complacency, and share their passion for social studies and history with their students. They foster in

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their students a love of learning and demonstrate, through their responses to student accomplishment and through the genuine interest and excitement they have about seeing students achieve, the joy of learning for learning’s sake. They establish a productive, open, and enriching learning environment characterized by secure and active students who function smoothly and confidently as they interact and respond to information and each other. They enlist a repertoire of strategies, skills, and procedures to develop and maintain such an environment. They combine knowledge and careful preparation to keep students engaged in productive activities, and they use democratic processes to create classroom rules and expectations for behavior. By gaining students’ trust and confidence, they increase the odds that the students in their classroom will take responsibility for their behavior and accept the rules of the classroom community. This allows teachers to direct their attention and effort to positive interactions and learning rather than dealing with discord and disruption. Lessons are marked by such smoothness, clarity, and coherence that necessary shifts in emphasis or approach occur with such elegance that they are barely noticed. Classroom management seems almost effortless, transitions flow easily, few disruptions mar the focus on learning, and children and teacher work together harmoniously. At the same time, these teachers know that very often what looks like chaos is really the excitement of significant learning. They manage such environments, maintaining

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Social Studies–History Standards control without squelching the enthusiasm. They notice most classroom events, quickly interpret their instructional or social importance, and respond efficiently when the potential for or when actual disruption occurs. Teachers use principled judgment when confronted with ethical dilemmas in their relationships with students. For example, when approached by a student for help in preparing an essay for a competition or for a college application, they carefully avoid overcoaching, making sure that all work is the student’s own. They demonstrate virtues that students might emulate, such as honesty, responsibility, trust, respect, fairness, and compassion.

Involving All Students in Classroom Activities Teachers involve all students in active classroom participation by finding ways to engage each student and by permitting no one to disappear. Student voices predominate in their classrooms: These teachers have a strong interest in fostering student initiative and independence but are careful that no one monopolizes class time. They provide students choices among learning and performance options, accommodating as wide a variety of expression and response as possible and recognizing a range of accomplishments and positive behaviors. An instructional climate that upholds the dignity of students requires skill, planning, flexibility, judgment, and discretion. These teachers have such attributes and use them in ways that demonstrate both self-confidence and respect for their students. They involve students in setting clear expectations for classroom behavior and uphold these expectations consistently. Their respect for their students’ thoughts and judgments, both in and out of the classroom, fosters self-worth and individual dignity and thus instills in

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students the idea that the work in which they are engaged is important and significant. When students with exceptional needs are part of the student body, teachers adapt their practice and classroom routines as needed and work collaboratively with specialists, when available and appropriate, to integrate such students fully into the life of the class. If specialized teaching techniques, equipment, materials, or interpreters are necessary, teachers work within their school communities to locate such resources and see that they are used effectively and, if necessary, insist that they be provided.

Facilitating Social Development and Encouraging the Understanding of Different Points of View Teachers are concerned with their students’ self-esteem and aspirations, with the development of character, and with the ability of their students to function well as part of a group. Consequently, they address the needs for their students to develop as socially competent individuals in both the content of their teaching and in the methods they use. Teachers exploit opportunities to guide students as they begin to make decisions about their own lives. The study of history, for example, provides numerous and frequent opportunities for teachers to identify role models for students. As teachers choose curriculum and develop materials for use in their classes, they seek opportunities to address such virtues as personal responsibility, compassion, and tolerance. They provide students with opportunities to think about and apply these traits to their own lives. In establishing the classroom climate, teachers take into consideration the developmental levels of their students and take advantage of the characteristics of students at

