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Motor skills It is hard to imagine any functional routine that does not involve some motor activity. Whether playing a game at home with friends, dining in a restaurant, or stapling newsletters in an office, participation involves numerous motor skills. Although motor skills traditionally have been viewed in relation to the normal motor development of a young child, it is useful to consider the functions that motor skills serve. Motor skills are movements and actions of the muscles. Typically, they are categorized into two groups: gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are involved in movement and coordination of the arms, legs, and other large body parts and movements. They participate in actions such as running, crawling, swimming, etc. Fine motor skills are involved in smaller movements that occur in the wrists, hands, fingers, and the feet and toes. They participate in smaller actions such as picking up objects between the thumb and finger, writing carefully, and even blinking. These two motor skills work together to provide coordination. Types of motor skills 

Gross motor skill - requires the use of large muscle groups to perform tasks like walking, balancing, crawling. The skill required is not extensive and therefore are usually associated with continuous tasks. Much of the development of these skills occurs during early childhood. The performance level of gross motor skill remains unchanged after periods of non-use.

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Fine motor skill - requires the use of smaller muscle groups to perform tasks that are precise in nature. Activities like playing the piano and playing video games are examples of using fine motor skills. Generally, there is a retention loss of fine motor skills over a period of non-use. Discrete tasks usually require more fine motor skill than gross motor skills.

Examples of gross motor skills; 1. Running

2. Swimming

3. Climbing

4. Walking

5. Jumping

6. Dancing

7. Crawling

8. Punching

9. Kicking

10. Cartwheeling

Example of Fine motor skill; 1. Blinking

2. Picking up objects

3. Writing

4. Combing

Furthermore, a motor skill is a function, which involves the precise movement of muscles with the intent to perform a specific act. Most purposeful movement requires the ability to "feel" or sense what one's muscles are doing as they perform the act. Motor difficulties occur when an individual lacks the ability to move in the way he or she originally intended. This can have a significant effect on classroom performance and motivation in school. Motor difficulties can be addressed in variety of ways. Some motor skills difficulties can be overcome through development and maturity. In education, a frequent response to motor difficulties is to refer the child to special education services. This is not always necessary or appropriate. Some students just need to be taught a simple activity or strategy, which they practice to remedy the problem. Others, whose difficulty is more involved, may require the intervention of a professional in special education.

When we think about the ways we typically perform these functional routines, it seems that participation requires an extensive repertoire of sophisticated motor skills. If we concentrate on the functions that motor skills serve in the activities, however, we can see many more possibilities. We know that the mobility function of walking can be fulfilled by crawling or driving a wheelchair. We know that positioning can be assisted through a variety of adapted equipment. And we know that participation can be elicited through systematic prompts, partial participation, and adaptations. Focusing on the functions of motor skills allows us to see how students with even the most severe physical disabilities can participate in activities. This does not suggest that students do not need to learn or improve motor skills. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING MOTOR SKILLS

In addition to a thorough knowledge of the motor development process, physical education instructors must understand the principles of learning and information transfer to facilitate student progress. Important concepts include practice, feedback, observational learning, and self-assessment. 

PRACTICE Frequent, structured practice of motor skills enhances skill development in

children. Without practice and instruction, natural ability and talent dictates the extent of motor skill development. 

SELF-ASSESSMENT Self-assessment is a powerful tool in motor skill development. Requiring

students to assess their own skills and abilities encourages students to reflect upon their current skill level and take control of the development process. 

FEEDBACK Feedback, or input from the tutor or educator, forms an extremely vital part of

any learning process. Just as positive feedback works as a motivator enabling an athlete

to improve and surge ahead with renewed interest, negative feedback also helps an athlete recognize and correct his or her mistakes. When performers learn a skill, the skill goes into their short-term memory and receives positive feedback. The skill may eventually go into their long-term memory, creating memory that is more permanent. That is how positive feedback works to encourage the performer and helps in making the performer remember every aspect of the performance. Negative feedback helps athletes, whether novice or experienced, become conscious of their mistakes. They can use this negative feedback to improve their shortcomings. Without feedback, an athlete is not likely to improve his or her technique and will lose motivation. There are different types of feedback and it is always important for the performer to receive the right type. Some examples of feedback include the following: 1. Intrinsic feedback – information received by the athlete as a direct result of producing a movement through the kinesthetic senses – e.g. feeling from muscles, joints, and balance. 2. Extrinsic feedback – information not inherent in the movement itself but which improves intrinsic feedback (this is also known as augmented feedback). There are two main categories: knowledge of performance and information about the technique and performance. The coach can provide extrinsic feedback verbally or visually via video. Extrinsic feedback enables the athlete to establish a kinesthetic reference for the correct movement. Research also indicates that the stage when an athlete receives feedback is as important as the content of the feedback. Negative feedback might be boring for the beginner. However, if a performer is elite, then knowledge of results is very important. In addition, during the cognitive stage, positive feedback is essential to make sure that

the athlete learns a skill successfully. Thus, feedback plays an extremely important role in any learning process, as it facilitates learning to a great extent.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT Self-assessment is a powerful tool in motor skill development. Requiring

students to assess their own skills and abilities encourages students to reflect upon their current skill level and take control of the development process. 

