Silent 1
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2ECONSIDERING 3ILENT 3USTAINED 2EADING !N %XPLORATORY 3TUDY OF 3CAFFOLDED 3ILENT 2EADING $ 2!9 2%54:%, 0!2+%2 # &!73/. */(. ! 3-)4( 5TAH 3TATE 5NIVERSITY FERENT SCHOOL SETTINGS WHICH INTRODUCED SCHOOL EFFECTS THAT RESEARCHERS ACCOUNTED FOR NEITHER IN THE DESIGNS NOR IN THE ANALYSES #LINE +RETKE 3UMMERS -C#LELLAND /THER CONTROL OR COMPARISON GROUPS IN THE 332 STUDIES VARIED FROM TIME SPENT IN READING SKILLS PRACTICE TO SPELLING WORK AND FROM LESSONS ON HEALTH AND GROOMING TO THE USE OF PROGRAMMED MATERIALS IE TEXTS TAPES AND SKILL KITS "URLEY #OLLINS %VANS 4OWNER ,ANGFORD !LLEN 2EUTZEL (OLLINGSWORTH )N SOME OF THE 332 STUDIES RESEARCHERS FAILED TO REPORT THE NATURE OF THE REGULAR READING INSTRUCTION RECEIVED #LINE +RETKE ,ANGFORD !LLEN OR SYSTEMATICALLY CONTROL FOR OVERALL TIME SPENT READING #LINE +RETKE %VANS 4OWNER ,ANGFORD !LLEN 7HEN 332 RESULTED IN SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN THESE STUDIES THE RESULTS RANGED FROM INCREASED WORD RECOGNITION ,ANGFORD !LLEN IN THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES TO DIFFERENCES FAVORING 332 IN JUNIOR AND HIGH SCHOOL SETTINGS FOR VOCABULARY AND COMPREHENSION "URLEY (OLT /4UEL )N ONE STUDY RESEARCHERS FOUND THAT 332 WAS HELPFUL ONLY FOR AVERAGE ABILITY READERS IN THE EIGHTH GRADE BUT DID NOT HELP ABOVE OR BELOW AVERAGE READERS $AVIS -ANNING AND -ANNING FOUND THAT READING SCORES IMPROVED SLIGHTLY WHEN PEER DISCUSSION OR TEACHER CONFERENCING WAS ADDED TO THE TRADITIONAL 332 IMPLEMENTATION /F THE 332 STUDIES ANALYZED BY THE .20 .)#(($ IN OF THE STUDIES RESEARCHERS REPORTED NO STA TISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT EFFECT FOR 332 ON STUDENTS READING ACHIEVEMENT OR GROWTH /F THE FIVE STUDIES IN WHICH RESEARCHERS DID FIND EFFECTS FAVORING 332 THE MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT ESTIMATES WAS RELATIVELY AND ABSOLUTELY SMALL 4HE FIVE STUDIES WERE OF A NONEDUCATIONALLY SIGNIFICANT SIZE OR WERE MIXED IN TERMS OF EFFECTS ON OUTCOME ASSESSMENTS IE WORD READING VOCABULARY GAINS OR COMPREHENSION IMPROVEMENTS .)#(($
!"342!#4 4HE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY WAS TO DESIGN IMPLE MENT AND EVALUATE THE EFFICACY OF SCAFFOLDED SILENT READING 3C32 COMPARED WITH THE EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE OF GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING '2/2 WITH FEEDBACK ON RD GRADE STUDENTS FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION GROWTH 5SING A MIXED MODEL DOMINANT LESS DOMINANT DESIGN THE AUTHORS COLLECTED BOTH QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA 1UANTITATIVE RESULTS INDICATED NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THESE FORMS OF READING FLUENCY PRACTICE ON RD GRADE STUDENTS FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION DEVELOPMENT WITH THE EXCEPTION OF SIGNIFI CANT DIFFERENCE FAVORING 3C32 ON EXPRESSION OF A SINGLE PAS SAGE 1UALITATIVE RESULTS INDICATED THAT EITHER 3C32 OR '2/2 APPROACHES USED EXCLUSIVELY TENDED TOWARD TEDIUM AND REDUCED OVERALL STUDENT ENJOYMENT AND MOTIVATION 4HE AUTHORS DISCUSS HOW THE 3C32 APPROACH REPRESENTS A VIABLE ALTERNATIVE OR COM PANION TO '2/2 FOR PROMOTING RD GRADE STUDENTS READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION GROWTH +EYWORDS COMPREHENSION FLUENCY GUIDED READING INDEPEN DENT READING REPEATED READING
0
ERHAPS NO OTHER SINGLE CONCLUSION DRAWN BY THE .ATIONAL 2EADING 0ANEL .20 .ATIONAL )NSTI TUTE OF #HILD (EALTH AND (UMAN $EVELOPMENT ;.)#(($= HAS SPARKED MORE CONTROVERSY THAN A REPORTED LACK OF RESEARCH SUPPORT FOR TIME SPENT READING AND THE RELATED PREVALENT CLASSROOM PRACTICE OF SILENT SUSTAINED READING 332 !LLINGTON #OLES *7 #UN NINGHAM %DMONDSON 3HANNON +RASHEN )N THE PAST TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS HAD INCOR PORATED 332 INTO THE DAILY READING INSTRUCTIONAL ROUTINES OF MANY CLASSROOMS AND SCHOOLS ACROSS THE NATION 4HE .20 .)#(($ EXAMINED THE READING RESEARCH LITERATURE IN WHICH RESEARCHERS EVALUATED 332 IN EXPERIMENTAL OR QUASI EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES AND PUBLISHED THE RESULTS IN PEER REVIEWED NATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNALS !FTER AN EXTENSIVE SEARCH THE PANEL LOCATED ONLY 332 STUDIES MEETING THESE CRITERIA /NLY OF THE 332 STUDIES IN THE .20 ANALYSIS INVOLVED PRIMARY GRADE CHILDREN #OLLINS 4HE CONTROL OR COMPARISON GROUPS IN THE 332 STUD IES ANALYZED BY THE .20 VARIED WIDELY )N SEVERAL STUDIES RESEARCHERS USED INTACT CLASSROOM CONTROL GROUPS FROM DIF
!DDRESS CORRESPONDENCE TO $ 2AY 2EUTZEL %%* #ENTER FOR %ARLY #HILDHOOD %DUCATION 5-# 5TAH 3TATE 5NIVERSITY ,OGAN 54 53! % MAIL RAYREUTZEL USUEDU #OPYRIGHT Ú (ELDREF 0UBLICATIONS
)N CONTRAST +RASHEN HAS CONTENDED THAT THE .20 MISREPRESENTED OR UNDERREPRESENTED THE RESEARCH LIT ERATURE SUPPORTING 332 (OWEVER A CAREFUL REVIEW OF +RASHENS EXPANDED SET OF 332 STUDIES REVEALED THE INCLU SION OF RESEARCH IN WHICH CHILDREN NOT ONLY READ BOOKS BUT ALSO RECEIVED READING INSTRUCTION USING CHILDRENS BOOKS 4HROUGH THE EXPANDED SET HE ALSO EXAMINED STUDIES INVOLV ING HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO PRESUMABLY COULD READ AND WOULD STAND TO PROFIT FROM UNGUIDED INDEPENDENT READING PRACTICE MORE THAN WOULD YOUNG STUDENTS LEARNING TO READ 332 ! #RITICAL %XAMINATION OF 4EACHER "EHAVIORS #ONCERNS WITH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF 332 AS DESCRIBED IN THE LITERATURE AND AS IMPLEMENTED IN MANY CLASSROOMS ACROSS THE NATION INCLUDE THE CONSPICUOUS ABSENCE OF INTER ACTION INVOLVING THE READING OF TEXTS OR ACCOUNTABILITY FOR WHETHER OR NOT STUDENTS READ DURING ALLOCATED 332 TIME 3TAHL NOTED THAT hMANY 332 ADVOCATES DO NOT ALLOW TEACHERS TO CHECK UP ON STUDENTS OR RECOMMEND THAT TEACH ERS READ THEIR OWN BOOKS DURING THIS TIME TO BE A MODEL OF A READER /NE FAILING OF 332 IS THAT TEACHERS MAY NOT MONITOR THEIR STUDENTS READINGv P "RYAN &AWSON AND 2EUTZEL DEMONSTRATED THAT WHEN CLASSROOM TEACHERS MONITORED THEIR STUDENTS DURING 332 THROUGH BRIEF INTERACTIONS AND ACCOUNTABILITY CON FERENCES EVEN THE MOST DISENGAGED STUDENTS IN THE CLASS REMAINED ON TASK FOR UP TO WEEKS WITHOUT ADDITIONAL MONITORING VISITS 4HESE FINDINGS CONCUR WITH PREVIOUS RESEARCH OF -ANNING AND -ANNING ABOUT THE POSI TIVE IMPACT OF STUDENT DISCUSSIONS AND TEACHER CONFERENCES RATHER THAN TEACHERS READING SILENTLY DURING 332 4HE .20 .)#(($ ALSO ASSERTED THAT AN IMPORTANT FEATURE OF EFFECTIVE READING FLUENCY PRACTICE WAS THAT STUDENTS RECEIVE FEEDBACK ABOUT THEIR READING 4HESE CRITICISMS ILLUSTRATE THAT WITHOUT MONITORING TEACHERS CANNOT BE ASSURED THAT STUDENTS ARE IN FACT READING DURING 332 TIME 332 !NALYSIS OF 0REVIOUS 2ESEARCH 7EAKNESSES 4HE .20 .)#(($ CRITICIZED PREVIOUS 332 STUDIES FOR THEIR POOR DESCRIPTIONS AND THE QUALITY OF THE COMPARISON OR CONTROL GROUPS THAT RESEARCHERS USED TO INVESTIGATE THE EFFICACY OF 332 h/FTEN THESE STUDIES INTER PRETED THE LACK OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 332 AND THE CONTROL CONDITION AS MEANING THAT 332 WAS AS GOOD AS SOME USU ALLY UNSPECIFIED FORM OF READING INSTRUCTION #OMPARING 332 WITH INSTRUCTIONAL ROUTINES THAT HAVE NO EVIDENCE OF SUCCESS OR WHOSE SUCCESS HAS BEEN FOUND TO BE UNRELATED TO ACHIEVEMENT GAINS ,EINHARDT :IGMOND #OOLEY IS MEANINGLESSv .)#(($ P &UTURE 332 RESEARCHERS SHOULD USE CONTROL OR COMPARISON GROUPS THAT IMPLEMENT A FORM OF READING FLUENCY PRACTICE THAT HAS BEEN FOUND TO BE EFFECTIVE IN PRODUCING READING FLUENCY GROWTH TO MAKE THE CLAIM OF EQUIVALENT OR SUPERIOR EFFECTIVENESS
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
!NOTHER CRITICISM OF 332 RESEARCH BY THE .20 .)#( ($ FOCUSED ON MANIPULATING OR CONTROLLING THE AMOUNT OF TIME SPENT READING 4HE .20 WAS UNABLE TO ANALYZE THE EFFECT OF TIME SPENT READING ON READING ACHIEVEMENT BECAUSE MANY OF THE PUBLISHED RESEARCHERS FAILED TO EITHER CONTROL OR ACCOUNT FOR THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF TIME SPENT READING IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL 4HIS ALONE COULD HAVE ACCOUNTED FOR THE NONSIGNIFICANT FINDINGS FOR 332 IN THE STUDIES THAT THE .20 ANALYZED ,AST THE MANIPULATION OF TEXT DIFFICULTY IN PAST 332 RESEARCH HAS BEEN SOMEWHAT INCONSISTENT .)#(($ )N THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TRADITIONAL 332 IN CLASS ROOMS TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS OFTEN PLACED A PREMIUM ON STUDENTS RIGHT TO CHOOSE THEIR OWN BOOKS FROM THE CLASSROOM OR SCHOOL LIBRARY HOME OR ANYWHERE ELSE TO ENSURE HIGH MOTIVATION TO READ !LTHOUGH THIS IS A LAUDABLE AIM STUDENTS WERE NOT TAUGHT HOW TO CHOOSE APPROPRI ATELY CHALLENGING BOOKS THAT WERE OF INTEREST OR PROVIDED NECESSARY SCAFFOLDING TO CHOOSE SUCH BOOKS IN TRADITIONALLY IMPLEMENTED 332 3TAHL AND (EUBACH ADDRESSED THE NEED FOR STUDENTS TO CHOOSE APPROPRIATELY CHALLENGING BOOKS BY SUGGESTING THAT THE APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF TEXT DIFFI CULTY FOR READING FLUENCY PRACTICE IS INVERSELY RELATED TO THE AMOUNT OF SCAFFOLDING PROVIDED TO STUDENTS 4HUS THE MORE SUPPORT A TEACHER GIVES TO A STUDENT THE LOWER THE ACCURACY LEVEL THAT IS NEEDED FOR A CHILD TO BENEFIT FROM READING FLU ENCY PRACTICE )N SUMMARY THE TRADITIONAL IMPLEMENTATION OF 332 HAS BEEN CRITICIZED FOR THE LACK OF TEACHERS TEACHING MONITOR ING INTERACTING WITH AND HOLDING STUDENTS ACCOUNTABLE FOR THEIR TIME SPENT READING 7EAKNESSES ASSOCIATED WITH READING PRACTICE APPROACHES SUCH AS 332 SUGGEST THAT FUTURE RESEARCHERS SHOULD EXTEND THEIR STUDIES OVER LONGER PERIODS EMPLOY STRICT EXPERIMENTAL CONTROLS OVER THE AMOUNT OF TIME SPENT IN READING PRACTICE AT SCHOOL AND HOME MAKE COMPARISONS WITH KNOWN PROVEN EFFECTIVE READING PRACTICE ROUTINES USE MULTIPLE MEASURES OF FLUENCY GROWTH AND EXAMINE THE USE OF DIFFERING LEVELS OF TEXT DIFFICULTY THAT ARE USEFUL IN PROMOTING READING PROGRESS 2ESEARCH 1UESTION )N THIS STUDY THE PRIMARY RESEARCH QUESTION WAS )S SCAF FOLDED SILENT READING 3C32 AS EFFECTIVE AS GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING '2/2 WITH FEEDBACK IN PROMOTING THIRD GRADE STUDENTS DEVELOPMENT OF READING FLUENCY AS MEASURED BY A REDUCTION IN ERROR RATES B INCREASE IN WORDS READ CORRECTLY PER MINUTE C INCREASE IN EXPRESSION RATING SCORES AND D INCREASE IN READING COMPREHENSION AS MEA SURED BY THE PROPORTION OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED FROM READING DIVIDED BY THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY PER MINUTE !T THIS POINT WE CLARIFY WHAT WE MEAN BY FLUENT READING /UR DEFINITION OF FLUENCY EXTENDS BEYOND THAT OFFERED BY THE .20 .)#(($ FLUENCY INVOLVES ACCURACY RATE AND EXPRESSION ,IKE 3AMUELS WE OPERATION ALLY DEFINE FLUENT READING IN THIS STUDY AS SIMULTANEOUS
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DECODING AND COMPREHENSION 4HUS THE MEASUREMENT WE USED MIMICS FLUENT READING BEHAVIORS BY REQUIRING THAT STUDENTS DECODE AND COMPREHEND WHAT THEY ARE ASKED TO READ AT THE SAME TIME )N OTHER WORDS WE INFORMED STUDENTS THAT WHEN THEY WERE FINISHED READING THE TEST PASSAGES THEY WOULD ALSO BE ASKED TO RETELL WHAT THEY READ AS A MEASURE OF COMPREHENSION 3C32 IS AN APPROACH TO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE THAT ADDRESSES MANY OF THE WEAKNESSES ASSOCIATED WITH TRADI TIONALLY IMPLEMENTED 332 3C32 MAKES USE OF SILENT WIDE READING OF INDEPENDENT LEVEL TEXTS SELECTED FROM VARIED GENRES PERIODIC TEACHER MONITORING OF AND INTERACTION WITH INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS AND ACCOUNTABILITY THROUGH COMPLETED BOOK RESPONSE ASSIGNMENTS '2/2 IS AN APPROACH TO READ ING FLUENCY PRACTICE IN WHICH STUDENTS REPEATEDLY READ ALOUD IN GENERAL n TIMES A SINGLE TEXT TYPICALLY AT GRADE LEVEL OR INSTRUCTIONAL LEVEL WHILE THEY RECEIVE FEEDBACK FROM A TEACHER OR OTHER STUDENTS '2/2 IS AN ESTABLISHED AND SCIENTIFICALLY SUPPORTED READING FLUENCY PRACTICE APPROACH THAT THE .20 .)#(($ HIGHLY RECOMMENDS )N THIS STUDY A DOMINANT FEATURE WAS THAT WE EXAMINED QUANTITATIVE MEASURES OF THIRD GRADE STUDENTS FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION GROWTH ! LESS DOMINANT FEATURE WAS THAT WE FOCUSED ON UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIVE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IMPLEMENTING BOTH TYPES OF READING FLU ENCY PRACTICE IE 3C32 AND '2/2 AS INDICATED BY QUALI TATIVE ANALYSES OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS TEACHER WRITTEN COMMENTS RECORDED IN TEACHER REFLECTION JOURNALS AND STUDENTS ANSWERS TO STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
ADMINISTERED END OF SECOND GRADE STATE CRITERION REFER ENCED END OF LEVEL READING TEST SCORES AND THEN DIVIDED THEM INTO THREE ACHIEVEMENT STRATA HIGH MEDIUM AND LOW 7E RANDOMLY ASSIGNED STUDENTS FROM WITHIN THEIR ACHIEVEMENT STRATAHIGH MEDIUM OR LOWINTO ONE OF THE TWO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE GROUPS USING A COMPUTER GENERATED TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS 5SING STRATIFICATION FOR ACCOMPLISHING RANDOM ASSIGNMENT IS A MORE PRECISE APPROACH FOR DISTRIBUTING VARIABILITY ESPECIALLY WHEN THE SCORES USED IE READING ACHIEVEMENT DIFFERENTIATE AMONG THE STRATA OF STUDENTS ON A CRITERION THAT CORRELATES WITH THE CONSTRUCT UNDER EXAMINATION IE READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION 3HADISH #OOK #AMPBELL 7E NOTE THAT RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OF STUDENTS TO TREATMENT GROUPS OCCURS RARELY IN FIELD BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 3TRATIFIED RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OF THESE THIRD GRADE STU DENTS TOOK PLACE OVER THE SUMMER MONTHS PRIOR TO THE BEGINNING OF THE THIRD GRADE YEAR 7E DID NOT INCLUDE STU DENTS WHO MOVED INTO THE AREA DURING THE SUMMER MONTHS BECAUSE THERE WERE NO PREVIOUS YEARS CRITERION REFERENCED READING TEST SCORES AVAILABLE FOR RANDOMLY ASSIGNING NEW STUDENTS TO ONE OF THE TWO TREATMENT GROUPS 4HERE WERE TWO 3C32 CLASSROOMS N AND TWO '2/2 CLASSROOMS N $URING THE SCHOOL YEAR IN WHICH THIS STUDY WAS CONDUCTED OF THE ORIGINAL RANDOMLY ASSIGNED STUDENTS . MOVED FROM THE SCHOOL EITHER DURING THE SUM MER AFTER RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OR DURING THE STUDY LEAVING TOTAL STUDENTS FOR THE FINAL DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS !TTRITION WAS EQUAL IN THE 3C32 N AND THE '2/2 N TREATMENTS 4HE TWO SCHOOLS IN WHICH THE STUDY WAS CONDUCTED WERE CONSIDERED HIGH POVERTY LOW PERFORMING SCHOOLS WITH APPROXIMATELY n DIVERSITY !FRICAN !MERICAN !SIAN AND (ISPANIC WITH MORE THAN HALF OF THE STUDENTS IN THE SCHOOLS QUALIFYING FOR FREE OR REDUCED LUNCH 4HE SCHOOLS HAD PARTICIPATED FOR THE FULL YEARS OF THE FEDERALLY FUNDED 2EADING %XCELLENCE !CT 2%! GRANT PROGRAM THAT TARGETED READING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND INSTRUC TIONAL MATERIALS FUNDING FOR 'RADES +n IN HIGH POVERTY LOW PERFORMING ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 4HE THIRD GRADE TEACHERS IN THIS STUDY ALSO HAD PAR TICIPATED IN THE 2%! SUBGRANT FOR YEARS 4HEY RECEIVED