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Learning Environments

each level to create a congenial and productive workplace. Middle childhood teachers build on the openness of their students to nurture group working skills and to encourage intellectual risk taking. Teachers of early adolescents find opportunities to make constructive use of newly formed student peer relationships in discussions and other classroom activities. Teachers of adolescents and young adults utilize the multiple perspectives developing at this age level to broaden and deepen the understanding of the topics under consideration. Teachers develop in students the skills needed to work efficiently as part of a team. They model and teach the skills necessary to participate in group processes and provide ample opportunities for students to practice these skills in the course of their learning. In their teaching and in all classroom activities, they value and reward sportsmanship, sharing, and fair play. They provide and encourage a variety of perspectives on all issues and work hard to model and reward appropriate social behavior. Teachers have a repertoire of activities and teaching strategies to encourage the virtues of tolerance and open-mindedness. They raise questions that help students recognize their individual prejudices and stereotypes and that serve to neutralize polarizing and acrimonious disputes. A healthy, stimulating, and supportive learning environment encourages the open expression of ideas and the search for greater understanding and knowledge. At the same time, teachers recognize that some views are morally repugnant and work against democratic principles. They also understand that young people sometimes find themselves in settings where abusive language, put downs, and bigotry are accepted and where prejudice and disrespect exist. These teachers actively counter such views, often drawing analogies to events from history or the news to develop their ideas and make students aware of the damage they can cause to the social fabric of the school and the larger society.

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Teachers also foster the social development of their students by encouraging interactions that show concern for others, by dealing constructively with inappropriate behavior, and by appreciating humor and using it appropriately. They create for all students, including those with special needs, a community that ensures their physical safety and is secure socially as well as intellectually. In these and other ways, they foster democratic values in the classroom.

Encouraging Inquisitiveness and Persistence in Learning While working to develop a habit of inquisitiveness in their students, teachers also understand that sometimes students face frustrations and dead ends. They instill in their students the idea that learning can be difficult; that experimentation is essential; that people learn from false starts and failures; that recognizing mistakes is as important as noticing successes; and that grasping a subject fully requires recognizing its complexity. They are aware that there are better and worse ways to offer encouragement and constructive criticism. They also understand that progress and accomplishment are key components to their students’ feelings of self-worth. These characteristics contribute to learning environments that engage students, recognize individual differences, encourage choice and expression, and foster inquiry and hard work. The classrooms of accomplished teachers are environments where students are provided opportunities to acquire firsthand knowledge, gather information, present findings or products, and enhance the learning experiences of their classmates.

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Social Studies–History Standards Reflections on Standard VIII:

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Standard IX: Assessment Accomplished teachers employ a variety of assessment methods to obtain Accomplished Adolescence Young Adulthood/English Language Artsassist teachers useful information about and student learning and development and systematically acquire knowledge their students as individual language learners. students in reflecting on their of own progress.

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auging student progress and understanding lies at the heart of student-centered teaching. Consequently, regular observation and assessment of students are essential guides to short-term and long-term decision making. Teachers assess students on an ongoing basis and are adept at using multiple evaluation methods to read and interpret student performance and work. The information they gather on the progress of individuals and on the class as a whole allows them to evaluate the relative success of their instructional strategies and serves as a guide for improving practice in order to improve student learning.

Employing a Variety of Assessment Methodologies Teachers establish clear criteria, which they use to assess student achievement. They understand the advantages and limitations of various assessment techniques, both formal and informal, and seek good matches among methods of assessment, instructional goals, and students’ abilities, considering the relative strengths and weaknesses of the procedures, as well as the timing, focus, and purpose of the evaluation. Because they know that students have skills that will not emerge in certain settings or during the course of a single assessment, they do not rely on only one method of evaluation. Their knowledge extends to creating their own tools for assessment, such as portfolios, videotapes, demonstrations, performances, and exhibitions.

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Teachers ask incisive questions during group discussion to assess how well students understand the central ideas being considered, and they talk individually with students who are working independently. They observe students working in small groups and in the field. They use such evidence as a part of their evaluation of students’ growth and development.