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Many physical education instructors believe that observational learning is the

most effective method of learning motor skills. Visual observation of proper skill performance by an instructor or peer is generally more effective in promoting skill development than verbal instructions. STAGES OF MOTOR LEARNING The development of motor skills in children is a sequential process. We can classify motor skill competency into stages of development by observing children practicing physical skills. The sequence of development begins with simple reflexes and progresses to the learning of postural elements, loco motor skills, and, finally, fine motor skills. The stages of development consider both innate and learned behaviors. Stage 1 – Children progress from simple reflexes to basic movements such as sitting, crawling, creeping, standing, and walking. Stage 2 – Children learn more complex motor patterns including running, climbing, jumping, balancing, catching, and throwing. Stage 3 – During late childhood, children learn more specific movement skills. In addition, the basic motor patterns learned in Stage 2 become more fluid and automatic.

Stage 4 – During adolescence, children continue to develop general and specific motor skills and master specialized movements. At this point, factors including practice, motivation, and talent begin to affect the level of further development. CONCEPT OF BODY AWARENESS APPLIED TO PHYSICAL EDUCATION ACTIVITIES Body awareness is a person understands of his or her own body parts and their capability of movement. Instructors can assess body awareness by watching students play a game of “Simon Says” and asking the students to touch different body parts. You can also instruct students to make their bodies into various shapes, such as, from straight to round to twisted, to fit into different sized spaces. In addition, you can instruct children to touch one part of their body to another and to stamp their feet, twist their neck, clap their hands, nod their heads, wiggle their noses, snap their fingers, open their mouths, shrug their shoulders, bend their knees, close their eyes, bend their elbows, or wiggle their toes. CONCEPT OF SPATIAL AWARENESS APPLIED TO PHYSICAL EDUCATION ACTIVITIES Spatial awareness is the ability to make decisions about an object’s positional changes in space (i.e. awareness of three-dimensional space position changes). Developing spatial awareness requires two sequential phases: 1) identifying the location of objects in relation to one’s own body in space, and 2) locating more than one object in relation to each object and independent of one’s own body. Plan activities using different size balls, boxes, or hoops and have children move towards and away; under and over; in front of and behind; and inside, outside, and beside the objects. CONCEPTS OF SPACE, DIRECTION, AND SPEED RELATED TO MOVEMENT CONCEPTS Effort Awareness is the knowledge of balance, time, and force and how they relate to athletic movements and activities. Research shows that space, direction, and

speed are interrelated with movement concepts. Students who understand these concepts will move with confidence and avoid collisions. A student or player incorporates movement concepts such as space, direction, speed and vision to understand and perform a sport. For instance, a player will determine the appropriate personal space while playing soccer or basketball. For a player, the concepts are all interconnected. The player has to understand how to maintain or change pathways with speed. This means the player has the ability to change motion and perform well in space or the area that the players occupy on the field. Analyze the impact of various factors on motor development and relate developmental changes to motor performance. A variety of influences affects a student’s physical performance and fitness level: 

Societal – We cannot separate students from the societies in which they live. The general perceptions around them about the importance of fitness activities will necessarily have an effect on their own choice regarding physical activity. We should consider the “playground to PlayStation” phenomenon and the rising levels of obesity among Americans negative societal influences on motor development and fitness.

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Psychological – Psychological influences on motor development and fitness include a student’s mental well-being, perceptions of fitness activities, and level of comfort in a fitness-training environment (both alone and within a group). Students experiencing psychological difficulties, such as depression, will tend to be apathetic and lack both the energy and inclination to participate in fitness activities. As a result, their motor development and fitness levels will suffer. Factors like the student’s confidence level and comfort within a group environment, related to both the student’s level of popularity within the group and the student’s own personal insecurities, are also significant. It is noteworthy,

though, that in the case of psychological influences on motor development and fitness levels, there is a more reciprocal relationship than with other influences. While a student’s psychology may negatively affect their fitness levels, proper fitness training has the potential to positively affect the student psychologically, thereby reversing a negative cycle. 