-ETHOD 0ARTICIPANTS 4HE STUDY INVOLVED FOUR CLASSROOMS THIRD GRADE TEACHERS AND THIRD GRADE STUDENTS IN TWO ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS !LL TEACHERS IN THE STUDY ROTATED THROUGH TEACHING THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREATMENTS DURING THE YEAR OF THIS STUDY %ACH TEACHER ROTATED EVERY WEEKS TEACHING THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREAT MENTS TWICE DURING THE YEAR AS SHOWN IN 4ABLE !LL THIRD GRADE STUDENTS WERE RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO ONE OF TWO TREATMENT GROUPS IE 3C32 OR '2/2 IN THE TWO SCHOOLS 4O RANDOMLY ASSIGN STUDENTS WE LISTED THEIR SPRING
4!",% 4REATMENT 2OTATION BY 7EEK 0ERIODS 4REATMENT 3CHOOL 3C32 CLASSROOM '2/2 CLASSROOM 3CHOOL 3C32 CLASSROOM '2/2 CLASSROOM
ST WEEKS
ND WEEKS
RD WEEKS
TH WEEKS
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
.OTE '2/2 GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING 3C32 SCAFFOLDED SILENT READING
CLASSROOM BASED COACHING ON AT LEAST A WEEKLY BASIS FROM A SCHOOL BASED READING MENTOR OR LITERACY COACH AND WEEKLY FOLLOW UP STUDY IN GRADE LEVEL STUDY GROUPS $URING THE ND AND RD YEARS OF THE 2%! PROJECT THE DISTRICTS 2%! TECH NICAL ASSISTANT A UNIVERSITY PROFESSOR IN EARLY LITERACY GAVE TEACHERS MONTHLY PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOPS AND IN CLASS READING INSTRUCTION AND PRACTICE DEMONSTRATIONS 2EADING COACHES CONDUCTED WEEKLY STUDY GROUPS FOR n HR ON SCIENTIFICALLY BASED READING RESEARCH FOR WHICH TEACHERS READ AND STUDIED INTENSIVELY ABOUT EFFECTIVE READING INSTRUC TION AND PRACTICE AS OUTLINED IN 0REVENTING 2EADING $IFFICULTIES IN 9OUNG #HILDREN 3NOW "URNS 'RIFFIN $URING THE SUMMER PRECEDING THE STUDY THE THIRD GRADE TEACHERS WERE PAID AN ADDITIONAL STIPEND TO READ AND DISCUSS WITH THEIR LITER ACY COACHES INFORMATION ABOUT THE TWO DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO BE USED IN THIS STUDY AND JOINTLY PLAN THEIR LESSONS FOR BOTH TREATMENTS 4HESE THIRD GRADE TEACHERS RECEIVED DAYS OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ON EFFECTIVE FLUENCY INSTRUCTION AND PRACTICE USING TRAINING MATERIALS DRAWN FROM A VARIETY OF PROFESSIONAL SOURCES WHICH WERE BASED MAINLY ON /PITZ AND 2ASINSKIS 'OOD BYE 2OUND 2OBIN %FFECTIVE /RAL 2EADING 3TRATEGIES 4HUS THE THIRD GRADE TEACHERS SELECTED FOR THIS STUDY WERE PERHAPS BETTER PREPARED IN EFFECTIVE VARIA TIONS ON FLUENCY PRACTICE THAN MOST CLASSROOM TEACHERS WERE IN THE FIRST YEARS OF THE ST CENTURY BUT THEY DID NOT FEEL AS IF THEY WERE EXPERTS IN PROVIDING FLUENCY INSTRUCTION AND PRACTICE AS THE STUDY BEGAN -EASURES 7E USED TWO SEPARATE PRETEST AND TWO SEPARATE POSTTEST PASSAGES A TOTAL OF FOUR PASSAGES FROM THE THIRD GRADE LEVEL $YNAMIC )NDICATORS OF "ASIC %ARLY ,ITERACY 3KILLS $)"%,3 /RAL 2EADING &LUENCY /2& TEST0OTS AND 4HE &IELD 4RIP PRETEST PASSAGES -Y 0ARENTS AND 0LANTING A 'ARDEN POST TEST PASSAGES TO ASSESS STUDENTS FLUENCY AND COMPREHEN SION GROWTH OVER THE YEARLONG STUDY 'OOD +AMINSKI !T THE TIME OF THIS STUDY THE $)"%,3 /2& TEST WAS JUST BEGINNING TO BE USED AS A MEASURE OF STUDENTS READING FLUENCY IN THESE SCHOOLS (OWEVER IN YEARS SUBSEQUENT TO THIS STUDY THE $)"%,3 /2& HAS BECOME A UBIQUITOUS FEATURE OF FLUENCY ASSESSMENT IN MANY ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ACROSS THE NATION 7E SELECTED THE /2& TEST AND PASSAGES FOR TWO REASONS &IRST THIS WAS A TEST THAT WAS BEING USED IN THESE AND MANY OTHER ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ACROSS THE NATION TO ASSESS FLUENCY 3ECOND THE /2& TEST HAS BEEN DEMON STRATED TO HAVE TECHNICAL ADEQUACY IN PREDICTIVE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY FOR MEASURING STUDENTS FLUENCY 'OOD +AMINSKI 4HE SCHOOL BASED LITERACY COACHES WERE TRAINED TO SCORE THE FOUR TEST PASSAGES USING THE STANDARDIZED APPROACH FOR ADMINISTRATION OF THE /2& TEST $ECODING ACCURACY ASSESSMENT 3LASHES WERE PLACED OVER INCORRECTLY READ WORDS INCLUDING HESITATIONS AFTER S THE TEST ADMINISTRATOR GAVE THE WORD TO THE STUDENT MISPRO NUNCIATIONS AND OMISSIONS IN THE THIRD GRADE $)"%,3 PASSAGES )NSERTIONS AND SELF CORRECTIONS WERE NOT SCORED
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
AS INCORRECT !T THE END OF MIN A SLASH WAS PLACED AT THE POINT WHERE THE STUDENT SAID THE LAST WORD 4HE TEST ADMINISTRATOR RECORDED EACH STUDENTS READING OF THE FOUR PASSAGES ON A SEPARATE AUDIOTAPE TO BE USED LATER FOR SCORING PURPOSES 7E DETERMINED STUDENTS READING ACCURACY SCORES ON THE $)"%,3 PASSAGES USED IN THIS STUDY BY COUNTING THE TOTAL NUMBER OF READING ERRORS AS DESCRIBED FOR EACH MIN READING OF THE FOUR PASSAGES 2EADING RATE 2EADING RATE WAS CALCULATED USING A WORDS CORRECT PER MINUTE WCPM METRIC 4HE WCPM METRIC COR RECTS FOR THE NUMBER OF ERRORS COMMITTED IN EACH MIN READING SAMPLE 7E CALCULATED THE WCPM METRIC BY SUB TRACTING THE TOTAL NUMBER OF ERRORS FROM THE TOTAL NUMBER OF WORDS READ BY EACH STUDENT IN MIN FOR EACH OF THE FOUR PASSAGES 2EADING EXPRESSION 2EADING EXPRESSION WAS JUDGED USING THE -ULTIDIMENSIONAL &LUENCY 3CALE -&3 :UTELL 2ASIN SKI COMPOSED OF FOUR POINT RATING SUBSCALES VOL UME PHRASING SMOOTHNESS AND PACE :UTELL AND 2ASINSKI REPORTED A INTERRATER RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT FOR THE -&3 ,ITERACY COACHES WERE TRAINED TO SCORE AUDIOTAPES DURING THE STUDY USING A SET OF FOUR SAMPLES FROM THE PREASSESSMENT PASSAGES ! MEMBER OF THE RESEARCH TEAM GAVE FEEDBACK TO THESE LITERACY COACHES ON HOW TO USE THE RATING SCALE FOLLOWING THE PROCESSES DESCRIBED BY :UTELL AND 2ASINSKI "ECAUSE PASSAGES WERE AUDIOTAPED LITERACY COACHES COULD LISTEN TO STUDENTS READING SAMPLES MULTIPLE TIMES IF NECES SARY TO DETERMINE A RATING 4OTAL SCORES ON THE -&3 RANGED FROM TO POINTS 3TUDENT SCORES WERE AVERAGED BY TAK ING THE RATING OF EACH OF THE FOUR ITEMSVOLUME PHRASING SMOOTHNESS AND PACEAND DIVIDING THE SUM OF THE RATINGS BY 3TUDENT MEAN SCORES WERE USED IN THE ANALYSIS #OMPREHENSION ORAL RETELLINGS 3TUDENT ORAL RETELLINGS OF THE PASSAGES WERE USED AS THE MEASURE OF STUDENT COMPRE HENSION /RAL RETELLINGS ARE USED AS A STANDARD PROCEDURE IN MANY COMPREHENSION RESEARCH STUDIES AND IN A VARIETY OF INFORMAL AND FORMAL PUBLISHED ASSESSMENTS 0ARIS 3TAHL /UR APPROACH TO SCORING THE ORAL RETELLINGS WAS MODELED AFTER THE $EVELOPMENTAL 2EADING !SSESSMENT "EAVER 7E PRODUCED A TEMPLATE TEXT BASE SCORING PROTOCOL FOR EACH PASSAGE BY PARSING THE PASSAGES INTO IDEA UNITS NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT CLAUSES OR MEANING UNITS .EXT MEMBERS OF THE RESEARCH TEAM RANKED ORDERED IDEA UNITS INTO TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES A SUPERORDINATE OR MAIN IDEA UNITS IN THE PASSAGE AND B SUBORDINATE OR DETAIL IDEA UNITS IN THE PASSAGE 4HEN WE PRINTED THE TEMPLATE TEXT BASE ORAL RETELLING SCORING PROTOCOL LISTING THE IDEA UNITS IN AN ORDER INDICATING THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE MAIN IDEA OR DETAIL WITH A BLANK BY EACH FOR PLACING A CHECK MARK !FTER STUDENTS FINISHED THE MIN READINGS OF EACH PAS SAGE THE TEST ADMINISTRATOR ASKED THEM TO ORALLY RETELL WHAT THEY HAD READ #HILDREN WERE INSTRUCTED TO TELL hEVERYTHING YOU CAN REMEMBER FROM READING THE PASSAGEv !S STUDENTS MADE MENTION OF MAIN OR DETAIL IDEA UNITS IN THEIR ORAL RETELLINGS THE TEST ADMINISTRATOR MADE A CHECK MARK IN THE BOX BY THE MAIN OR DETAIL IDEA UNIT DISPLAYED ON THE
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
SCORING PROTOCOL 4HE TEST ADMINISTRATOR SUMMED THE TOTAL NUMBER OF MAIN AND DETAIL IDEA UNITS RECALLED AT THE BOT TOM OF THE TEMPLATE 3TUDENTS RECEIVED AN EXTRA POINT FOR RETELLING THE INFORMATION IN THE PASSAGES IN THE CORRECT SEQUENCE 4O ESTABLISH RELIABILITY OF THE COMPREHENSION ORAL RETELL ING SCORING PROCESS TWO MEMBERS OF THE RESEARCH TEAM INDEPENDENTLY SCORED RANDOMLY SELECTED STUDENT AUDIO TAPES OF THE ORAL RETELLINGS USING THE TEMPLATE TEXT BASE ORAL RETELLING PROTOCOL 4HE TOTAL ORAL RETELLING SCORES FOR EACH OF THE TWO RATERS WERE ANALYZED USING CORRELA TION ANALYSIS YIELDING A 0EARSONS R CORRELATION COEFFICIENT 4HE OBTAINED R WAS INDICATING A HIGH PERCENTAGE OF AGREEMENT WHICH WAS DETERMINED BY SQUARING THE OBTAINED 4O CORRECT FOR THE POTENTIAL LIMITING EFFECT OF THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY IN MIN ON EACH STUDENTS READING COMPREHENSION ORAL RETELLING SCORES WE USED A PROPORTIONAL SCORE IN THE ANALYSIS 4HIS SCORE WAS DERIVED BY DIVIDING THE NUMBER OF IDEA UNITS IN EACH STUDENTS ORAL RETELLING BY THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY IN MIN ON THAT SAME PAS SAGE &OR EXAMPLE IF A STUDENT RECALLED SIX IDEA UNITS IN HIS OR HER ORAL RETELLING AND READ WCPM THE PROPORTIONAL SCORE WAS (OWEVER IF A STUDENT RECALLED IDEA UNITS IN WCPM THE PROPORTIONAL SCORE WAS THE SAME 7E DID THIS SO THAT THE COMPREHENSION SCORES REFLECTED THE AMOUNT OF RECALLED IDEA UNITS ATTENUATED BY THE PROPORTION OF THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY #LASSROOM OBSERVATIONS OF TEACHERS AND STUDENTS 4HE SCHOOL BASED LITERACY COACH OBSERVED EACH TEACHERS FLU ENCY INSTRUCTION WEEKLY FOR THE FULL LENGTH OF THE PRACTICE SESSION MIN USING A FIVE ITEM OBSERVATION RATING SCALE 2ESEARCH TEAM MEMBERS AND THE SCHOOL READING COACHES RECORDED FIELD NOTES AND RATINGS USING OBSERVATION FORMS CREATED FOR BOTH OF THE READING FLUENCY PRACTICE ROUTINES /N TWO OCCASIONS A PANEL OF THREE OBSERVERS WENT INTO CLASSROOMS TO ASSESS THE INTERRATER RELIABILITY AMONG THE OBSERVERS /N A MONTHLY BASIS THE RESEARCH TEAM ALONG WITH THE SCHOOL DISTRICT LANGUAGE ARTS COORDINATOR OBSERVED EACH TEACHER USING THE SAME OBSERVATION SCALE TO ASSURE FIDELITY TO THE EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS AND PROBLEM SOLVE IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES WITH THE TEACHERS /BSERVATIONS REVEALED HIGH DEGREES OF FIDELITY IN THE TWO TREATMENTS )N GENERAL PROBLEMS WERE OF A MINOR NATURE AND SOLVED BY SUPPLYING ON THE SPOT TRAINING OR ACCESS TO ADDITIONAL REQUESTED PRACTICE MATERIALS WHEN NECESSARY ! RANDOM SAMPLE OF FOUR MONTHLY RATINGS USING THE FIVE ITEM OBSERVATION SCALES COMPLETED BY THE DISTRICT LANGUAGE ARTS COORDINATOR AND A MEMBER OF THE RESEARCH TEAM REVEALED AGREEMENT ON THE FOUR RANDOMLY SAMPLED INDEPENDENT RATINGS OF TREATMENT QUALITY AND FIDELITY 4EACHER RESPONSE JOURNALS )NDIVIDUAL COPIES OF A TEACHER RESPONSE JOURNAL 42* WERE CREATED FOR EACH OF THE THIRD GRADE TEACHERS 4HE FIRST SECTION OF THE 42* CONTAINED WEEKLY RESPONSE PAGES THAT REQUIRED ANSWERS TO THREE WRITTEN QUESTIONS WITH SPACE FOR EACH RESPONSE ALONG
WITH AN OPEN RESPONSE AREA A 7HAT DIFFICULTIES ARE YOU ENCOUNTERING WITH THE TWO FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS B 7HAT IS GOING WELL FOR YOU WITH THE FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS AND C 7HAT EFFECTS IF ANY ARE YOU NOTICING ON YOUR STUDENTS WITH EACH FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENT 4HE SECOND SECTION OF THE 42* REQUESTED A WRITTEN SUMMARY FOR SHARING OVERALL IMPRESSIONS AND TEACHER CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE STUDY 3TUDENT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS !T THE OUTSET AND CONCLUSION OF THE EXPERIMENT STUDENTS WERE ASKED TO ANSWER THE FOL LOWING QUESTIONS A (OW DO YOU THINK YOUR READING ALOUD SOUNDS B )F YOU DONT THINK YOUR READING ALOUD SOUNDS GOOD WHAT WILL YOU DO TO FIX IT AND C 7HAT DOES A GOOD READER SOUND LIKE TO YOU $ESIGN )N THIS RESEARCH STUDY WE USED A DOMINANT LESS DOMI NANT MIXED MODEL DESIGN USING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITA TIVE DATA COLLECTION 4ASHAKKORI 4EDDLIE )N THE DOMINANT STRUCTURE OF THE MIXED MODEL DESIGN WE USED A PRETESTnPOSTTEST TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN #AMPBELL 3TANLEY )N THE LESS DOMINANT STRUCTURE OF THE MIXED MODEL DESIGN WE ANALYZED CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS 42*S AND DISCUSSIONS AND STUDENT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS TO DESCRIBE TEACHING LEARNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN EACH EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENT 7E ACKNOWL EDGE ONE IMPORTANT LIMITATION OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN USED IN THIS STUDY 4HERE WAS NO TRADITIONAL CONTROL GROUP THAT CONTINUED THE REGULAR READING INSTRUCTION TIME WITHOUT THE BENEFIT OF EITHER OF THE TWO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS 3C32 OR '2/2 ! TRUE CONTROL GROUP OF NO TREATMENT IS DIFFICULT TO IMPLEMENT WITHIN THE ECOLOGICALLY VALID CONTEXT OF A SCHOOL SETTING 4HE TEACHERS WHO PARTICI PATED IN THIS RESEARCH DID SO BELIEVING THEY WOULD BE DOING SOMETHING HELPFUL TO THEIR STUDENTS RATHER THAN DOING MORE OF THE NORM 4HE NORM WAS NOT A SUFFICIENT ENTICEMENT FOR TEACHERS TO PARTICIPATE 'IVEN THIS LIMITATION WE DECIDED TO ANALYZE THE RESULTS OF THE STUDY USING GAIN SCORES FROM PRETEST TO POSTTEST FOR THE TWO TREATMENT GROUPS TO DETER MINE IF STUDENTS IN THE TWO TREATMENT GROUPS MADE PROGRESS IN FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION DURING THE YEAR 2EGULAR 2EADING )NSTRUCTION 4HE READING INSTRUCTION IN ALL +n CLASSROOMS WAS A PRE SCRIBED MIN TIME BLOCK EACH DAY WITH A CLEAR INSTRUC TIONAL ROUTINE 3TUDENTS RECEIVED GUIDED READING INSTRUC TION IN SMALL GROUPS FOR MIN PER DAY PER THE PROCEDURES DESCRIBED IN THE BOOK 'UIDED 2EADING 'OOD &IRST 4EACHING FOR !LL #HILDREN BY &OUNTAS AND 0INNELL #HILDREN ROTATED DAILY THROUGH LEARNING STATIONS EVERY MIN THAT FOCUSED ON VOCABULARY COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES AND WORD WORK IN ADDITION TO THE MIN THEY SPENT WITH THEIR CLASSROOM TEACHER IN SMALL GROUP GUIDED READING LESSONS $URING THE REMAINING MIN OF THE DAY CHILDREN RECEIVED WHOLE GROUP