Assessing for a Variety of Purposes Assessments are used to gain perspective on each student’s ability to apply knowledge to real situations and to make connections among various forms of knowledge. Teachers monitor each student’s ability to evaluate evidence; readiness to grasp new ideas, theories, and concepts; ability to connect and accept various forms of knowledge; and awareness of the complexities of the world. These teachers use assessment that enhances learning, requiring, for example, students to synthesize or analyze disparate ideas or apply familiar skills to unfamiliar materials. They gauge each student’s ability to ask good questions, challenge assumptions, take risks, and initiate projects and activities. They also assess the depth of each student’s interest in and engagement with the material and the student’s willingness and ability to share insights. They assess classroom climate by monitoring interactions of various kinds or through observation, discussion, and the use of such tools as surveys or inventories. They examine

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Social Studies–History Standards the affective and expressive qualities of each student’s work in order to assess both its quality and the student’s social and emotional growth, noting how the work reflects peer interactions and personal development.

Helping Students Become Adept at Self-Assessment Teachers help students assess their own progress. They clearly communicate their expectations for student learning so that each student can judge how personal work and effort meet those expectations. These teachers recognize the long-term importance of young people assuming responsibility for their own learning; therefore, they encourage all students to set high personal goals for themselves and teach them how to evaluate their own personal progress toward these goals. They also engage students in assessing the work of their peers, which can provide them with fresh perspectives on their own work.

Providing Substantive Feedback to Each Student Teachers provide constructive feedback to each student. They know that well-stated and appropriate praise can boost a student’s selfesteem and confidence, so they look for ways to celebrate each student’s accomplishments. When providing correction, they do so in a manner that does not diminish the student’s sense of self-worth. They make sure that each student realizes that a failure to understand need only be temporary and that the remedy may be a different approach, not resignation or acceptance of low performance. They help students learn to recognize their own accomplishments. These teachers draw on their knowledge of the subject to determine where misconceptions and gaps in a student’s knowledge may have occurred, and they work with each student to determine a course of action for improvement that focuses on a manageable number of areas. They use the results of informal and formal assessments to help students understand their strengths and weaknesses and to encourage each student’s continual commitment to learning.

Reflections on Standard IX:

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Assessment

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Standard X: Reflection Accomplished teachers reflect on their practice, on students’ performance, Accomplished Adolescence Arts teachers and on developments in and theirYoung field Adulthood/English to steadily extendLanguage their knowledge, systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners. improve their teaching, and refine their philosophy of education.

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ccomplished teachers consider reflection on their practice central to their responsibilities as professionals. They continually extend their knowledge, improve their technique, and refine their philosophy of education. They regularly examine their strengths and weaknesses and employ that knowledge in their planning. They analyze the relative merits of both older and newer pedagogical approaches and judge their appropriateness for their own particular circumstances. Teachers regularly engage in the process of professional growth. They are motivated by the rapid change they see around them in their students, their academic disciplines, and educational research literature and by their desire to equip students for an evolving future. They know that teachers who stand still are, in fact, moving rapidly backward. Thus, in their quest for self-renewal, accomplished teachers interact with other professionals, explore new resources, study the professional literature, or participate in advanced education programs. Such teachers distinguish themselves by their capacity for ongoing, dispassionate self-examination, their openness to innovation, their willingness to experiment with new pedagogical approaches, and their readiness to change in order to strengthen their teaching.

sources in their quest to improve their practice. Conversations with students about the quality, climate, and interactions in class provide them with insight and direction. They carefully analyze input received from formal and informal conferences with parents, guardians, students, and others. These observations and discussions influence teachers as they reflect on their planning, monitoring, assessment, and instructional techniques. For accomplished teachers, every class and every activity provide opportunities for reflection and improvement. When things go well, they think about why the class succeeded and how to adapt the lessons learned to other classes. When things go poorly, they reflect on how to avoid such mishaps in the future. As they assess the work in progress and the final products of their students, these teachers assess themselves as well. On a regular basis, teachers seek advice from colleagues. These interactions occur through discussions, in-class observation of their own teaching, and personal observation of others’ practice. These observations and discussions shape their decisions about if, when, and how their practice should change, and create a predisposition to abandon less effective practices and replace them with more promising approaches.