Economic – The economic situation of students can affect their motor development and fitness because lack of resources can detract from the ability of parents to provide access to extra-curricular activities that promote development, proper fitness training equipment (ranging from complex exercise machines to team sport uniforms to something as simple as a basketball hoop), and even adequate nutrition.

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Familial – Familial factors that can influence motor development and fitness relate to the student’s home climate concerning physical activity. A student’s own feelings toward physical activity often reflect the degree to which caregivers and role models (like older siblings) are athletically inclined and have a positive attitude towards physical activity. It isn’t necessary for the parents to be athletically inclined, so much as it is important for them to encourage their child to explore fitness activities that could suit them.

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Environmental and Health – Genetic make-up (i.e. age, gender, and ethnicity) has a big influence on growth and development. Various physical and environmental factors directly affect one’s personal health and fitness. Poor habits, living conditions, and afflictions such as disease or disability can impact a person in a negative manner. A healthy lifestyle with adequate conditions and minimal physical or mental stresses will enable a person to develop towards a positive, healthy existence. A highly agreed upon motor development theory is the relationship between one’s own heredity and environmental factors.

RELATIONSHIP OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT TO PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, PSYCHOSOCIAL, AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Instructors should place students in rich learning situations, regardless of previous experience or personal factors, which provide plenty of positive opportunities to participate in physical activity. For example, prior to playing a game of softball, have students practice throwing by tossing the ball to themselves, progress to the underhand toss, and later to the overhand toss. Studies show that physical activity leads to improved motor development in children. Physical activity also enables various other progressions that shape the mind and personality of an individual. Such developments, which are the result of physical activity, include cognitive, psychosocial, and emotional growth. Very often, we ignore the close relationship shared by motor development and the other aspects of development. Motor development, which starts with the proper nutrition, deeply affects the other aspects of development in an individual. Children acquire a vast range of motor development skills such as grasping, crawling, walking, running, and even speaking during the early stages of their lives. Gradually, such motor skills further develop leading to participation in sport and play activities that promote confidence in children and allow them to develop responsibility, deep emotions, and social etiquette. Through participation in sports, children learn to cooperate and develop competitive skills that will aid them in adulthood. Studies reveal that the different types of play in childhood link motor development with the other aspects of development. Different kinds of play or physical activity such as cognitive play, social play, physical play, and emotional play, help in the overall development of a child. Simple motor skills such as repeatedly hitting the ground with a shovel or building sand castles help in developing thinking and cognitive skills. Social play helps children to play with their peers cooperatively, to develop their motor skills, and to develop a sense of social togetherness. Motor activities greatly influence physical

development as well. They help in providing the foundation for a normal and healthy physical education program suitable for all children. Research also shows that free play among peers leads to significant cognitive developments (such as improvement of reasoning abilities).

The manner in which children hop, jump, skip, run, climb, and play greatly facilitates their motor and physical development and helps to build other aspects of their personality. Children accomplish this development through their constant interaction with surrounding elements, environments, and persons. Thus, motor skill development, which encompasses all motor movements by children, is strongly related to the physical, social, and emotional development of children. ERRORS IN SKILL PERFORMANCE Because performing a skill has several components, determining why a participant is performing poorly may be difficult. Instructors may have to assess several components of a skill to determine the root cause of poor performance and appropriately correct errors. An instructor should have the ability to identify performance errors by observing a student’s mechanical principles of motion during the performance of a skill. Process assessment is a subjective, observational approach to identifying errors in the form, style, or mechanics of a skill. APPROPRIATE OBJECTIVE MEASUREMENTS OF FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS Instructors should use product assessments, quantitative measures of a movement’s end result, to evaluate objectively fundamental skills. How far, how fast, how high, or how many are the quantitative measures of product assessments. A criterion-referenced test (superior to a standardized test) or a standardized norm-referenced test can provide valid and reliable data for objectively measuring fundamental skills. SKILL ASSESSMENT INFORMATION USED TO CORRECT ERRORS IN SKILL PERFORMANCE Instructors can use criterion-referenced standards to diagnose weaknesses and correct errors in skill performance because such performance standards define appropriate levels of achievement. However, instructors can also use biomechanical

instructional objectives. The following list describes the skill assessment criteria in several representative activities: • Archery - measuring accuracy in shooting a standardized target from a specified place. 

Bowling - calculating the bowling average attained under standardized conditions.

• Golf - the score after several rounds. • Swimming - counting the number of breaststrokes needed to swim 25 yards. After assessing student skill performance, the instructor should design drills or tasks that will develop the weakest component of the student’s performance. For example, an instructor notices that a group of students attempting to shoot basketball free throw shots cannot get the ball to the basket because they do not use their legs to add power to the shot. The instructor should use this observation to construct drills that encourage leg use and develop strength.