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
WORD WORK INSTRUCTION FOR MIN BASED ON 0 - #UNNING HAMS WORD BUILDING ACTIVITIES 4HE REMAINING MIN OF READING INSTRUCTION EACH DAY FOCUSED ON WHOLE GROUP VOCABULARY AND COMPREHENSION STRATEGY INSTRUCTION LESSONS THAT WERE PRESCRIBED BY A DISTRICT CURRICULUM GUIDE
)N THE SECTIONS THAT FOLLOW WE DESCRIBE THE NATURE OF THE TWO FLUENCY TREATMENTS AND EMPHASIZE HOW THE MODES OF PRACTICE DIFFERED
&LUENCY 0RACTICE 4REATMENTS
4HE TEACHERS WHO ROTATED THROUGH THE 3C32 FLUENCY TREATMENT GROUPS HAD BEEN TRAINED IN USING &OUNTAS AND 0INNELLS !n: TEXT GRADIENT OR LEVELING SCHEME FOR DETERMINING DIFFICULTY LEVELS OF READING TEXTS %ACH TEACHER HAD A LARGE AND WELL STOCKED CLASSROOM LIBRARY OF BOOKS RESULTING FROM THEIR YEAR PARTICIPATION IN THE 2%! GRANT ,IBRARIES IN THESE CLASSROOMS WERE ARRANGED SO THAT EVERY BOOK IN THE CLASSROOM LIBRARY WAS EITHER MARKED WITH COLORED TAPE OR PLACED INTO A COLORED PLASTIC BIN INDICATING LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY &URTHERMORE TEACHERS HAD BEEN TRAINED TO PRESENT LESSONS TO STUDENTS EARLY IN THE YEAR AND THROUGH OUT THE YEAR IN THE 3C32 TREATMENT ON HOW TO SELF SELECT EASY INDEPENDENT LEVEL BOOKS FOR READING USING RESOURCES FOUND IN 9OUR #LASSROOM ,IBRARY .EW 7AYS TO 'IVE IT -ORE 4EACHING 0OWER 2EUTZEL &AWSON 4HE DAILY 3C32 TREATMENT BEGAN WITH TEACHERS MODELING THE FLUENT READING OF A TEXT !FTERWARD THE TEACHERS CON DUCTED A BRIEF DISCUSSION WITH STUDENTS ABOUT WHAT MADE THEIR MODELED READING FLUENT )N GENERAL THESE DISCUSSIONS FOCUSED ON THE FLUENCY ELEMENTS OF hREADING WHAT WAS ON THE PAGE v hSOUNDING LIKE SOMEONE TALKING v OR hREADING TOO FAST TOO SLOW OR JUST RIGHTv 7HEN THIS MIN MODELING AND DISCUSSION ENDED THE TEACHER REMINDED STUDENTS THAT THEY SHOULD SELECT AN INDEPENDENT LEVEL BOOK FROM AN APPROPRI ATELY COLORED BIN OR SHELF IN THE CLASSROOM LIBRARY AND THAT THEY SHOULD ALSO SELECT FROM ONE OF THE GENRES SHOWN ON THE THEIR GENRE WHEEL TO READ SILENTLY 3TUDENTS WERE REQUIRED TO READ ACROSS SIX DIFFERENT GENRE TYPES EACH WEEKS AS SHOWN IN &IGURE 7HEN STUDENTS FINISHED ONE BOOK FROM EACH GENRE REPRE SENTED ON THE WHEEL THEY COLORED IN THAT SLICE OF THE WHEEL AND SELECTED ANOTHER BOOK FROM A DIFFERENT GENRE ON THE WHEEL 7HEN THE QUARTER ENDED EACH CHILD SHOULD HAVE COMPLETED AND COLORED HALF OF THE SLICES ON THEIR GENRE WHEEL 5NLIKE IN FORMER CLASSROOM MANIFESTATIONS OF 332 TEACHERS KEPT A LISTING OF STUDENT NAMES WITH WHOM THEY HAD CONDUCTED BRIEF READING CONFERENCES $URING THESE BRIEF READING CONFERENCES THE TEACHER ASKED STUDENTS TO READ PART OF THE BOOK ALOUD CONDUCTED A BRIEF DISCUSSION ABOUT THE READING AND ASKED THE CHILD TO SET GOALS FOR FINISHING THE BOOK WITHIN A REASONABLE TIME FRAME 4HESE RANDOM MONITORING CONFERENCES TOOK ABOUT n MIN EACH SO THAT THE TEACHER WAS ABLE TO CONFERENCE WITH BETWEEN AND STUDENTS EACH DAY
3IMILARITIES 4HERE WERE THREE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE TWO TREATMENTS 4EACHERS IN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREATMENTS PROVIDED EQUAL LENGTHS OF FLUENCY PRACTICE TIME AND EQUAL LENGTHS OF CORE READING INSTRUCTION TIME FOR ALL FOUR CLASS ROOMS IN THE STUDY 4EACHERS IN ALL FOUR CLASSROOMS ALSO USED THE SAME INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES !LSO ALL FOUR CLASSROOMS USED A TAKE HOME READING LIBRARY FROM WHICH STUDENTS WERE EXPECTED TO TAKE HOME DAILY AN INDEPENDENT LEVEL BOOK FOR PERSONAL READING 4EACHERS TRACKED ALL STUDENTS WEEKLY TO ASSURE THEY WERE READING MIN PER DAY OUT OF SCHOOL AS REPORTED BY THE STUDENTS PARENTS 3ECOND EVERY DAY THE TEACHERS IN BOTH FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS BEGAN THE ALLOCATED FLUENCY PRACTICE TIME BY MODELING FLUENT READ ING OF A TEXT AND DISCUSSING WITH STUDENTS ALTHOUGH BRIEFLY ABOUT MIN VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUENT READING ,AST THE TEACHER OR ANOTHER THIRD GRADE STUDENT PROVIDED FEEDBACK AND MONITORED STUDENTS IN BOTH TREATMENT GROUPS DURING THEIR FLUENCY READING PRACTICE TIME $IFFERENCES 4HE TWO TREATMENTS IN THIS STUDY WERE DIF FERENTIATED BY SIX CONTRASTING CHARACTERISTICS A MODE OF READING SILENT VS ORAL B NATURE OF READING WIDE VS REPEATED C FREQUENCY OF FEEDBACK AND MONITORING DAILY VS WEEKLY D SOCIAL NATURE OF READING ISOLATED VS COLLAB ORATIVE E TEACHER ASSIGNED TEXTS VERSUS STUDENT SELECTED TEXTS FROM LEVELED CLASSROOM LIBRARIES AND F LEVEL OF TEXT DIFFICULTY GRADE VS INDEPENDENT LEVEL TEXTS 4HE 3C32 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ TEXTS SILENTLY WHERE AS THE '2/2 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ TEXTS ORALLY 4HE 3C32 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ WIDELY FROM A VARIETY OF TEXT GENRES USING A GENRE WHEEL EACH FOR WEEK PERIOD 4HE '2/2 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ TEACHER ASSIGNED TEXTS REPEATEDLY BETWEEN THREE AND FIVE TIMES )N THE 3C32 TREATMENT THE TEACHER PROVIDED FEEDBACK AND MONITORED STUDENTS AT LEAST WEEKLY )N THE '2/2 TREATMENT EITHER A TEACHER OR A PEER PROVIDED FEEDBACK AND MONITORED STU DENTS DAILY )N THE 3C32 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ TEXTS IN ISOLATION )N THE '2/2 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ EITHER CHORALLY WITH THE WHOLE CLASS OR WITH A SELF SELECTED BUDDY OR PEER IN PAIRED READING 3TUDENTS IN THE 3C32 TREATMENT SELF SELECTED THEIR TEXTS 3TUDENTS IN THE '2/2 TREATMENT PRACTICED READING TEXTS THAT WERE SELECTED BY THE TEACHER ,AST STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 TREATMENT PRACTICED FLUENCY BY READING TEXTS AT THEIR INDEPENDENT READING LEVELS FROM AMONG SEVERAL GENRES STORED IN LEVELED CONTAINERS IN THE CLASSROOM LIBRARIES 3TUDENTS IN THE '2/2 TREATMENT PRACTICED FLUENCY WITH GRADE LEVEL TEXTS &IGURE HIGH LIGHTS SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS
3CAFFOLDED 3ILENT 2EADING 4REATMENT
'2/2 7ITH &EEDBACK 4REATMENT 4HE TEACHERS WHO ALSO ROTATED THROUGH THE '2/2 TREAT MENT GROUPS HAD BEEN TRAINED IN USING A VARIETY OF METHODS FOR HELPING STUDENTS TO REPEATEDLY READ TEXTS ALOUD TO DEVELOP
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
4REATMENT CHARACTERISTIC
'UIDED 2EPEATED /RAL 2EADING '2/2
3CAFFOLDED 3ILENT 2EADING 3C32
4IME ALLOCATED
MIN DAILY -ONDAYn4HURSDAY
MIN DAILY -ONDAYn4HURSDAY
0URPOSE
4O INCREASE STUDENTS mUENCY AND COMPREHENSION
4O INCREASE STUDENTS mUENCY AND COMPRE HENSION
4HEORETICAL EMPHASIS
7ORD LEVEL AUTOMATICITY LEADS TO INCREASED COMPREHENSION
%XPERIENCE WITH DIFFERING TEXT GENRES STRUCTURES AND KNOWLEDGE DOMAINS LEADS TO INCREASED COMPREHENSION
-ODE OF READING PRACTICE
/RAL READING
3ILENT READING
&OCUS OF PRACTICE
2EPEATED READINGS OF SHORT TEXT SEGMENTS TO FACILITATE AUTOMATIC WORD RECOGNITION
7IDE READING OF BOOK LENGTH TEXTS ACROSS DIFFERING GENRES TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION AND EXPERIENCE WITH TEXT ORGANIZATION
,EVEL OF TEXT DIFlCULTY PRACTICED
'ROUP GRADE LEVEL TEXT
)NDIVIDUAL INDEPENDENT LEVEL TEXTS
2OLE OF TEACHER DURING PRACTICE
-ONITOR AND PROVIDE FEEDBACK TO STUDENTS
-ONITOR AND PROVIDE FEEDBACK TO STUDENTS
4EACHER INSTRUCTION
%XPLAIN AND MODEL mUENT READING
%XPLAIN AND MODEL mUENT READING
.ATURE OF TEACHER PEER FEEDBACK AND GUIDANCE
3TUDENT READS ALOUD AND INFORMATION CONVEYED ABOUT ACCURACY RATE AND EXPRESSION BY TEACHER OR PEER
3TUDENT READS ALOUD WITH BRIEF INTERACTIONS WITH THE TEACHER AROUND mUENCY AND TEXT UNDERSTANDING GOAL SETTING AND TIMELINE FOR COMPLETION
&OCUS OF TEACHER PEER FEEDBACK AND GUIDANCE
&LUENCY
&LUENCY AND COMPREHENSION
3OCIAL CONTEXT
0EER COLLABORATION IN LISTENING TO PRACTICING WITH AND PROVIDING FEEDBACK TO OTHER STUDENTS STUDENT PERFOR MANCES ONCE MONTHLY
,IMITED INTERACTION WITH OTHER PEERS LARGELY INDIVIDUAL IN A SOLITARY SETTING
#HARACTERISTICS OF READ ING MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT
4EACHER CHOICE
3TUDENT CHOICE WITHIN STRUCTURE INDEPEN DENT LEVEL
&)'52% 4HEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE TWO FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS 3HADED BOXES HIGHLIGHT CONTRASTS
&ANTASY
&OLKTALES
0OETRY
&ABLES
!UTOBIOGRAPHY
!DVENTURE
(ISTORICAL lCTION
3CIENCE lCTION
"IOGRAPHY
(UMOR -YSTERY
3PORTS
&)'52% 2EADING GENRE WHEEL $ 2 2EUTZEL 0 # &AWSON
FLUENCY 4HESE METHODS INCLUDED A VARIOUS TYPES OF CHORAL READING FOR WHOLE GROUP PRACTICE INCLUDING UNISON ANTIPHO NAL AND ECHOIC B PAIRED ASSISTED BUDDY OR DYAD READING WITH A STUDENT SELECTED PARTNER AND C READERS THEATER RADIO READING AND RECITATION 4EACHERS SELECTED GRADE LEVEL TEXTS THAT WERE REPEATEDLY READ ALOUD AT LEAST n DIFFERENT TIMES 4HE DAILY '2/2 TREATMENT BEGAN WITH THE TEACHERS MODELING THE FLUENT READING OF THE SELECTED GRADE LEVEL TEXT 4HEN THE TEACHERS CONDUCTED BRIEF DISCUSSIONS WITH STUDENTS ABOUT WHAT MADE THEIR MODELED READING FLUENT 4HESE DISCUSSIONS TYPICALLY FOCUSED ON THE FLUENCY ELEMENTS OF hREADING WHAT WAS ON THE PAGE v hSOUNDING LIKE SOMEONE TALKING v OR hREADING TOO FAST TOO SLOW OR JUST RIGHTv 7HEN THIS MIN MODELING AND DISCUSSION ENDED STUDENTS READ THE GRADE LEVEL TEACHER SELECTED TEXT AS A WHOLE CLASS WITH THE TEACHER USING SOME FORM OF CHORAL READING SUCH AS UNISON ECHOIC OR ANTIPHONAL READINGS !FTER THE WHOLE GROUP CHORAL READING PRACTICE CONCLUDED STUDENTS REREAD ALOUD THE ASSIGNED GRADE LEVEL TEXT WITH ANOTHER STUDENT WHOM THEY SELECTED AS A BUDDY FOR PAIRED READING BECAUSE THIS APPROACH TO PAIRING STUDENTS HAS SHOWN POSITIVE RESULTS
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
IN THE PAST -EISINGER 3CHWANENFLUGEL "RADLEY +UHN 3TAHL /N OCCASION STUDENTS PRACTICED READING THE TEXT ALOUD BY READING INTO A FLUENCY PHONE CONSTRUCTED OF WHITE IN POLYVINYL CHLORIDE 06# PIPE AND 06# PIPE ELBOWS 4HE BOTTOM PART OF THE 06# FLUENCY PHONE SWIVELED OUT FOR THE READER TO READ INTO 4HE EARPIECE WAS PLACED ON THE EAR OF THE LISTENER DURING PAIRED READING TO HEAR THE BUDDYS READ ING THROUGH THE FLUENCY PHONE /NE TIME PER MONTH THE TEACHER SELECTED A TEXT THAT WAS TO BE PRACTICED BY STUDENTS FOR WEEK IN ANTICIPATION OF A PERFORMANCE USING READERS THEATER RADIO READING OR RECITATION FOR OTHER STUDENTS IN CLASSES WITHIN THE SCHOOL
FOR GAIN SCORES BETWEEN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREATMENT GROUPS ON ACCURACY RATE EXPRESSION AND COMPREHENSION ON TWO $)"%,3 /2& THIRD GRADE PASSAGES 7E USED 3033 FOR 7INDOWS WITHIN THE GENERAL LINEAR MODEL ',- FOR THE ANALYSES 4HE PARTICIPANTS WERE ENTERED AS THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS BECAUSE NO 4REATMENT ¾ 4EACHER INTERACTION FOR ANY OF THE MEASURES OCCURRED WHEN TESTED IN A NESTED !./6! AS POTENTIAL TEACHER EFFECTS WERE CONTROLLED BY DESIGN 1UALITATIVE OBSERVATIONAL DATA WERE ANALYZED TO ASSESS THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE TWO TREATMENTS WERE IMPLEMENTED WITH FIDELITY IN THE FOUR CLASSROOMS #LASSROOM OBSERVATIONS WERE ALSO PERIODICALLY VIDEOTAPED TO PROVIDE RESEARCHERS WITH INTACT RECORDS OF ACTUAL PRACTICE SESSIONS AND THE ACCOMPANYING DIALOGUE BETWEEN TEACHERS AND STUDENTS 7E USED THESE DATA ALONG WITH WRITTEN OBSERVATIONS TO CON STRUCT THE CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL AND PROCEDURAL DESCRIP TIONS IN THIS REPORT 7E COLLECTED 42*S TO GAIN INSIGHTS INTO TEACHERS PERCEIVED STRUGGLES AND TRIUMPHS IN WORKING WITH THE VARIED READING FLUENCY PRACTICE ROUTINES 3TUDENT ANSWERS TO PRE AND POSTSTUDY STRUCTURED QUESTIONS PROVIDED INSIGHT INTO STUDENTS PERCEPTIONS OF THE TWO READING PRAC TICE TREATMENTS
0ROCEDURE 7E ASSESSED THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE STRATIFIED RANDOM ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES PRIOR TO THE ONSET OF THE STUDY WITH AN ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE !./6! #OMPARISON OF STU DENTS PRETEST PASSAGE SCORES CONFIRMED NO SIGNIFICANT INITIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO RANDOMLY ASSIGNED FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENT GROUPS A ACCURACY 0OTS PASSAGE & P ACCURACY &IELD 4RIP PASSAGE & P B RATE 0OTS PASSAGE & P RATE &IELD 4RIP PASSAGE & P C EXPRES SION 0OTS PASSAGE & P EXPRESSION &IELD 4RIP PASSAGE & P D COMPREHENSION 0OTS PASSAGE & P ORAL RETELLING &IELD 4RIP PASSAGE & P
1UANTITATIVE 2ESULTS 4ABLES AND DISPLAY PRETEST AND POSTTEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THIRD GRADE CLASSROOMS AND THE TWO TREATMENTS ON ACCURACY RATE EXPRESSION AND COMPRE HENSION SCORES FOR THE TWO PRETEST PASSAGES 0OTS AND 4HE &IELD 4RIP AND THE TWO POSTTEST PASSAGES -Y 0ARENTS AND 0LANTING A 'ARDEN %IGHT SEPARATE !./6! GAIN SCORE ANALYSES WERE USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE 3C32 OR '2/2 READING FLUENCY PRACTICE ROUTINES WERE EQUALLY EFFECTIVE IN TERMS OF DECREASING
$ATA 3OURCES AND !NALYSIS 7E ANALYZED DATA ACCORDING TO A SEQUENTIAL QUANTITA TIVEnQUALITATIVE PROCESS 4ASHAKKORI 4EDDLIE 4HE DOMINANT QUANTITATIVE DATA WERE ANALYZED USING !./6!