Evaluating Results and Seeking Input Systematically from a Variety of Sources

Reflecting On One’s Own Point of View

Teachers seek information, assistance, and ideas about their practice from a variety of

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Accomplished teachers consider the effects of their own cultural background, biases, values, and personal experiences on their teaching. They are alert to their own philosophical

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Social Studies–History Standards filters and take these into account when dealing with students whose background, beliefs, or values may differ significantly from their own. They work carefully through such conflicts and treat each student fairly.

Continually Refining Practice through Study and Self-Examination Teachers stay abreast of current research, trends, and information through activities such as reading professional journals, actively participating in related professional organizations, doing graduate coursework, observing master teachers, and collaborating with colleagues and other professionals. They keep abreast of significant developments, new findings, and debates in their field. They know that such efforts are essential in the continually shifting worlds of social studies and history, professions that steadily rethink, reinvent, and debate the many pedagogical and disciplinary issues that have curricular implications. These teachers consider the prevailing research findings about learning and intelligence and are aware of their limitations. They select from theories, emerging practices, current debates, and promising research findings those that could improve their teaching. They understand the major controversies in their field and know where they stand on the issues. Such teachers have cogent reasons for what they do, reasons that can be explained clearly to students,

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parents, guardians, colleagues, administrators, and school board members. Teachers take responsibility for their own professional growth. They explore topics in which they may have limited expertise and experiment with alternative materials, approaches, and instructional strategies. This personal study provides support for the instructional decisions they make and for their ability to articulate cogently a rationale for their actions. It also contributes to their consistent ability to be aggressive in seeking solutions to issues and problems in their practice. Accomplished teachers participate in a wide range of reflective practices. They might keep a journal of how their own personal biases affect their teaching or conduct action or ethnographic research in their classrooms. They might collaborate with education researchers to examine their practice critically. Such reflection reinforces their creativity, stimulates their personal growth, and enhances their professionalism. They are models of the educated individual, regularly sharpening their judgment, expanding their repertoire of teaching methods, and deepening their knowledge base. They exemplify high ethical ideals and embrace the highest professional standards in assessing their practice. Ultimately, self-reflection contributes to teachers’ depth of knowledge and skill and adds dignity to their practice.

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Reflection

Reflections on Standard X:

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Standard XI: Family Partnerships Accomplished teachers understand and value the distinctive role of parents Accomplished Adolescence and Youngseek Adulthood/English Language Arts partteachers and guardians, and they continually opportunities to build strong systematically acquire nerships with them.knowledge of their students as individual language learners.

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amilies can be teachers’ strongest allies in the education of young people. Accomplished teachers understand and value the distinctive role of parents and guardians, and continually seek opportunities to build strong partnerships with them. They welcome family participation in school activities and take the initiative in inviting parents to become a part of the life of the school. Teachers know their role with families is more than just providing information. Consequently, they clearly signal through word and deed the importance of families as partners with the school in their children’s education. They do so by working to create a sense of community between the school and students’ homes and by making clear the mutual interest they share with families in seeing the young people in their charge succeed.

Gaining Support through Active Family Involvement Regular interaction with parents helps accomplished teachers establish an invaluable rapport with families. It also holds the promise of stimulating family support for and involvement in their children’s education. Teachers actively and creatively seek to involve parents and guardians in every aspect of the educational process. They encourage parents to attend conferences and invite them to special events, and in their curriculum planning they include ways for families to be involved in their children’s learning. They help establish avenues for family input and involvement in the development of school improvement

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plans, keep parents informed of these avenues, and encourage them to participate.

Capitalizing On Parents’ and Guardians’ Insight Teachers recognize that parents and guardians have experiences and insights that can enrich the quality of education for their students, and they seek ways to take advantage of these experiences and insights. They listen actively to the stories parents share about their children’s home lives, taking special note of talents, strengths, and abilities that might not have appeared in the school setting and that could help further the educational process. They see collaboration with parents as an essential tool in providing students with the support and motivation they need. Learning about a family’s background and culture helps teachers gain insight into parents’ expectations and aspirations for their children. Such understanding of children’s lives outside of school is vital in tailoring curriculum and instruction within the school.

Facilitating the Access of All Families Teachers are aware that not all families are able or willing to get closely involved with their children’s schooling. Some parents have had difficult previous relationships with schools, either through their children or in their own upbringing. Still others embrace belief systems or hold values that may conflict with those of the teacher or the

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Social Studies–History Standards community as a whole. The accomplished teacher seeks common ground with such parents, attempting to build a relationship that will best serve students’ interests. Other families are in crisis or flux. There may be economic or health problems, or the family may be in the process of reconfiguring itself through divorce, marriage, death, or the addition of new members. Teachers seek to accommodate the needs of these parents as well, scheduling conferences at convenient times or sometimes conducting home visits to discuss a child’s progress. Also, because school may be the place where children in such families seek refuge and assistance, teachers work with other school personnel, such as counselors, administrators, and other teachers, to bridge the gap between the child and the family and provide the support that is needed. Teachers extend the definition of family to cover all those who have an interest in and support the child. They are aware that many children are cared for and supported by individuals who are not their biological or legal parents; therefore, their goal is to make sure that pertinent information about the student’s performance at school reaches the appropriate people. They also know which of their families need special assistance overcoming language or cultural barriers in communicating with the school, and seek the resources to bridge such barriers in the form of interpreters, translated reports, and other adaptations.

Cultivating Families’ Interest in Supporting Their Children’s Education Teachers regularly communicate with families about their children’s accomplishments, successes, and needs for improvement, including the means for achieving higher goals, and they attempt to respond thoughtfully to families’ concerns. They interpret and discuss students’ work, report cards, and test scores clearly and provide parents with an accurate portrait of their children’s progress. They search for ways to share the school’s objectives and expectations for its students, as well as the reasons for group or individual assignments. Teachers offer parents suggestions on how to help their children develop good learning habits and study skills, complete homework, set goals, and improve performance. They assist parents by serving as advocates for students within the school, discussing course selection and consequences, including the importance of planning for the student’s next level of education.

Reflections on Standard XI:

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Family Partnerships

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Standard XII: Professional Contributions Accomplished teachers regularly work with others to foster the growth and

Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/English Language Arts teachers development of their colleagues, their school, and their field. systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners.

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eachers define their responsibilities as professionals to include a commitment to the continuing growth and development of their colleagues, their school, and their field. They see themselves as members of a larger learning community with responsibilities that extend beyond the classroom, including a responsibility to shape a healthy, professional culture in their school. Consequently, they can be found serving as peer coaches to experienced colleagues and mentors to student teachers or new teachers; working with colleagues to design, improve, and evaluate programs or staff-development plans; or providing leadership information to other teachers on ways to involve parents in their children’s education. Or they might make presentations at professional meetings; serve on education policy committees or councils; or collaborate with educators from colleges, universities, or other institutions on pilot programs or action research projects. Accomplished teachers collaborate in a wide range of creative and professionally stimulating ways.

Contributing to the Advancement of the Profession Teachers regularly contribute to the improvement of social studies and history education. Some present at professional conferences and advocate for social studies and history before noneducational groups. Others write articles for journals, newspapers, or professional publications. To benefit their programs and

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the field, they may acquire grants or initiate professional development activities. Some choose to serve on task forces and committees at state, regional, and national levels, while others work with university faculty and students to improve social studies and history education.

Involving Themselves in Curricular Decisions Teachers challenge ideas, requirements, curricular assumptions, and other factors that may limit teaching effectiveness, school quality, and student learning. They do so in ways that have a positive impact on the learning community. They know how and when to question convention, tradition, and innovation in the search for practices that will help all children succeed. When participating in decision making that concerns students, they serve as strong advocates for what is best for the children. They also actively influence professional norms in the school, encouraging an attitude of experimentation, collaboration, and professionalism among their colleagues, as they work to establish and sustain a community of learners.