4!",% $ESCRIPTIVE 3TATISTICS FOR &LUENCY AND #OMPREHENSION 0RETESTS BY #LASSROOM AND 4REATMENT 0RETEST !CCURACY 0OTS 4HE &IELD 4RIP 2EADING RATE 0OTS 4HE &IELD 4RIP %XPRESSION 0OTS 4HE &IELD 4RIP #OMPREHENSION 0OTS 4HE &IELD 4RIP
'2/2 CLASSROOMS #LASS
#LASS
3C32 CLASSROOMS 4REATMENT GROUP
#LASS
#LASS
4REATMENT GROUP
-
3$
-
3$
-
3$
-
3$
-
3$
-
3$
.OTE '2/2 GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING 3C32 SCAFFOLDED SILENT READING
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
4!",% $ESCRIPTIVE 3TATISTICS FOR &LUENCY AND #OMPREHENSION 0OSTTESTS BY #LASSROOM AND 4REATMENT 0OSTTESTS !CCURACY -Y 0ARENTS 0LANTING A 'ARDEN 2EADING RATE -Y 0ARENTS 0LANTING A 'ARDEN %XPRESSION -Y 0ARENTS 0LANTING A 'ARDEN #OMPREHENSION -Y 0ARENTS 0LANTING A 'ARDEN
'2/2 CLASSROOMS #LASS
#LASS
3C32 CLASSROOMS 4REATMENT GROUP
#LASS
#LASS
4REATMENT GROUP
-
3$
-
3$
-
3$
-
3$
-
3$
-
3$
.OTE '2/2 GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING 3C32 SCAFFOLDED SILENT READING
STUDENTS ERRORS AND IMPROVING STUDENTS ACCURACY READING RATE EXPRESSION AND COMPREHENSION !CCURACY 4HERE WAS NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 TREATMENTS ON THE MEAN GAIN SCORES REDUCTION OF ERRORS DURING MIN READING SAMPLES FOR THE -Y 0ARENTS PASSAGE & P OR THE 0LANTING A 'ARDEN PASSAGE & P "OTH READING TREATMENT APPROACHES RESULTED IN A AVERAGE DECREASE IN THE MEAN NUMBER OF ERRORS MADE BY STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 GROUPS OVER THE COURSE OF THE YEAR LONG STUDY 2ATE
PACE ON THE 0LANTING A 'ARDEN PASSAGE & P "OTH TREATMENTS RESULTED IN A AVERAGE INCREASE IN MEAN EXPRESSION RATING SCORES FOR STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 GROUPS #OMPREHENSION /RAL 2ETELLING 3CORES 4HERE WAS NO SIGNIFICANT MEAN GAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 TREATMENTS IN THE PROPORTION OF NUM BER OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM ON THE -Y 0ARENTS PASSAGE & P OR THE 0LANTING A 'ARDEN PASSAGE & P "OTH READING FLUENCY PRAC TICE APPROACHES RESULTED IN A AVERAGE INCREASE IN THE PROPORTION OF NUMBER OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM BY STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 GROUPS
4HERE WAS NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 TREATMENTS ON THE MEAN GAIN SCORES FOR NUMBER OF WCPM FOR THE -Y 0ARENTS PASSAGE & P OR THE 0LANTING A 'ARDEN PASSAGE & P OVER THE COURSE OF THE YEAR LONG STUDY "OTH TREATMENTS RESULTED IN A AVERAGE INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY IN MIN OF READING BY STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 GROUPS
1UALITATIVE 2ESULTS
%XPRESSION
3TUDENT )NTERVIEWS
4HERE WAS A SIGNIFICANT MEAN GAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 TREATMENTS FAVORING THE 3C32 GROUP MEAN GAIN ON EXPRESSION AS MEASURED BY PHRASING VOLUME SMOOTHNESS AND PACE ON THE -Y 0ARENTS PASSAGE & P 4HERE WAS NO SIGNIFICANT MEAN GAIN DIFFER ENCE BETWEEN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 TREATMENTS ON EXPRES SION AS MEASURED BY PHRASING VOLUME SMOOTHNESS AND
!T THE OUTSET AND CONCLUSION OF THE STUDY THE THIRD GRADE STUDENTS WERE ASKED TO RESPOND TO THREE STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 7E PRESENT THESE QUESTIONS AND TYPICAL RESPONSES IN THE FALL AND SPRING OF THE SCHOOL YEAR 1UESTION (OW DO YOU THINK YOUR READING ALOUD SOUNDS NOW 2ESPONSES BY STUDENTS IN BOTH PRACTICE GROUPS IN THE FALL RANGED FROM hNOT VERY GOODv TO hSOUNDS GREATv OR
4REATMENT &IDELITY /N THE BASIS OF CONSISTENT WEEKLY CLASSROOM OBSERVA TIONS THE RESEARCH TEAM JUDGED THE FIDELITY OF TREATMENT IMPLEMENTATION TO BE GOOD WITH THE TEACHERS REGULARLY IMPLEMENTING THE SPECIFIED READING FLUENCY PRACTICE ROU TINES AS PER THE TRAINING THEY RECEIVED
hSOUNDS EXCITING LIKE A GOOD STORYv 4HE MOST FREQUENTLY OCCURRING RESPONSE WAS hOKAY v WITH FEWER STUDENTS INDI CATING hGOODv )N THE SPRING RESPONSES BY STUDENTS IN BOTH PRACTICE GROUPS HAD SHIFTED FROM THE MOST FREQUENT RESPONSE OF hOKAYv TOWARD THE RESPONSE OF hGOODv 3TU DENTS IN THE 3C32 GROUP ADDED LITTLE OR NO EXPLANATION TO THESE BRIEF CHARACTERIZATIONS OF THEIR READING ALOUD (OW EVER THE STUDENTS IN THE '2/2 GROUP RESPONDED NOT ONLY WITH THE TYPICAL hOKAYv OR hGOOD v BUT SEVERAL STUDENTS VOLUNTARILY ADDED EXPLANATIONS FOR THESE RESPONSES SUCH AS hBETTER THAN LAST TIMEv OR hBETTER THAN IT USED TO BEv h3OMETIMES ) HAVE EXPRESSION SOMETIMES ) DONT AND SOMETIMES ) GO TOO FASTv AND h) STOP AT PERIODS NOW AND HAVE BETTER EXPRESSIONv 1UESTION )F YOU DONT THINK YOUR READING ALOUD SOUNDS GOOD WHAT DO YOU DO TO FIX IT )N THE FALL ANSWERS TO THIS QUESTION FROM STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 GROUP INCLUDED RESPONSES SUCH AS hREAD ALOUDv OR hREAD MORE OFTEN v hPRAC TICE v hREAD LOUDER v AND hREAD IT AGAINv OR hOVER AND OVERv !NSWERS TO THIS QUESTION FROM THE '2/2 GROUP IN THE FALL INCLUDED RESPONSES SUCH AS hSPEAK CLEARLY v hREAD THE WORDS CORRECTLY v hREAD OVER UNTIL IT SOUNDS RIGHT v h) DONT KNOW v hSOUND OUT THE WORD v hREAD SLOWER v hFIX MISTAKES v hPRAC TICE v AND hREAD EASIER BOOKSv )N THE SPRING STUDENTS IN BOTH GROUPS ADDED A NUMBER OF ELABORATED RESPONSES TO THIS QUESTION 2EPONSES IN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 GROUPS INCLUDED SUGGESTIONS SUCH AS A PRACTICE B READ MORE C USE EXPRESSION D GO BACK AND START ALL OVER E IF YOU DONT KNOW A WORD ASK FOR HELP F READ SLOWERUNDERSTAND WORDS NOT JUST GO QUICKLY G USE PUNCTUATION H MAKE THE SOUND OF EACH LETTER AND THEN BLEND THEM TOGETHER TO GET THE WORD I MAKE IT EXCITING J TAKE A BIG BREATH AND READ TO THE COMMA OR END PUNC TUATION K SLOW DOWN AND L USE MORE EXPRESSION 1UESTION 7HAT DOES A GOOD READER SOUND LIKE TO YOU 3TUDENTS IN THE 3C32 GROUP IN THE FALL INDICATED THAT GOOD READERS SOUND LIKE A h4HEY KNOW WHAT THEY ARE SAYING 9OU GET A PICTURE IN YOUR MINDv B h3OMEONE WHO CAN READ FASTv C h3OMEONE WHO TALKS OUT LOUD WITH EXPRES SIONv D h2EADS NOT TOO FAST AND NOT TOO SLOWJUST RIGHTv E h&IXES MISTAKESv AND F h,OOK AT EACH WORD CAREFULLY AND READ NICELYv 3TUDENTS IN THE '2/2 GROUP IN THE FALL INDICATED THAT GOOD READERS SOUND LIKE THEY A h2EAD EVERY WORD GOODv B h(AVE A BEAUTIFUL VOICEv C h'O BACK AND REREADv D h.OTICE THE PUNCTUATIONv E h2EAD SLOWER AND THINK ABOUT THE BOOKv AND F h2EAD LOUDER WITH EXPRESSION AND DONT MAKE MISTAKESv )N THE SPRING STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 GROUP INDICATED THAT GOOD READERS A h'O BACK AND FIX MISTAKESv B h2EAD SMOOTH CLEARLY AND LOUD ENOUGH THAT OTHERS CAN HEARv C h2EAD LOTS OF BOOKSv D h$ONT READ DULL PUT VOICE IN REALLY UNDERSTAND AND NOT TOO FAST AND NOT TOO SLOWv E h2EAD WITH VOICE 7ATCHES BOLD WORDS WHEN SHE MESSES UP SHE REREADS )F SHE DOESNT KNOW A WORD SHE GETS HELP OR LOOKS IT UPv F h7ATCHES COMMAS AND EXCLAMATION POINTSv AND G h'OES BACK AND FIXES MISTAKESv
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
3TUDENTS IN THE '2/2 GROUP IN THE SPRING INDICATED THAT GOOD READERS A h!CT LIKE ITS HAPPENING TO THEM AS THEY READ 3TOP AT PERIODSv B h-AKES THINGS EXCITING (AS LOTS OF EXPRESSION 2EAD AT A GOOD SPEEDv C h3AY THE WORDS CLEARLY TALK SO EVERYONE CAN HEAR NOT BORING USES GOOD EXPRESSIONv D h2EADS GOOD BOOKSv E h.OT CHOPPY CAN READ HARD BOOKSv AND F h&IXES MISTAKESv 4EACHER 2EFLECTION *OURNALS )N ADDITION TO THE STUDENT RESPONSES TO THE PRE AND POST STUDY STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS EACH WEEK TEACHERS WERE ASKED TO RESPOND IN WRITING TO THREE QUESTIONS 1UESTION 7HAT DIFFICULTIES ARE YOU ENCOUNTERING WITH THE TWO FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS !T FIRST THERE WAS CLEAR EVIDENCE THAT TEACHERS IN BOTH GROUPS WERE SOMEWHAT UNSURE OF THEM SELVES 4HIS MAY HAVE BEEN BECAUSE OF CONDITIONS IN WHICH THEIR TEACHING WAS UNDER INTENSE OBSERVATION AND THEIR WRIT TEN LESSON PLANS WERE SCRUTINIZED !LSO FLUENCY PRACTICE WAS NOT A COMMON PART OF THEIR REGULAR READING INSTRUCTION UP TO THIS TIME !LL TEACHERS INDICATED A CONCERN ABOUT WHETHER THEY WERE hDOING THE FLUENCY PRACTICE RIGHTv 4HEY MADE COMMENTS SUCH AS h) FELT A LITTLE UNSURE ABOUT HOW ) SHOULD MONITOR THE STUDENTSv OR h) WAS WORRIED THAT ) WAS NOT DOING THE READING PRACTICE RIGHT MAYBE ) WAS LEAVING SOMETHING OUTv !S TIME PROGRESSED THE TEACHERS SEEMED TO RELAX AND FEEL COMFORTABLE WITH THEIR FLUENCY PRACTICE SESSIONS AND THE ONGOING PROCESS OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS 4HEIR COMMENTS INCLUDED h) FELT MORE RELAXED AND LESS STRESSEDv AND h3EEMS TO BE GOING WELLFEELS VERY COMFORTABLEv ! CONSTANT COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CLASSROOM OBSER VATIONS INDICATED SIMILAR TRENDS 4EACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FLUENCY PRACTICE ROUTINES BEGAN A LITTLE UNSURE BUT WITHIN A MATTER OF TO WEEKS FROM THE ONSET OF THE STUDY THE TEACHERS WERE IMPLEMENTING THEIR ASSIGNED FORMS OF FLU ENCY PRACTICE WELL AND WITH LESS STRESS AND INCREASED CONFI DENCE 4HIS IS NOT TO SAY THAT IMPLEMENTATION AT THE INITIAL STAGES OF THE STUDY WAS POOR /N A FIVE POINT OBSERVATION SCALE AT THE ND WEEK INITIAL TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION WAS JUDGED AN AVERAGE OF (OWEVER BY THE END OF THE STUDY TH WEEK THE TEACHERS WERE AVERAGING A OBSERVA TION RATING SHOWING THE IMPROVED CONFIDENCE AND SKILL 1UESTION 7HAT IS GOING WELL FOR YOU WITH THE FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS 4HERE WAS AGAIN SOME EVIDENCE WITHIN RESPONSES INITIALLY THAT TEACHERS IN BOTH GROUPS WERE UNSURE OF THEIR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS (OWEVER THE PREPONDERANCE OF RESPONSES TO THIS PARTICULAR QUESTION SEEMED TO FOCUS ON THE STUDENTS AND THEIR PARTICIPATION RATHER THAN ON TEACHERS AND THEIR COMFORT LEVELS &OR EXAMPLE COMMENTS WERE MADE SUCH AS THE FOLLOWING h4HE STUDENTS WHO LOVE TO READ ARE ENJOY ING THIS TIMEv h-ORE STUDENTS ARE READING CHAPTER BOOKS AND SEEM TO BE REALLY ENJOYING THEMv AND h+IDS ARE REALLY ENJOYING IT AND GETTING MORE EXPRESSIVE IN THEIR ORAL READ INGv !S THE STUDY PROGRESSED RESPONSES TO THIS QUESTION VARIED SIGNIFICANTLY &OR EXAMPLE h3OME STUDENTS WHO
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
DID NOT ENJOY READING ARE NOW COMPLETING THEIR BOOKSv h4HE LESSONS ARE GOING FASTER WITH MORE AND MORE STUDENT PARTICIPATIONv AND h4HE STUDENTS LOVED LISTENING TO THE TEACHER MAKE MISTAKESv 4HIS WAS DONE WHILE MODELING FLUENCY AND FIX UP STRATEGIES !T THE END OF THE STUDY THE READING COACH NOTED IN HER OBSERVATIONS h%VERY TEACHER INCLUDING MYSELF LEARNED A LOT ABOUT PROVIDING THE CONDI TIONS FOR GOOD READING PRACTICEv 1UESTION 7HAT EFFECTS IF ANY ARE YOU NOTICING ON YOUR STUDENTS WITH EACH FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENT $URING THE INITIAL STAGES OF THE STUDY TEACHERS COMPLAINED ABOUT STU DENT PARTICIPATION IN READING SILENTLY /NE TEACHER WROTE h) NOTICE NOW THAT SOME STUDENTS JUST DO NOT READ DURING THE MINUTES OF PRACTICEv !NOTHER WROTE h3TUDENTS WHO REALLY WANT ME TO HEAR THEM PRACTICE ARE DEVELOPING GOOD SKILLS ) NOTICE THAT SOME STUDENTS DO NOT LIKE TO BE HEARD OR PERFORMv (OWEVER AS TIME PROGRESSED THE TEACH ERS FELT THAT STUDENTS WERE GETTING INTO PRACTICE TIME /NE '2/2 TEACHER RECORDED h4HE STUDENTS IN THIS GROUP ARE AN INTERESTING GROUP )T IS EXCITING TO PAIR THEM UP WITH A PARTNER THEY DID NOT EXPECT ) HAVE NOTICED THEM HELPING EACH OTHER COMMENTING ON EACH OTHER AND ENCOURAGING EACH OTHERv /NE 3C32 TEACHER WROTE h4HEY LIKE TO READ ) ENJOY HEARING THE STUDENTS TELL ME ABOUT THEIR READING 4HE EXCITEMENT AND ENERGY IS CONTAGIOUS WHEN THEY READ A BOOK THEY ENJOYv 4OWARD THE END OF THE STUDY ALL TEACHERS NOTED SOME FATIGUE WITH BOTH READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS 4HEY WROTE h4HEY ARE GETTING SICK OF JUST PRACTICING THEIR READING )M STARTING TO LOSE SOME OF THEMv AND h3OME ARE BEGINNING TO COMPLAIN EVERY MORNINGv $ISCUSSION 4HE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY WAS TO ANSWER THE RESEARCH QUESTION )S SCAFFOLDED SILENT READING 3C32 AS EFFECTIVE AS GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING '2/2 WITH FEEDBACK IN PRO MOTING THIRD GRADE STUDENTS DEVELOPMENT OF READING FLUENCY AS MEASURED BY A REDUCTION IN ERROR RATES B INCREASE IN WORDS READ CORRECTLY PER MINUTE C INCREASE IN EXPRESSION RATING SCORES AND D INCREASE IN READING COMPREHENSION AS MEASURED BY THE PROPORTION OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED FROM READING DIVIDED BY THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY PER MINUTE 7E DISCUSS EACH OF THE MAJOR FINDINGS OF THIS STUDY &LUENCY 0ERFORMANCE 4HE RESULTS OF THE STUDY FOUND NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREATMENTS ON THIRD GRADE STUDENTS MEAN GAIN SCORES OF READING FLUENCY AS MEASURED BY ACCURACY OR RATE 4HERE WAS ONE SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE FOUND ON STUDENTS EXPRESSION RATING SCORES FAVORING THE 3C32 GROUP MEAN GAINS OVER THE '2/2 GROUP 4HUS THESE FINDINGS INDICATE THAT AN 3C32 APPROACH FOR FLUENCY PRACTICE PRODUCED RESULTS EQUIVALENT TO THOSE OF THE SCIEN TIFICALLY VALIDATED '2/2 ON FLUENCY GROWTH RATES FOR THIS PARTICULAR SAMPLE OF THIRD GRADE STUDENTS