Collaborating with Colleagues Accomplished teachers value collaboration with colleagues as a means of contributing to the intellectual life of the school, strengthening instructional strategies and practices, and

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Social Studies–History Standards designing and implementing new programs. Skilled at working harmoniously and effectively with professional colleagues, they initiate informal discussions with them, observe them at work, and, in turn, invite colleagues to observe them in class. They may also serve as a collaborative team member—either as part of an instructional group or as part of a planning and decision-making unit. Some may choose to take on the role of mentor to a new or preservice teacher. They take this responsibility seriously because they understand that

involvement with peers is a means of improving their own effectiveness as teachers, expanding their knowledge of young people, deepening their understanding of how their field relates to others, and contributing to the knowledge and skills of other teachers and the improvement of education.

Reflections on Standard XII:

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Professional Contributions

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Epilogue

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he 12 standards in this report represent a professional consensus on the characteristics of accomplished practice and provide a profile of the accomplished social studies–history teacher. Although the standards are challenging, they are upheld every day by teachers like the ones described in these pages, who inspire and instruct the nation’s youth and lead their profession. By publishing this document and offering National Board Certification to social studies–history educators, NBPTS aims to affirm the practice of the many teachers who meet these standards and challenge others to strive to meet them. Moreover, NBPTS hopes to bring increased attention to the professionalism and expertise of accomplished social studies–history educators and in so doing, pave the way for greater professional respect and opportunity for these essential members of the teaching community. In addition to being a stimulus for self-reflection on the part of teachers at all levels of performance, Social Studies–History Standards is intended to be a catalyst for discussion among administrators, staff developers, and others in the education community about accomplished practice in this field. If these standards can advance the conversation about accomplished teaching, they will provide an important step toward the NBPTS goal of improving student learning in our nation’s schools.

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Middle Childhood/ Social Studies–History Standards Committee Jeanne L. Jusaitis—Chair Sixth-Grade Teacher Cherry Valley School Petaluma, California

Doris Morris Fifth-Grade Teacher Warner School Wilmington, Delaware

Jesus Garcia—Vice Chair Professor Department of Curriculum and Instruction University of Illinois Champaign, Illinois

Carol L. Pancho-Ash Second–Third-Grade Teacher Peralta Year Round School Oakland, California

Rebecca S. Anderson Fourth-Grade Teacher Forest Glen Elementary School Glen Ellyn, Illinois Joy Hakim Author, A History of Us Virginia Beach, Virginia Mary Ann Jackson Lead Teacher Central Fairmont Elementary School Cincinnati, Ohio

Robert S. Stern Third-Grade Teacher Piney Grove Elementary School Kernersville, North Carolina Suzanne Wilson Associate Professor College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan George H. Wood Principal Federal Hocking High School Stewart, Ohio

Kerry Jon Juntunen Sixth-Grade Teacher Wrenshall Elementary School Wrenshall, Minnesota

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Early Adolescence/ Social Studies–History Standards Committee Peggy Allan—Chair Social Studies/Language Arts Gifted Teacher Greenville Junior High School Greenville, Illinois

Roberta A. Logan Social Studies Teacher Martin Luther King, Jr., Middle School Boston, Massachusetts

David E. Harris—Vice Chair Consultant for Social Studies Education Oakland Schools Waterford, Michigan

Jody Smothers Marcello Social Studies Teacher Blatchley Middle School Sitka, Alaska

Linda Biemer Dean School of Education and Human Development Binghamton University Binghamton, New York

Richard G. Moulden Social Studies and Language Arts Teacher Chinook Middle School Bellevue, Washington

Patrick L. Daly American History Professor Henry Ford Community College Dearborn, Michigan James R. Giese Executive Director Social Science Education Consortium Boulder, Colorado Robert L. Harris, Jr. Associate Professor Afro-American History Africana Studies & Research Center Cornell University Ithaca, New York

Michael C. Scullion Social Studies Teacher Bret Harte Middle School San Jose, California Judith Torney-Purta Professor and Director of Graduate Studies Department of Human Development University of Maryland College Park, Maryland Ann F. Wiener Teacher and Director Crossroads School New York, New York

Rita Duarte Herrera Teacher and Consultant for California International Studies Project and Chapter I Resource Teacher for Alum Rock Union School District School of Education Stanford University Stanford, California