'IVEN THAT THE FINDING BETWEEN THE TWO TREATMENT GROUPS WAS ESSENTIALLY EQUIVALENT WE ASK WHAT WAS THE OVERALL IMPACT OF THESE TWO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREAT MENTS ON THE FLUENCY GROWTH OF THE THIRD GRADE STUDENTS IN THIS STUDY !T THE BEGINNING OF THE THIRD GRADE YEAR THE AVERAGE READING RATE OF THE THIRD GRADE GROUP OF STUDENTS IN THIS STUDY WAS WCPM AS MEASURED BY THE COMBINED AVERAGE WCPM SCORES ON THE TWO PRETEST PASSAG ES !S MEASURED THE AVERAGE READING RATE FOR THIS COHORT GROUP OF THIRD GRADERS WAS BELOW THE TH PERCENTILE PER FORMANCE OF WCPM FOR END OF SECOND GRADE STUDENTS NATIONALLY (ASBROUCK 4INDAL !T THE END OF THE THIRD GRADE YEAR THE AVERAGE READ ING RATE OF THE THIRD GRADE STUDENTS IN THIS STUDY WAS WCPM AS MEASURED BY THE COMBINED AVERAGE WCPM SCORES ON THE TWO POSTTEST PASSAGES 4HUS THESE STUDENTS READING FLUENCY RATES IN AT RISK SCHOOL SETTINGS AT END OF YEAR WAS APPROACHING NATIONAL TH PERCENTILE NORMS THAT DEPENDING ON THE NORMS CONSULTED RANGE BETWEEN n WCPM !LSO THE '2/2 AND 3C32 TREATMENTS HAD BEGUN TO CLOSE THE GAP BETWEEN BEGINNING AND END OF YEAR NORMED TH PERCENTILE AVERAGE READING RATES FROM AN POINT DEFICIT TO A TO POINT DEFICIT AGAIN DEPENDING ON THE NORMS CONSULTED (ASBROUCK 4INDAL 4ORGESON (UDSON !CCORDING TO NATIONAL NORMS THE AVERAGE FLUENCY WCPM GAIN FROM END OF SECOND GRADE TO END OF THIRD GRADE IS WCPM (ASBROUCK 4INDAL 4HE 3C32 AND '2/2 GROUPS EXCEEDED THE NATIONAL AVERAGE OF WCPM FLUENCY GAIN PER YEAR BY ATTAINING A WCPM PER YEAR AVERAGE FLU ENCY GAIN 7E NOTE STUDENTS IN 2%! SCHOOLS WERE SELECTED BECAUSE STUDENTS IN THESE SCHOOLS WERE CONSIDERED HIGH POVERTY AND LOW PERFORMING 4HEREFORE PERFORMING AT THE AVERAGE WOULD BE CONSIDERED AN EXCELLENT OUTCOME IN THESE SCHOOLS (OWEVER THE AVERAGE WCPM READING RATE GAIN IN THE 3C32 GROUP OVER THE YEAR SLIGHTLY EXCEEDED THE '2/2 GROUP AVERAGE WCPM READING RATE GAIN BUT ULTIMATELY RESULT ED IN NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO GROUPS MEAN GAIN SCORES 4HUS RELATIVELY AND ABSOLUTELY SPEAKING THE TWO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS IN THIS STUDY HELPED STUDENTS IN THESE AT RISK SCHOOLS MAKE BETTER THAN NATIONAL AVERAGE GAINS IN WCPM READING RATES AND ALSO HELPED TO CLOSE THE GAP BETWEEN THESE STUDENTS BEGINNING AND END OF YEAR READING FLUENCY PERFORMANCE AS COMPARED WITH TH PERCENTILE NATIONAL FLUENCY NORMS #OMPREHENSION 0ERFORMANCE 4HE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY REVEALED NO SIGNIFICANT DIF FERENCES BETWEEN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS IN IMPROVING THIRD GRADE STUDENTS READING COMPREHENSION "ECAUSE THE FINDING BETWEEN THE TWO COMPARISON READING FLUENCY TREATMENT GROUPS WAS ESSENTIALLY EQUIVALENT AGAIN WE ASK WHAT WAS THE OVERALL IMPACT OF THESE TWO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS ON THE COMPREHENSION PERFORMANCE OF THE STUDENTS IN
THIS STUDY ! COMPARISON OF THE AVERAGE PROPORTION OF THE NUMBER OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM AT PRETEST TO THE AVERAGE PROPORTION OF THE NUMBER OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM AT POSTTEST BY THESE STUDENTS REVEALED A AVERAGE INCREASE IN THE MEAN PROPORTION OF THE NUMBER OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM REPRESENT ING A SUBSTANTIAL INCREASE IN READING COMPREHENSION OVER THE YEAR FOR BOTH GROUPS 4EACHER #OMMENTS AND 3TUDENT )NTERVIEWS )N GENERAL STUDENTS INDICATED BOTH READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS HELPED THEM TO BECOME BETTER READ ERS 4EACHERS FOUND SOME INITIAL PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENT ING THE READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS (OWEVER AS THE YEAR PROGRESSED STUDENTS AND TEACHERS SEEMED TO ENJOY THE TIME FOR PRACTICE 4OWARD THE END OF THE YEAR STUDENTS EXPRESSED FATIGUE WITH READING FLUENCY PRACTICE BUT THIS MAY HAVE REFLECTED A GENERAL FATIGUE WITH SCHOOL ING 0REVIOUS RESEARCHERS HAVE INDICATED THAT STUDENTS DO BECOME FATIGUED WITH SINGULAR FORMS OF READING FLU ENCY PRACTICE 'AMBRELL ,EE $ANIELS -URRAY )N GENERAL THE TEACHERS FELT 3C32 AND '2/2 WERE READILY IMPLEMENTED AND HAD THE INTENDED EFFECT OF IMPROVING STUDENTS READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION OVER THE YEAR !LSO STUDENTS SEEMED TO CONCUR WITH THESE OBSERVATIONS THAT 3C32 AND '2/2 WERE ENJOYABLE AND USEFUL AND THEY BOTH LEAD TO INCREASED CONFIDENCE IN THEIR ABILITIES AS READERS &ROM THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY AND OTHERS IT APPEARS THAT STUDENTS CONTINUE TO DEVELOP FLUENCY THROUGHOUT THIRD GRADE 3CHWANENFLUGEL ET AL 4HE DIMINISHED ROLE THAT AUTOMATICITY AND DECODING PLAY IN READING COMPRE HENSION AS STUDENTS GET OLDER IS WELL ESTABLISHED 0ARIS #ARPENTER 0ARIS (AMILTON 0IKULSKI #HARD 3CHWANENFLUGEL ET AL (OWEVER BY THIRD GRADE WORD READING TYPICALLY REQUIRES REDUCED COGNITIVE RESOURCES ALLOWING STUDENTS TO FOCUS THEIR ATTENTION MORE INTENTLY ON READING COMPREHENSION !S MEASURED IN THIS STUDY THE MODE OF READING FLUENCY PRACTICE WHETHER ORAL READING OR 3C32 PROVIDED NO DATA SHOWING NEGATIVE CON SEQUENCES ON THE STUDENTS READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHEN SION PERFORMANCE "OTH REPEATED AND WIDE READING FLUENCY PRACTICE HELPED STUDENTS IN THIS THIRD GRADE COHORT IN TWO AT RISK ELEMEN TARY SCHOOLS TO INCREASE THEIR READING FLUENCY AND COM PREHENSION 4HE USE OF DIFFERING LEVELS OF TEXT DIFFICULTY DEPENDENT ON THE AMOUNT OF SCAFFOLDING SUPPORT AND MONITORING APPEARED TO PROVIDE EQUALLY EFFECTIVE FLU ENCY AND COMPREHENSION OUTCOMES FOR THESE THIRD GRADE STUDENTS 3IMILARLY THE PRACTICE OF READING IN ISOLATION VERSUS WITH OTHERS DID NOT APPEAR TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE IN THE OUTCOME OF THESE STUDENTS READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION OUTCOMES NOR DID TEACHER VERSUS STUDENT SELECTION OF THE TEXTS TO BE PRACTICED 4HUS THE DIFFER ENCES OR CONTRASTS BETWEEN 3C32 AND '2/2 DID NOT SEEM
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
TO RESULT IN MEASURABLE DIFFERENCES IN READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION OUTCOMES ,IMITATIONS AND %DUCATIONAL )MPLICATIONS 4HIS STUDY WAS LIMITED IN SEVERAL IMPORTANT WAYS &IRST THE STUDY WAS LIMITED TO A PARTICULAR SOCIOCULTURAL CON TEXTTWO HIGH POVERTY LOW PERFORMING SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTHWESTERN 5NITED 3TATES 4HUS THE RESULTS MAY NOT BE GENERALIZABLE TO ALL STUDENTS ATTENDING MIDDLE OR UPPER CLASS AND HIGH PERFORMING SCHOOLS 3ECOND THE SAMPLE SIZE WAS LIMITED TO THIRD GRADE STUDENTS !LTHOUGH THIS MOD ERATE SAMPLE SIZE ALLOWED FOR CAREFUL CONTROL AND FIDELITY RELATED TO INTERNAL VALIDITY THE SAMPLE SIZE ALSO LIMITED THE GENERALIZABILITY OF THE FINDINGS AND THE DEGREES OF FREEDOM AVAILABLE FOR CONDUCTING HYPOTHESIS TESTING 4HIRD THE ASSESSMENT OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES IE FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION WAS LIMITED TO READING $)"%,3 PASSAGES TWO PRE AND TWO POSTASSESSMENT PASSAGES &OURTH THE INABILITY TO IMPLEMENT A TRUE CONTROL GROUP OF NO TREATMENT LIMITS THE INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS &IFTH WE COULD NOT ACCOUNT FOR THE TOTAL TIME CHILDREN SPENT READING OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL 7E CANNOT BE CERTAIN THAT 3C32 AND '2/2 WOULD HAVE BEEN SIGNIFICANTLY BETTER THAN A CONTROL GROUP IN WHICH THE REGULAR READING INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES WERE EXTENDED FOR AN EQUAL AMOUNT OF TIME FOR IMPROVING THIRD GRADE STUDENTS READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION (OWEVER IN DEFENSE OF THE DESIGN USED THE STUDY WAS NOT A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF NO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE BUT RATHER A STUDY OF TWO PRACTICALLY AND THEORETICALLY DIFFERENT READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS3C32 AND '2/2 &URTHERMORE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF '2/2 IN IMPROVING STUDENTS READING ACHIEVEMENT IS WELL ESTABLISHED IN SCORES OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES AS REPORTED BY THE .20 .)#(($ &IRST FUTURE RESEARCHERS SHOULD USE OTHER COMPARISON GROUPS AND IF POSSIBLE A CONTROL NO TREATMENT GROUP AND LARGER NUMBERS OF STUDENTS TO INCREASE THE EXTERNAL VALIDITY AND THE DEGREES OF FREEDOM FOR HYPOTHESIS TEST ING 3ECOND FUTURE RESEARCHERS SHOULD EXAMINE THE USE OF 3C32 AND '2/2 WITH A VARIETY OF LEVELS OF STUDENT ABILITY AND ACROSS A VARIETY OF SCHOOLS 4HIRD TIME SPENT READING AT THE INDIVIDUAL AND CLASSROOM LEVELS BOTH IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL NEEDS TO BE CAREFULLY CONTROLLED OR ACCOUNTED FOR IN FUTURE RESEARCH TO ASSURE THAT THE EFFECTS OF COMPARISONS ARE ONLY ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE TREATMENTS &OURTH WE EVALUATED WHOLE APPROACHES FOR PRACTICING READING FLUENCY AND DID NOT ENGAGE IN ANALYTIC MEASUREMENT OF EVERY CONTRASTING ELEMENT WITHIN THESE PROGRAMS PACKAGES OR APPROACHES TO FLUENCY PRACTICE )T IS POSSIBLE THAT ONLY A FEW OF THE CONTRASTING AND SIMILAR FEATURES OF THE FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS MAY HAVE ACCOUNTED FOR THE FINDING OF NO DIF FERENCES BETWEEN THE GAINS SCORES OF THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREATMENT GROUPS &UTURE RESEARCHERS MAY NEED TO TAKE A MORE ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO UNCOVER WHICH DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS MAY WHEN COMBINED
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
WITH OTHERS RESULT IN POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE OUTCOMES FOR FLUENCY PRACTICE ,AST THE STUDY WAS LIMITED TO 3C32 AND '2/2 AS THE ONLY FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS EVALUATED WITH A SINGLE GRADE LEVEL OF STUDENTS ! LOGICAL STEP FOR FUTURE RESEARCHERS WOULD INVOLVE THE SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS OR CONTRASTS OF A VARIETY OF READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS WITH A VARIETY OF GRADE LEVELS )N SPITE OF THESE LIMITATIONS THIS STUDY EFFECTIVELY ADDRESSED SEVERAL CONCERNS RELATED TO PAST FLUENCY RESEARCH )N THE .20 NOTED A NEED FOR MORE RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERING TYPES OF FLUENCY PRACTICE AND DIFFERING AMOUNTS OF TIME ON FLUENCY OUTCOMES !LTHOUGH WE DID NOT EXAMINE DIFFERING AMOUNTS OF TIME ALLOCATED TO FLUENCY PRACTICE AS WAS RECOMMENDED BY THE .20 .)#(($ WE DID ADDRESS THE SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATION OF THE .20 THAT MORE RESEARCH ON 332 AND OTHER FLUENCY PRAC TICE APPROACHES WAS NEEDED !FTER A CAREFUL EXAMINATION OF POTENTIAL PROBLEMS WITH THE PRACTICES AND CONDITIONS OF TRADITIONALLY IMPLEMENTED 332 WE ADDRESSED THESE BY DESIGNING AND TESTING AN ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT FOR READING FLUENCY PRACTICE CALLED 3C32 !S SUCH 3C32 IS DIFFERENT FROM THE TRADITIONALLY IMPLEMENTED INDEPENDENT 332 7ITH RESPECT TO THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THIS STUDY THE .20 .)#(($ OBSERVED h4HERE IS A NEED FOR RIGOROUS EVALUATIONS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENCOURAGING WIDE READING ON READING ACHIEVEMENT PAR TICULARLY WITH POPULAR PROGRAMS SUCH AS 332 $%!2 AND !2v .)#(($ P (IEBERT NOTED h3UCCESSFUL FLUENCY INTERVENTIONS NEED TO PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES FOR STUDENTS TO TRANSFER THEIR SKILLS TO SILENT READING 'IVING STUDENTS A PURPOSE FOR READING A TEXT AND A DEFINITE TIME PERIOD IN WHICH TO ACCOMPLISH IT PROVIDES SCAFFOLDING FOR SILENT READINGv P )N THIS STUDY WE DEMONSTRATED THAT THIRD GRADE STUDENTS CAN BENEFIT FROM READING FLUENCY PRACTICE USING 3C32 AND '2/2 AS MEASURED BY ASSESSMENTS OF STUDENT READING FLU ENCY DECREASES IN NUMBERS OF ERRORS AND INCREASES IN WCPM AND EXPRESSION RATING SCORES AND COMPREHENSION INCREAS ES IN THE PROPORTION OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM 4HIS STUDY ALSO OFFERS TEACHERS GUIDANCE ON HOW TO EFFECTIVELY SCAFFOLD SILENT READING FOR THIRD GRADE STUDENTS 4HESE STU DENTS NEED TO BE ACTIVELY MONITORED DURING SILENT READING PRACTICE AS THEY TRANSFER THEIR ORAL READING FLUENCY SKILLS TO SILENT READING PRACTICE )N CONCLUSION THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY PROVIDE EVIDENCE THAT 3C32 IMPROVES THIRD GRADE STUDENTS FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION GROWTH AS EFFECTIVELY AS '2/2 4HUS THIS FINDING PROVIDES TEACHERS AND CHILDREN A COMPLEMENTARY APPROACH 3C32 FOR READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TO THE EVI DENCE BASED AND WELL ESTABLISHED '2/2 APPROACH 7E ALSO FOUND THAT HAVING MORE THAN ONE EFFECTIVE WAY TO PROVIDE YOUNG CHILDREN READING FLUENCY PRACTICE IS IMPORTANT FOR REA SONS OF ENGAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION /UR QUALITATIVE FINDINGS SHOWED THAT WHEN SINGLE READING FLUENCY PRACTICE APPROACH ES WERE USED EXCLUSIVELY OVER LONG PERIODS THESE APPROACHES TENDED TOWARD TEDIUM FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
2%&%2%.#%3 !LLINGTON 2 , "IG BROTHER AND THE NATIONAL READING CURRICULUM (OW IDEOLOGY TRUMPED EVIDENCE 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN "EAVER * $EVELOPMENTAL READING ASSESSMENT 5PPER 3ADDLE 2IVER .* 0EARSON %DUCATION "RYAN ' &AWSON 0 # 2EUTZEL $ 2 3USTAINED SILENT READ ING %XPLORING THE VALUE OF LITERATURE DISCUSSION WITH THREE NON ENGAGED READERS 2EADING 2ESEARCH AND )NSTRUCTION n "URLEY * % 3HORT TERM HIGH INTENSITY READING PRACTICE METHODS FOR 5PWARD "OUND STUDENTS !N APPRAISAL .EGRO %DUCATIONAL 2EVIEW n #AMPBELL $ 4 3TANLEY * # %XPERIMENTAL AND QUASI EXPERI MENTAL DESIGNS FOR RESEARCH "OSTON (OUGHTON -IFFLIN #LINE 2 + * +RETKE ' , !N EVALUATION OF LONG TERM 332 IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL *OURNAL OF 2EADING n #OLES ' -ISREADING READING 4HE BAD SCIENCE THAT HURTS STUDENTS 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN #OLLINS # 3USTAINED SILENT READING PERIODS %FFECTS ON TEACHERS BEHAVIORS AND STUDENTS ACHIEVEMENT %LEMENTARY 3CHOOL *OURNAL n #UNNINGHAM * 7 4HE .ATIONAL 2EADING 0ANEL 2EPORT 2EADING 2ESEARCH 1UARTERLY n #UNNINGHAM 0 - 3YSTEMATIC SEQUENTIAL PHONICS THEY USE &OR BEGINNING READERS OF ALL AGES 'REENSBORO .# #ARSON $ELLOSA $AVIS : 4 ! COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SUSTAINED SILENT READING AND DIRECTED READING ACTIVITY ON STUDENTS READING ACHIEVEMENT (IGH 3CHOOL *OURNAL n %DMONDSON * 3HANNON 0 4HE WILL OF THE PEOPLE )N 2 , !LLINGTON %D "IG BROTHER AND THE NATIONAL READING CURRICULUM (OW IDEOLOGY TRUMPED EVIDENCE PP n 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN %VANS ( - 4OWNER * # 3USTAINED SILENT READING $OES IT INCREASE SKILLS 2EADING 4EACHER n &OUNTAS ) # 0INNELL ' 3 'UIDED READING 'OOD FIRST TEACHING FOR ALL CHILDREN 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN 'AMBRELL , " 'ETTING STARTED WITH SUSTAINED SILENT READING AND KEEPING IT GOING 2EADING 4EACHER n 'OOD 2 ( +AMINSKI 2 ! $)"%,3 /RAL 2EADING &LUENCY 0ASSAGES FOR FIRST THROUGH THIRD GRADES 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT .O %UGENE 5NIVERSITY OF /REGON (ASBROUCK * 4INDAL ' /RAL READING FLUENCY NORMS ! VALUABLE ASSESSMENT TOOL FOR READING TEACHERS 2EADING 4EACHER n (IEBERT % ( "ECOMING FLUENT 2EPEATED READING WITH SCAFFOLDED TEXTS )N 3 * 3AMUELS ! % &ARSTRUP %DS 7HAT RESEARCH HAS TO SAY ABOUT FLUENCY INSTRUCTION PP n .EWARK $% )NTERNATIONAL 2EADING !SSOCIATION (OLT 3 " /4UEL & 3 4HE EFFECT OF SUSTAINED SILENT READING AND WRITING ON ACHIEVEMENT AND ATTITUDES OF SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADE STUDENTS READING TWO YEARS BELOW GRADE LEVEL 2EADING )MPROVEMENT n +RASHEN 3 -ORE SMOKE AND MIRRORS ! CRITIQUE OF THE .ATIONAL 2EADING 0ANEL 2EPORT ON &LUENCY )N 2 , !LLINGTON %D "IG BROTHER AND THE NATIONAL READING CURRICULUM (OW IDEOLOGY TRUMPED EVIDENCE PP n 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN ,ANGFORD * # !LLEN % ' 4HE EFFECTS OF 5332 ON STU DENTS ATTITUDE AND ACHIEVEMENT 2EADING (ORIZONS n ,EE $ANIELS 3 , -URRAY " ! $%!2 ME 7HAT DOES IT TAKE TO GET MY STUDENTS READING 2EADING 4EACHER n ,EINHARDT ' :IGMOND . #OOLEY 7 2EADING INSTRUCTION AND ITS EFFECTS !MERICAN %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH *OURNAL n -ANNING ' , -ANNING - 7HAT MODELS OF RECREATIONAL READING MAKE A DIFFERENCE 2EADING 7ORLD n -EISINGER ( 3CHWANENFLUGEL 0 * "RADLEY % +UHN - 2 3TAHL 3 ! $ECEMBER )NTERACTION QUALITY DURING PARTNER READING 0APER PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE .ATIONAL 2EADING #ONFERENCE -IAMI &, .ATIONAL )NSTITUTE OF #HILD (EALTH AND (UMAN $EVELOPMENT .)#( ($ 2EPORT OF THE .ATIONAL 2EADING 0ANEL 4EACHING STUDENTS TO READ 7ASHINGTON $# !UTHOR
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
/PITZ - & 2ASINSKI 4 6 'OOD BYE ROUND ROBIN EFFECTIVE ORAL READING STRATEGIES 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN 0ARIS 3 ' #ARPENTER 2 $ 0ARIS ! ( (AMILTON % % 3PURIOUS AND GENUINE CORRELATES OF STUDENTS READING COMPREHENSION )N 3 ' 0ARIS 3 ! 3TAHL %DS 3TUDENTS READING COMPREHENSION AND ASSESSMENT PP n -AHWAH .* %RLBAUM 0ARIS 3 ' 3TAHL 3 ! #HILDRENS READING COMPREHENSION AND ASSESSMENT -AHWAH .* %RLBAUM 0IKULSKI * * #HARD $ * &LUENCY "RIDGE BETWEEN DECODING AND READING COMPREHENSION 2EADING 4EACHER n 2EUTZEL $ 2 &AWSON 0 # 9OUR CLASSROOM LIBRARY .EW WAYS TO GIVE IT MORE TEACHING POWER .EW 9ORK 3CHOLASTIC 2EUTZEL $ 2 (OLLINGSWORTH 0 - 2EADING COMPREHENSION SKILLS 4ESTING THE DISTINCTIVENESS HYPOTHESIS 2EADING 2ESEARCH AND )NSTRUCTION n 3AMUELS 3 * 4HE $)"%,3 TESTS )S SPEED OF BARKING AT PRINT WHAT WE MEAN BY READING FLUENCY 2EADING 2ESEARCH 1UARTERLY n 3CHWANENFLUGEL 0 * -EISINGER % " 7ISENBAKER * - +UHN - 2 3TRAUSS ' 0 -ORRIS 2 $ "ECOMING A FLUENT AND AUTOMATIC READER IN THE EARLY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS 2EADING 2ESEARCH 1UARTERLY n 3HADISH 7 2 #OOK 4 $ #AMPBELL $ 4 %XPERIMENTAL
AND QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS FOR GENERALIZED CAUSAL INFERENCE "OSTON (OUGHTON -IFFLIN 3NOW # % "URNS - 3 'RIFFIN 0 %DS 0REVENTING READING DIF FICULTIES IN YOUNG CHILDREN 7ASHINGTON $# .ATIONAL !CADEMIES 0RESS 3TAHL 3 7HAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT FLUENCY )N 0 -C#ARDLE 6 #HHABRA %DS 4HE VOICE OF EVIDENCE IN READING RESEARCH PP n "ALTIMORE 0AUL ( "ROOKES 3TAHL 3 ! (EUBACH + &LUENCY ORIENTED READING INSTRUCTION )N + ! $OUGHERTY 3TAHL - # -C+ENNA %DS 2EADING RESEARCH AT WORK &OUNDATIONS OF EFFECTIVE PRACTICE PP n .EW 9ORK 'UILFORD 0RESS 3UMMERS % ' -C#LELLAND * 6 ! FIELD BASED EVALUATION OF SUSTAINED SILENT READING 332 IN INTERMEDIATE GRADES !LBERTA *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH n 4ASHAKKORRI ! 4EDDLIE # -IX METHODOLOGY #OMBINING QUALI TATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES 4HOUSAND /AKS #! 3AGE 4ORGESON * + (UDSON 2 & 2EADING FLUENCY #RITICAL ISSUES FOR STRUGGLING READERS )N 3 * 3AMUELS ! % &ARSTRUP %DS 7HAT RESEARCH HAS TO SAY ABOUT FLUENCY INSTRUCTION PP n .EWARK $% )NTERNATIONAL 2EADING !SSOCIATION :UTELL * 2ASINSKI 4 4RAINING TEACHERS TO ATTEND TO THEIR STU DENTS ORAL READING FLUENCY 4HEORY )NTO 0RACTICE n
-ÕLÃVÀLiÊ /`>ÞÊ >`Ê VViÃÃÊ ÌiÌÊ "it 4HE *OURNAL OF %NVIRONMENTAL %DUCATION IS AN ESSENTIAL TOOL IN FASHIONING MORE ENVIRONMENTALLY RESPONSIBLE CITIZENS AND EFFECTIVE TEACHERS 0EER REVIEWED ARTICLES FEATURE CUTTING EDGE THEORIES METHODS AND PRACTICES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN +n CLASSROOMS PUBLIC PROGRAMS AND OTHER VENUES 2EVIEWS OF RECENT TEACHING MATERIALS SUCH AS BOOKS TEXTBOOKS AND VIDEOS APPEAR IN EVERY ISSUE *%% IS AN INVALUABLE RESOURCE FOR STUDENTS TEACHERS RESEARCHERS PROGRAM ADMINISTRATORS AND GRANT MAKERS
1UARTERLY )33. 2EGULAR !NNUAL 3UBSCRIPTION 2ATES )NDIVIDUAL ONLINE ONLY PRINT AND ONLINE )NSTITUTIONAL ONLINE ONLY PRINT ONLY PRINT AND ONLINE !DD FOR POSTAGE OUTSIDE THE 53 3UBSCR IPTION / FFICE 0/ " OX " IR MINGHAM !, 0 N & HELDREF SUBSCR IPTIONOFFICECOM WWWHELDREFORG
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!"342!#4 4HE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY WAS TO DESIGN IMPLE MENT AND EVALUATE THE EFFICACY OF SCAFFOLDED SILENT READING 3C32 COMPARED WITH THE EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE OF GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING '2/2 WITH FEEDBACK ON RD GRADE STUDENTS FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION GROWTH 5SING A MIXED MODEL DOMINANT LESS DOMINANT DESIGN THE AUTHORS COLLECTED BOTH QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA 1UANTITATIVE RESULTS INDICATED NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THESE FORMS OF READING FLUENCY PRACTICE ON RD GRADE STUDENTS FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION DEVELOPMENT WITH THE EXCEPTION OF SIGNIFI CANT DIFFERENCE FAVORING 3C32 ON EXPRESSION OF A SINGLE PAS SAGE 1UALITATIVE RESULTS INDICATED THAT EITHER 3C32 OR '2/2 APPROACHES USED EXCLUSIVELY TENDED TOWARD TEDIUM AND REDUCED OVERALL STUDENT ENJOYMENT AND MOTIVATION 4HE AUTHORS DISCUSS HOW THE 3C32 APPROACH REPRESENTS A VIABLE ALTERNATIVE OR COM PANION TO '2/2 FOR PROMOTING RD GRADE STUDENTS READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION GROWTH +EYWORDS COMPREHENSION FLUENCY GUIDED READING INDEPEN DENT READING REPEATED READING
0
ERHAPS NO OTHER SINGLE CONCLUSION DRAWN BY THE .ATIONAL 2EADING 0ANEL .20 .ATIONAL )NSTI TUTE OF #HILD (EALTH AND (UMAN $EVELOPMENT ;.)#(($= HAS SPARKED MORE CONTROVERSY THAN A REPORTED LACK OF RESEARCH SUPPORT FOR TIME SPENT READING AND THE RELATED PREVALENT CLASSROOM PRACTICE OF SILENT SUSTAINED READING 332 !LLINGTON #OLES *7 #UN NINGHAM %DMONDSON 3HANNON +RASHEN )N THE PAST TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS HAD INCOR PORATED 332 INTO THE DAILY READING INSTRUCTIONAL ROUTINES OF MANY CLASSROOMS AND SCHOOLS ACROSS THE NATION 4HE .20 .)#(($ EXAMINED THE READING RESEARCH LITERATURE IN WHICH RESEARCHERS EVALUATED 332 IN EXPERIMENTAL OR QUASI EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES AND PUBLISHED THE RESULTS IN PEER REVIEWED NATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNALS !FTER AN EXTENSIVE SEARCH THE PANEL LOCATED ONLY 332 STUDIES MEETING THESE CRITERIA /NLY OF THE 332 STUDIES IN THE .20 ANALYSIS INVOLVED PRIMARY GRADE CHILDREN #OLLINS 4HE CONTROL OR COMPARISON GROUPS IN THE 332 STUD IES ANALYZED BY THE .20 VARIED WIDELY )N SEVERAL STUDIES RESEARCHERS USED INTACT CLASSROOM CONTROL GROUPS FROM DIF
!DDRESS CORRESPONDENCE TO $ 2AY 2EUTZEL %%* #ENTER FOR %ARLY #HILDHOOD %DUCATION 5-# 5TAH 3TATE 5NIVERSITY ,OGAN 54 53! % MAIL RAYREUTZEL USUEDU #OPYRIGHT Ú (ELDREF 0UBLICATIONS
)N CONTRAST +RASHEN HAS CONTENDED THAT THE .20 MISREPRESENTED OR UNDERREPRESENTED THE RESEARCH LIT ERATURE SUPPORTING 332 (OWEVER A CAREFUL REVIEW OF +RASHENS EXPANDED SET OF 332 STUDIES REVEALED THE INCLU SION OF RESEARCH IN WHICH CHILDREN NOT ONLY READ BOOKS BUT ALSO RECEIVED READING INSTRUCTION USING CHILDRENS BOOKS 4HROUGH THE EXPANDED SET HE ALSO EXAMINED STUDIES INVOLV ING HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO PRESUMABLY COULD READ AND WOULD STAND TO PROFIT FROM UNGUIDED INDEPENDENT READING PRACTICE MORE THAN WOULD YOUNG STUDENTS LEARNING TO READ 332 ! #RITICAL %XAMINATION OF 4EACHER "EHAVIORS #ONCERNS WITH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF 332 AS DESCRIBED IN THE LITERATURE AND AS IMPLEMENTED IN MANY CLASSROOMS ACROSS THE NATION INCLUDE THE CONSPICUOUS ABSENCE OF INTER ACTION INVOLVING THE READING OF TEXTS OR ACCOUNTABILITY FOR WHETHER OR NOT STUDENTS READ DURING ALLOCATED 332 TIME 3TAHL NOTED THAT hMANY 332 ADVOCATES DO NOT ALLOW TEACHERS TO CHECK UP ON STUDENTS OR RECOMMEND THAT TEACH ERS READ THEIR OWN BOOKS DURING THIS TIME TO BE A MODEL OF A READER /NE FAILING OF 332 IS THAT TEACHERS MAY NOT MONITOR THEIR STUDENTS READINGv P "RYAN &AWSON AND 2EUTZEL DEMONSTRATED THAT WHEN CLASSROOM TEACHERS MONITORED THEIR STUDENTS DURING 332 THROUGH BRIEF INTERACTIONS AND ACCOUNTABILITY CON FERENCES EVEN THE MOST DISENGAGED STUDENTS IN THE CLASS REMAINED ON TASK FOR UP TO WEEKS WITHOUT ADDITIONAL MONITORING VISITS 4HESE FINDINGS CONCUR WITH PREVIOUS RESEARCH OF -ANNING AND -ANNING ABOUT THE POSI TIVE IMPACT OF STUDENT DISCUSSIONS AND TEACHER CONFERENCES RATHER THAN TEACHERS READING SILENTLY DURING 332 4HE .20 .)#(($ ALSO ASSERTED THAT AN IMPORTANT FEATURE OF EFFECTIVE READING FLUENCY PRACTICE WAS THAT STUDENTS RECEIVE FEEDBACK ABOUT THEIR READING 4HESE CRITICISMS ILLUSTRATE THAT WITHOUT MONITORING TEACHERS CANNOT BE ASSURED THAT STUDENTS ARE IN FACT READING DURING 332 TIME 332 !NALYSIS OF 0REVIOUS 2ESEARCH 7EAKNESSES 4HE .20 .)#(($ CRITICIZED PREVIOUS 332 STUDIES FOR THEIR POOR DESCRIPTIONS AND THE QUALITY OF THE COMPARISON OR CONTROL GROUPS THAT RESEARCHERS USED TO INVESTIGATE THE EFFICACY OF 332 h/FTEN THESE STUDIES INTER PRETED THE LACK OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 332 AND THE CONTROL CONDITION AS MEANING THAT 332 WAS AS GOOD AS SOME USU ALLY UNSPECIFIED FORM OF READING INSTRUCTION #OMPARING 332 WITH INSTRUCTIONAL ROUTINES THAT HAVE NO EVIDENCE OF SUCCESS OR WHOSE SUCCESS HAS BEEN FOUND TO BE UNRELATED TO ACHIEVEMENT GAINS ,EINHARDT :IGMOND #OOLEY IS MEANINGLESSv .)#(($ P &UTURE 332 RESEARCHERS SHOULD USE CONTROL OR COMPARISON GROUPS THAT IMPLEMENT A FORM OF READING FLUENCY PRACTICE THAT HAS BEEN FOUND TO BE EFFECTIVE IN PRODUCING READING FLUENCY GROWTH TO MAKE THE CLAIM OF EQUIVALENT OR SUPERIOR EFFECTIVENESS