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Adolescence and Young Adulthood/ Social Studies–History Standards Committee Earl P. Bell—Chair Chair, History Department University of Chicago Laboratory Schools Chicago, Illinois Joseph J. Onosko—Vice Chair Assistant Professor Department of Education University of New Hampshire Durham, New Hampshire Marjorie Wall Bingham (retired) History Teacher St. Louis Park High School St. Louis Park, Minnesota Ann Cook History Teacher and Co-Director Urban Academy New York, New York Howard Dodson Executive Director Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture New York, New York Carl F. Kaestle Professor of Education, History and Policy Department of Education Brown University Providence, Rhode Island

Phillip Osuna (deceased) History Teacher and Social Studies Department Chair West Mesa High School Albuquerque, New Mexico Peter N. Stearns Dean, College of Humanities and Social Studies and the Heinz Professor of History Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Paul K. Stuewe Social Studies Teacher and Department Chair Lawrence High School Lawrence, Kansas Mary Jo Thomas History Teacher South Eugene High School Eugene, Oregon Ruben Zepeda II Advisor Office of Language Acquisition and Bilingual Development Los Angeles Unified School District Los Angeles, California

Stanley W. Murphy History Teacher and Social Studies Department Chair San Diego High School San Diego, California

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Acknowledgments

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he development of these standards for National Board Certification of social studies–history teachers represents a singular achievement, marking the first time educators from history and the social sciences have come together to forge a professional consensus about the critical aspects of accomplished practice in this field. The standards are the product of invention by the Social Studies–History Standards Committees and the many people who worked with the committees to craft them, including the NBPTS Board of Directors and its Certification Standards Working Group (later the Standards and Professional Development Working Group), which provided the process with careful guidance, helpful criticism, and much encouragement. The committee members succeeded in creating advanced teaching standards that will speak clearly and powerfully to prospective candidates for National Board Certification, to the social studies–history community, to the larger education community, and to the public. The National Board is most appreciative of the committee’s work. Many individuals and institutions contributed to this effort. Teachers and other scholars, administrators, state and local officials, education association leaders, and others from across the country critically reviewed draft standards, provided sound advice about how to strengthen the standards, and helped position the standards so that they might complement other initiatives designed to advance practice in this field. A variety of people provided the National Board with caring, intelligent, and imaginative counsel, and several deserve special thanks. The members of the three Social Studies–History Standards Committees, a group of exceptionally dedicated, creative, and industrious professionals, explored their deep experiences to yield this new vision of accomplished practice. They were ably led by Jeanne Jusaitis, Peggy Allan, Earl Bell, Jesus Garcia, David Harris, and Joseph Onosko, who kept the teacher’s perspective in the forefront and helped forge a consensus around large principles when lesser solutions were also available. Joseph Hieu, Susan Lloyd, Robert Lynch, Norma Silva-Quinn, Joseph Gotchy, and Martin Gary Blumenstein, the Board’s liaisons to these committees, made important contributions to advancing and uplifting the debate across a range of critical issues. Judith White energetically worked at organizing and facilitating the discussion early in the life of the committees and was ably assisted by Donna Fowler, who employed her sharp pen and good ear to craft the initial draft standards. David Haynes served as the lead staff and principal scribe during the latter part of this project, uncovering difficult issues and developing solutions when the committees reached an impasse and providing elegant prose to capture the committees’ distinct perspective. Adrian Davis contributed her extensive knowledge of the field and her skills as a facilitator to help resolve difficult issues. The committees’ deliberations also benefited from the work of the Assessment Development Laboratory led by Joan Herman, Lynn Winters, and Eugene Flores that was established at UCLA’s National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing. In the end, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards takes full responsibility for these standards, but they would not have received as positive a reception as they have without the wisdom, intelligence, and care of those who have willingly given their time and energy to this landmark effort to improve education in the United States.

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The core propositions of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards

1) Teachers are committed to students and their learning. 2) Teachers know the subjects they teach and how to teach those subjects to students. 3) Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning. 4) Teachers think systematically about their practice and learn from experience. 5) Teachers are members of learning communities.

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