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
!NOTHER CRITICISM OF 332 RESEARCH BY THE .20 .)#( ($ FOCUSED ON MANIPULATING OR CONTROLLING THE AMOUNT OF TIME SPENT READING 4HE .20 WAS UNABLE TO ANALYZE THE EFFECT OF TIME SPENT READING ON READING ACHIEVEMENT BECAUSE MANY OF THE PUBLISHED RESEARCHERS FAILED TO EITHER CONTROL OR ACCOUNT FOR THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF TIME SPENT READING IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL 4HIS ALONE COULD HAVE ACCOUNTED FOR THE NONSIGNIFICANT FINDINGS FOR 332 IN THE STUDIES THAT THE .20 ANALYZED ,AST THE MANIPULATION OF TEXT DIFFICULTY IN PAST 332 RESEARCH HAS BEEN SOMEWHAT INCONSISTENT .)#(($ )N THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TRADITIONAL 332 IN CLASS ROOMS TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS OFTEN PLACED A PREMIUM ON STUDENTS RIGHT TO CHOOSE THEIR OWN BOOKS FROM THE CLASSROOM OR SCHOOL LIBRARY HOME OR ANYWHERE ELSE TO ENSURE HIGH MOTIVATION TO READ !LTHOUGH THIS IS A LAUDABLE AIM STUDENTS WERE NOT TAUGHT HOW TO CHOOSE APPROPRI ATELY CHALLENGING BOOKS THAT WERE OF INTEREST OR PROVIDED NECESSARY SCAFFOLDING TO CHOOSE SUCH BOOKS IN TRADITIONALLY IMPLEMENTED 332 3TAHL AND (EUBACH ADDRESSED THE NEED FOR STUDENTS TO CHOOSE APPROPRIATELY CHALLENGING BOOKS BY SUGGESTING THAT THE APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF TEXT DIFFI CULTY FOR READING FLUENCY PRACTICE IS INVERSELY RELATED TO THE AMOUNT OF SCAFFOLDING PROVIDED TO STUDENTS 4HUS THE MORE SUPPORT A TEACHER GIVES TO A STUDENT THE LOWER THE ACCURACY LEVEL THAT IS NEEDED FOR A CHILD TO BENEFIT FROM READING FLU ENCY PRACTICE )N SUMMARY THE TRADITIONAL IMPLEMENTATION OF 332 HAS BEEN CRITICIZED FOR THE LACK OF TEACHERS TEACHING MONITOR ING INTERACTING WITH AND HOLDING STUDENTS ACCOUNTABLE FOR THEIR TIME SPENT READING 7EAKNESSES ASSOCIATED WITH READING PRACTICE APPROACHES SUCH AS 332 SUGGEST THAT FUTURE RESEARCHERS SHOULD EXTEND THEIR STUDIES OVER LONGER PERIODS EMPLOY STRICT EXPERIMENTAL CONTROLS OVER THE AMOUNT OF TIME SPENT IN READING PRACTICE AT SCHOOL AND HOME MAKE COMPARISONS WITH KNOWN PROVEN EFFECTIVE READING PRACTICE ROUTINES USE MULTIPLE MEASURES OF FLUENCY GROWTH AND EXAMINE THE USE OF DIFFERING LEVELS OF TEXT DIFFICULTY THAT ARE USEFUL IN PROMOTING READING PROGRESS 2ESEARCH 1UESTION )N THIS STUDY THE PRIMARY RESEARCH QUESTION WAS )S SCAF FOLDED SILENT READING 3C32 AS EFFECTIVE AS GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING '2/2 WITH FEEDBACK IN PROMOTING THIRD GRADE STUDENTS DEVELOPMENT OF READING FLUENCY AS MEASURED BY A REDUCTION IN ERROR RATES B INCREASE IN WORDS READ CORRECTLY PER MINUTE C INCREASE IN EXPRESSION RATING SCORES AND D INCREASE IN READING COMPREHENSION AS MEA SURED BY THE PROPORTION OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED FROM READING DIVIDED BY THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY PER MINUTE !T THIS POINT WE CLARIFY WHAT WE MEAN BY FLUENT READING /UR DEFINITION OF FLUENCY EXTENDS BEYOND THAT OFFERED BY THE .20 .)#(($ FLUENCY INVOLVES ACCURACY RATE AND EXPRESSION ,IKE 3AMUELS WE OPERATION ALLY DEFINE FLUENT READING IN THIS STUDY AS SIMULTANEOUS
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
DECODING AND COMPREHENSION 4HUS THE MEASUREMENT WE USED MIMICS FLUENT READING BEHAVIORS BY REQUIRING THAT STUDENTS DECODE AND COMPREHEND WHAT THEY ARE ASKED TO READ AT THE SAME TIME )N OTHER WORDS WE INFORMED STUDENTS THAT WHEN THEY WERE FINISHED READING THE TEST PASSAGES THEY WOULD ALSO BE ASKED TO RETELL WHAT THEY READ AS A MEASURE OF COMPREHENSION 3C32 IS AN APPROACH TO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE THAT ADDRESSES MANY OF THE WEAKNESSES ASSOCIATED WITH TRADI TIONALLY IMPLEMENTED 332 3C32 MAKES USE OF SILENT WIDE READING OF INDEPENDENT LEVEL TEXTS SELECTED FROM VARIED GENRES PERIODIC TEACHER MONITORING OF AND INTERACTION WITH INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS AND ACCOUNTABILITY THROUGH COMPLETED BOOK RESPONSE ASSIGNMENTS '2/2 IS AN APPROACH TO READ ING FLUENCY PRACTICE IN WHICH STUDENTS REPEATEDLY READ ALOUD IN GENERAL n TIMES A SINGLE TEXT TYPICALLY AT GRADE LEVEL OR INSTRUCTIONAL LEVEL WHILE THEY RECEIVE FEEDBACK FROM A TEACHER OR OTHER STUDENTS '2/2 IS AN ESTABLISHED AND SCIENTIFICALLY SUPPORTED READING FLUENCY PRACTICE APPROACH THAT THE .20 .)#(($ HIGHLY RECOMMENDS )N THIS STUDY A DOMINANT FEATURE WAS THAT WE EXAMINED QUANTITATIVE MEASURES OF THIRD GRADE STUDENTS FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION GROWTH ! LESS DOMINANT FEATURE WAS THAT WE FOCUSED ON UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIVE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IMPLEMENTING BOTH TYPES OF READING FLU ENCY PRACTICE IE 3C32 AND '2/2 AS INDICATED BY QUALI TATIVE ANALYSES OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS TEACHER WRITTEN COMMENTS RECORDED IN TEACHER REFLECTION JOURNALS AND STUDENTS ANSWERS TO STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
ADMINISTERED END OF SECOND GRADE STATE CRITERION REFER ENCED END OF LEVEL READING TEST SCORES AND THEN DIVIDED THEM INTO THREE ACHIEVEMENT STRATA HIGH MEDIUM AND LOW 7E RANDOMLY ASSIGNED STUDENTS FROM WITHIN THEIR ACHIEVEMENT STRATAHIGH MEDIUM OR LOWINTO ONE OF THE TWO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE GROUPS USING A COMPUTER GENERATED TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS 5SING STRATIFICATION FOR ACCOMPLISHING RANDOM ASSIGNMENT IS A MORE PRECISE APPROACH FOR DISTRIBUTING VARIABILITY ESPECIALLY WHEN THE SCORES USED IE READING ACHIEVEMENT DIFFERENTIATE AMONG THE STRATA OF STUDENTS ON A CRITERION THAT CORRELATES WITH THE CONSTRUCT UNDER EXAMINATION IE READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION 3HADISH #OOK #AMPBELL 7E NOTE THAT RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OF STUDENTS TO TREATMENT GROUPS OCCURS RARELY IN FIELD BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 3TRATIFIED RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OF THESE THIRD GRADE STU DENTS TOOK PLACE OVER THE SUMMER MONTHS PRIOR TO THE BEGINNING OF THE THIRD GRADE YEAR 7E DID NOT INCLUDE STU DENTS WHO MOVED INTO THE AREA DURING THE SUMMER MONTHS BECAUSE THERE WERE NO PREVIOUS YEARS CRITERION REFERENCED READING TEST SCORES AVAILABLE FOR RANDOMLY ASSIGNING NEW STUDENTS TO ONE OF THE TWO TREATMENT GROUPS 4HERE WERE TWO 3C32 CLASSROOMS N AND TWO '2/2 CLASSROOMS N $URING THE SCHOOL YEAR IN WHICH THIS STUDY WAS CONDUCTED OF THE ORIGINAL RANDOMLY ASSIGNED STUDENTS . MOVED FROM THE SCHOOL EITHER DURING THE SUM MER AFTER RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OR DURING THE STUDY LEAVING TOTAL STUDENTS FOR THE FINAL DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS !TTRITION WAS EQUAL IN THE 3C32 N AND THE '2/2 N TREATMENTS 4HE TWO SCHOOLS IN WHICH THE STUDY WAS CONDUCTED WERE CONSIDERED HIGH POVERTY LOW PERFORMING SCHOOLS WITH APPROXIMATELY n DIVERSITY !FRICAN !MERICAN !SIAN AND (ISPANIC WITH MORE THAN HALF OF THE STUDENTS IN THE SCHOOLS QUALIFYING FOR FREE OR REDUCED LUNCH 4HE SCHOOLS HAD PARTICIPATED FOR THE FULL YEARS OF THE FEDERALLY FUNDED 2EADING %XCELLENCE !CT 2%! GRANT PROGRAM THAT TARGETED READING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND INSTRUC TIONAL MATERIALS FUNDING FOR 'RADES +n IN HIGH POVERTY LOW PERFORMING ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 4HE THIRD GRADE TEACHERS IN THIS STUDY ALSO HAD PAR TICIPATED IN THE 2%! SUBGRANT FOR YEARS 4HEY RECEIVED
-ETHOD 0ARTICIPANTS 4HE STUDY INVOLVED FOUR CLASSROOMS THIRD GRADE TEACHERS AND THIRD GRADE STUDENTS IN TWO ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS !LL TEACHERS IN THE STUDY ROTATED THROUGH TEACHING THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREATMENTS DURING THE YEAR OF THIS STUDY %ACH TEACHER ROTATED EVERY WEEKS TEACHING THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREAT MENTS TWICE DURING THE YEAR AS SHOWN IN 4ABLE !LL THIRD GRADE STUDENTS WERE RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO ONE OF TWO TREATMENT GROUPS IE 3C32 OR '2/2 IN THE TWO SCHOOLS 4O RANDOMLY ASSIGN STUDENTS WE LISTED THEIR SPRING
4!",% 4REATMENT 2OTATION BY 7EEK 0ERIODS 4REATMENT 3CHOOL 3C32 CLASSROOM '2/2 CLASSROOM 3CHOOL 3C32 CLASSROOM '2/2 CLASSROOM
ST WEEKS
ND WEEKS
RD WEEKS
TH WEEKS
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
.OTE '2/2 GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING 3C32 SCAFFOLDED SILENT READING
CLASSROOM BASED COACHING ON AT LEAST A WEEKLY BASIS FROM A SCHOOL BASED READING MENTOR OR LITERACY COACH AND WEEKLY FOLLOW UP STUDY IN GRADE LEVEL STUDY GROUPS $URING THE ND AND RD YEARS OF THE 2%! PROJECT THE DISTRICTS 2%! TECH NICAL ASSISTANT A UNIVERSITY PROFESSOR IN EARLY LITERACY GAVE TEACHERS MONTHLY PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOPS AND IN CLASS READING INSTRUCTION AND PRACTICE DEMONSTRATIONS 2EADING COACHES CONDUCTED WEEKLY STUDY GROUPS FOR n HR ON SCIENTIFICALLY BASED READING RESEARCH FOR WHICH TEACHERS READ AND STUDIED INTENSIVELY ABOUT EFFECTIVE READING INSTRUC TION AND PRACTICE AS OUTLINED IN 0REVENTING 2EADING $IFFICULTIES IN 9OUNG #HILDREN 3NOW "URNS 'RIFFIN $URING THE SUMMER PRECEDING THE STUDY THE THIRD GRADE TEACHERS WERE PAID AN ADDITIONAL STIPEND TO READ AND DISCUSS WITH THEIR LITER ACY COACHES INFORMATION ABOUT THE TWO DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO BE USED IN THIS STUDY AND JOINTLY PLAN THEIR LESSONS FOR BOTH TREATMENTS 4HESE THIRD GRADE TEACHERS RECEIVED DAYS OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ON EFFECTIVE FLUENCY INSTRUCTION AND PRACTICE USING TRAINING MATERIALS DRAWN FROM A VARIETY OF PROFESSIONAL SOURCES WHICH WERE BASED MAINLY ON /PITZ AND 2ASINSKIS 'OOD BYE 2OUND 2OBIN %FFECTIVE /RAL 2EADING 3TRATEGIES 4HUS THE THIRD GRADE TEACHERS SELECTED FOR THIS STUDY WERE PERHAPS BETTER PREPARED IN EFFECTIVE VARIA TIONS ON FLUENCY PRACTICE THAN MOST CLASSROOM TEACHERS WERE IN THE FIRST YEARS OF THE ST CENTURY BUT THEY DID NOT FEEL AS IF THEY WERE EXPERTS IN PROVIDING FLUENCY INSTRUCTION AND PRACTICE AS THE STUDY BEGAN -EASURES 7E USED TWO SEPARATE PRETEST AND TWO SEPARATE POSTTEST PASSAGES A TOTAL OF FOUR PASSAGES FROM THE THIRD GRADE LEVEL $YNAMIC )NDICATORS OF "ASIC %ARLY ,ITERACY 3KILLS $)"%,3 /RAL 2EADING &LUENCY /2& TEST0OTS AND 4HE &IELD 4RIP PRETEST PASSAGES -Y 0ARENTS AND 0LANTING A 'ARDEN POST TEST PASSAGES TO ASSESS STUDENTS FLUENCY AND COMPREHEN SION GROWTH OVER THE YEARLONG STUDY 'OOD +AMINSKI !T THE TIME OF THIS STUDY THE $)"%,3 /2& TEST WAS JUST BEGINNING TO BE USED AS A MEASURE OF STUDENTS READING FLUENCY IN THESE SCHOOLS (OWEVER IN YEARS SUBSEQUENT TO THIS STUDY THE $)"%,3 /2& HAS BECOME A UBIQUITOUS FEATURE OF FLUENCY ASSESSMENT IN MANY ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ACROSS THE NATION 7E SELECTED THE /2& TEST AND PASSAGES FOR TWO REASONS &IRST THIS WAS A TEST THAT WAS BEING USED IN THESE AND MANY OTHER ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ACROSS THE NATION TO ASSESS FLUENCY 3ECOND THE /2& TEST HAS BEEN DEMON STRATED TO HAVE TECHNICAL ADEQUACY IN PREDICTIVE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY FOR MEASURING STUDENTS FLUENCY 'OOD +AMINSKI 4HE SCHOOL BASED LITERACY COACHES WERE TRAINED TO SCORE THE FOUR TEST PASSAGES USING THE STANDARDIZED APPROACH FOR ADMINISTRATION OF THE /2& TEST $ECODING ACCURACY ASSESSMENT 3LASHES WERE PLACED OVER INCORRECTLY READ WORDS INCLUDING HESITATIONS AFTER S THE TEST ADMINISTRATOR GAVE THE WORD TO THE STUDENT MISPRO NUNCIATIONS AND OMISSIONS IN THE THIRD GRADE $)"%,3 PASSAGES )NSERTIONS AND SELF CORRECTIONS WERE NOT SCORED
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
AS INCORRECT !T THE END OF MIN A SLASH WAS PLACED AT THE POINT WHERE THE STUDENT SAID THE LAST WORD 4HE TEST ADMINISTRATOR RECORDED EACH STUDENTS READING OF THE FOUR PASSAGES ON A SEPARATE AUDIOTAPE TO BE USED LATER FOR SCORING PURPOSES 7E DETERMINED STUDENTS READING ACCURACY SCORES ON THE $)"%,3 PASSAGES USED IN THIS STUDY BY COUNTING THE TOTAL NUMBER OF READING ERRORS AS DESCRIBED FOR EACH MIN READING OF THE FOUR PASSAGES 2EADING RATE 2EADING RATE WAS CALCULATED USING A WORDS CORRECT PER MINUTE WCPM METRIC 4HE WCPM METRIC COR RECTS FOR THE NUMBER OF ERRORS COMMITTED IN EACH MIN READING SAMPLE 7E CALCULATED THE WCPM METRIC BY SUB TRACTING THE TOTAL NUMBER OF ERRORS FROM THE TOTAL NUMBER OF WORDS READ BY EACH STUDENT IN MIN FOR EACH OF THE FOUR PASSAGES 2EADING EXPRESSION 2EADING EXPRESSION WAS JUDGED USING THE -ULTIDIMENSIONAL &LUENCY 3CALE -&3 :UTELL 2ASIN SKI COMPOSED OF FOUR POINT RATING SUBSCALES VOL UME PHRASING SMOOTHNESS AND PACE :UTELL AND 2ASINSKI REPORTED A INTERRATER RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT FOR THE -&3 ,ITERACY COACHES WERE TRAINED TO SCORE AUDIOTAPES DURING THE STUDY USING A SET OF FOUR SAMPLES FROM THE PREASSESSMENT PASSAGES ! MEMBER OF THE RESEARCH TEAM GAVE FEEDBACK TO THESE LITERACY COACHES ON HOW TO USE THE RATING SCALE FOLLOWING THE PROCESSES DESCRIBED BY :UTELL AND 2ASINSKI "ECAUSE PASSAGES WERE AUDIOTAPED LITERACY COACHES COULD LISTEN TO STUDENTS READING SAMPLES MULTIPLE TIMES IF NECES SARY TO DETERMINE A RATING 4OTAL SCORES ON THE -&3 RANGED FROM TO POINTS 3TUDENT SCORES WERE AVERAGED BY TAK ING THE RATING OF EACH OF THE FOUR ITEMSVOLUME PHRASING SMOOTHNESS AND PACEAND DIVIDING THE SUM OF THE RATINGS BY 3TUDENT MEAN SCORES WERE USED IN THE ANALYSIS #OMPREHENSION ORAL RETELLINGS 3TUDENT ORAL RETELLINGS OF THE PASSAGES WERE USED AS THE MEASURE OF STUDENT COMPRE HENSION /RAL RETELLINGS ARE USED AS A STANDARD PROCEDURE IN MANY COMPREHENSION RESEARCH STUDIES AND IN A VARIETY OF INFORMAL AND FORMAL PUBLISHED ASSESSMENTS 0ARIS 3TAHL /UR APPROACH TO SCORING THE ORAL RETELLINGS WAS MODELED AFTER THE $EVELOPMENTAL 2EADING !SSESSMENT "EAVER 7E PRODUCED A TEMPLATE TEXT BASE SCORING PROTOCOL FOR EACH PASSAGE BY PARSING THE PASSAGES INTO IDEA UNITS NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT CLAUSES OR MEANING UNITS .EXT MEMBERS OF THE RESEARCH TEAM RANKED ORDERED IDEA UNITS INTO TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES A SUPERORDINATE OR MAIN IDEA UNITS IN THE PASSAGE AND B SUBORDINATE OR DETAIL IDEA UNITS IN THE PASSAGE 4HEN WE PRINTED THE TEMPLATE TEXT BASE ORAL RETELLING SCORING PROTOCOL LISTING THE IDEA UNITS IN AN ORDER INDICATING THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE MAIN IDEA OR DETAIL WITH A BLANK BY EACH FOR PLACING A CHECK MARK !FTER STUDENTS FINISHED THE MIN READINGS OF EACH PAS SAGE THE TEST ADMINISTRATOR ASKED THEM TO ORALLY RETELL WHAT THEY HAD READ #HILDREN WERE INSTRUCTED TO TELL hEVERYTHING YOU CAN REMEMBER FROM READING THE PASSAGEv !S STUDENTS MADE MENTION OF MAIN OR DETAIL IDEA UNITS IN THEIR ORAL RETELLINGS THE TEST ADMINISTRATOR MADE A CHECK MARK IN THE BOX BY THE MAIN OR DETAIL IDEA UNIT DISPLAYED ON THE
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
SCORING PROTOCOL 4HE TEST ADMINISTRATOR SUMMED THE TOTAL NUMBER OF MAIN AND DETAIL IDEA UNITS RECALLED AT THE BOT TOM OF THE TEMPLATE 3TUDENTS RECEIVED AN EXTRA POINT FOR RETELLING THE INFORMATION IN THE PASSAGES IN THE CORRECT SEQUENCE 4O ESTABLISH RELIABILITY OF THE COMPREHENSION ORAL RETELL ING SCORING PROCESS TWO MEMBERS OF THE RESEARCH TEAM INDEPENDENTLY SCORED RANDOMLY SELECTED STUDENT AUDIO TAPES OF THE ORAL RETELLINGS USING THE TEMPLATE TEXT BASE ORAL RETELLING PROTOCOL 4HE TOTAL ORAL RETELLING SCORES FOR EACH OF THE TWO RATERS WERE ANALYZED USING CORRELA TION ANALYSIS YIELDING A 0EARSONS R CORRELATION COEFFICIENT 4HE OBTAINED R WAS INDICATING A HIGH PERCENTAGE OF AGREEMENT WHICH WAS DETERMINED BY SQUARING THE OBTAINED 4O CORRECT FOR THE POTENTIAL LIMITING EFFECT OF THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY IN MIN ON EACH STUDENTS READING COMPREHENSION ORAL RETELLING SCORES WE USED A PROPORTIONAL SCORE IN THE ANALYSIS 4HIS SCORE WAS DERIVED BY DIVIDING THE NUMBER OF IDEA UNITS IN EACH STUDENTS ORAL RETELLING BY THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY IN MIN ON THAT SAME PAS SAGE &OR EXAMPLE IF A STUDENT RECALLED SIX IDEA UNITS IN HIS OR HER ORAL RETELLING AND READ WCPM THE PROPORTIONAL SCORE WAS (OWEVER IF A STUDENT RECALLED IDEA UNITS IN WCPM THE PROPORTIONAL SCORE WAS THE SAME 7E DID THIS SO THAT THE COMPREHENSION SCORES REFLECTED THE AMOUNT OF RECALLED IDEA UNITS ATTENUATED BY THE PROPORTION OF THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY #LASSROOM OBSERVATIONS OF TEACHERS AND STUDENTS 4HE SCHOOL BASED LITERACY COACH OBSERVED EACH TEACHERS FLU ENCY INSTRUCTION WEEKLY FOR THE FULL LENGTH OF THE PRACTICE SESSION MIN USING A FIVE ITEM OBSERVATION RATING SCALE 2ESEARCH TEAM MEMBERS AND THE SCHOOL READING COACHES RECORDED FIELD NOTES AND RATINGS USING OBSERVATION FORMS CREATED FOR BOTH OF THE READING FLUENCY PRACTICE ROUTINES /N TWO OCCASIONS A PANEL OF THREE OBSERVERS WENT INTO CLASSROOMS TO ASSESS THE INTERRATER RELIABILITY AMONG THE OBSERVERS /N A MONTHLY BASIS THE RESEARCH TEAM ALONG WITH THE SCHOOL DISTRICT LANGUAGE ARTS COORDINATOR OBSERVED EACH TEACHER USING THE SAME OBSERVATION SCALE TO ASSURE FIDELITY TO THE EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS AND PROBLEM SOLVE IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES WITH THE TEACHERS /BSERVATIONS REVEALED HIGH DEGREES OF FIDELITY IN THE TWO TREATMENTS )N GENERAL PROBLEMS WERE OF A MINOR NATURE AND SOLVED BY SUPPLYING ON THE SPOT TRAINING OR ACCESS TO ADDITIONAL REQUESTED PRACTICE MATERIALS WHEN NECESSARY ! RANDOM SAMPLE OF FOUR MONTHLY RATINGS USING THE FIVE ITEM OBSERVATION SCALES COMPLETED BY THE DISTRICT LANGUAGE ARTS COORDINATOR AND A MEMBER OF THE RESEARCH TEAM REVEALED AGREEMENT ON THE FOUR RANDOMLY SAMPLED INDEPENDENT RATINGS OF TREATMENT QUALITY AND FIDELITY 4EACHER RESPONSE JOURNALS )NDIVIDUAL COPIES OF A TEACHER RESPONSE JOURNAL 42* WERE CREATED FOR EACH OF THE THIRD GRADE TEACHERS 4HE FIRST SECTION OF THE 42* CONTAINED WEEKLY RESPONSE PAGES THAT REQUIRED ANSWERS TO THREE WRITTEN QUESTIONS WITH SPACE FOR EACH RESPONSE ALONG
WITH AN OPEN RESPONSE AREA A 7HAT DIFFICULTIES ARE YOU ENCOUNTERING WITH THE TWO FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS B 7HAT IS GOING WELL FOR YOU WITH THE FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS AND C 7HAT EFFECTS IF ANY ARE YOU NOTICING ON YOUR STUDENTS WITH EACH FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENT 4HE SECOND SECTION OF THE 42* REQUESTED A WRITTEN SUMMARY FOR SHARING OVERALL IMPRESSIONS AND TEACHER CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE STUDY 3TUDENT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS !T THE OUTSET AND CONCLUSION OF THE EXPERIMENT STUDENTS WERE ASKED TO ANSWER THE FOL LOWING QUESTIONS A (OW DO YOU THINK YOUR READING ALOUD SOUNDS B )F YOU DONT THINK YOUR READING ALOUD SOUNDS GOOD WHAT WILL YOU DO TO FIX IT AND C 7HAT DOES A GOOD READER SOUND LIKE TO YOU $ESIGN )N THIS RESEARCH STUDY WE USED A DOMINANT LESS DOMI NANT MIXED MODEL DESIGN USING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITA TIVE DATA COLLECTION 4ASHAKKORI 4EDDLIE )N THE DOMINANT STRUCTURE OF THE MIXED MODEL DESIGN WE USED A PRETESTnPOSTTEST TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN #AMPBELL 3TANLEY )N THE LESS DOMINANT STRUCTURE OF THE MIXED MODEL DESIGN WE ANALYZED CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS 42*S AND DISCUSSIONS AND STUDENT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS TO DESCRIBE TEACHING LEARNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN EACH EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENT 7E ACKNOWL EDGE ONE IMPORTANT LIMITATION OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN USED IN THIS STUDY 4HERE WAS NO TRADITIONAL CONTROL GROUP THAT CONTINUED THE REGULAR READING INSTRUCTION TIME WITHOUT THE BENEFIT OF EITHER OF THE TWO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS 3C32 OR '2/2 ! TRUE CONTROL GROUP OF NO TREATMENT IS DIFFICULT TO IMPLEMENT WITHIN THE ECOLOGICALLY VALID CONTEXT OF A SCHOOL SETTING 4HE TEACHERS WHO PARTICI PATED IN THIS RESEARCH DID SO BELIEVING THEY WOULD BE DOING SOMETHING HELPFUL TO THEIR STUDENTS RATHER THAN DOING MORE OF THE NORM 4HE NORM WAS NOT A SUFFICIENT ENTICEMENT FOR TEACHERS TO PARTICIPATE 'IVEN THIS LIMITATION WE DECIDED TO ANALYZE THE RESULTS OF THE STUDY USING GAIN SCORES FROM PRETEST TO POSTTEST FOR THE TWO TREATMENT GROUPS TO DETER MINE IF STUDENTS IN THE TWO TREATMENT GROUPS MADE PROGRESS IN FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION DURING THE YEAR 2EGULAR 2EADING )NSTRUCTION 4HE READING INSTRUCTION IN ALL +n CLASSROOMS WAS A PRE SCRIBED MIN TIME BLOCK EACH DAY WITH A CLEAR INSTRUC TIONAL ROUTINE 3TUDENTS RECEIVED GUIDED READING INSTRUC TION IN SMALL GROUPS FOR MIN PER DAY PER THE PROCEDURES DESCRIBED IN THE BOOK 'UIDED 2EADING 'OOD &IRST 4EACHING FOR !LL #HILDREN BY &OUNTAS AND 0INNELL #HILDREN ROTATED DAILY THROUGH LEARNING STATIONS EVERY MIN THAT FOCUSED ON VOCABULARY COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES AND WORD WORK IN ADDITION TO THE MIN THEY SPENT WITH THEIR CLASSROOM TEACHER IN SMALL GROUP GUIDED READING LESSONS $URING THE REMAINING MIN OF THE DAY CHILDREN RECEIVED WHOLE GROUP
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
WORD WORK INSTRUCTION FOR MIN BASED ON 0 - #UNNING HAMS WORD BUILDING ACTIVITIES 4HE REMAINING MIN OF READING INSTRUCTION EACH DAY FOCUSED ON WHOLE GROUP VOCABULARY AND COMPREHENSION STRATEGY INSTRUCTION LESSONS THAT WERE PRESCRIBED BY A DISTRICT CURRICULUM GUIDE
)N THE SECTIONS THAT FOLLOW WE DESCRIBE THE NATURE OF THE TWO FLUENCY TREATMENTS AND EMPHASIZE HOW THE MODES OF PRACTICE DIFFERED
&LUENCY 0RACTICE 4REATMENTS
4HE TEACHERS WHO ROTATED THROUGH THE 3C32 FLUENCY TREATMENT GROUPS HAD BEEN TRAINED IN USING &OUNTAS AND 0INNELLS !n: TEXT GRADIENT OR LEVELING SCHEME FOR DETERMINING DIFFICULTY LEVELS OF READING TEXTS %ACH TEACHER HAD A LARGE AND WELL STOCKED CLASSROOM LIBRARY OF BOOKS RESULTING FROM THEIR YEAR PARTICIPATION IN THE 2%! GRANT ,IBRARIES IN THESE CLASSROOMS WERE ARRANGED SO THAT EVERY BOOK IN THE CLASSROOM LIBRARY WAS EITHER MARKED WITH COLORED TAPE OR PLACED INTO A COLORED PLASTIC BIN INDICATING LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY &URTHERMORE TEACHERS HAD BEEN TRAINED TO PRESENT LESSONS TO STUDENTS EARLY IN THE YEAR AND THROUGH OUT THE YEAR IN THE 3C32 TREATMENT ON HOW TO SELF SELECT EASY INDEPENDENT LEVEL BOOKS FOR READING USING RESOURCES FOUND IN 9OUR #LASSROOM ,IBRARY .EW 7AYS TO 'IVE IT -ORE 4EACHING 0OWER 2EUTZEL &AWSON 4HE DAILY 3C32 TREATMENT BEGAN WITH TEACHERS MODELING THE FLUENT READING OF A TEXT !FTERWARD THE TEACHERS CON DUCTED A BRIEF DISCUSSION WITH STUDENTS ABOUT WHAT MADE THEIR MODELED READING FLUENT )N GENERAL THESE DISCUSSIONS FOCUSED ON THE FLUENCY ELEMENTS OF hREADING WHAT WAS ON THE PAGE v hSOUNDING LIKE SOMEONE TALKING v OR hREADING TOO FAST TOO SLOW OR JUST RIGHTv 7HEN THIS MIN MODELING AND DISCUSSION ENDED THE TEACHER REMINDED STUDENTS THAT THEY SHOULD SELECT AN INDEPENDENT LEVEL BOOK FROM AN APPROPRI ATELY COLORED BIN OR SHELF IN THE CLASSROOM LIBRARY AND THAT THEY SHOULD ALSO SELECT FROM ONE OF THE GENRES SHOWN ON THE THEIR GENRE WHEEL TO READ SILENTLY 3TUDENTS WERE REQUIRED TO READ ACROSS SIX DIFFERENT GENRE TYPES EACH WEEKS AS SHOWN IN &IGURE 7HEN STUDENTS FINISHED ONE BOOK FROM EACH GENRE REPRE SENTED ON THE WHEEL THEY COLORED IN THAT SLICE OF THE WHEEL AND SELECTED ANOTHER BOOK FROM A DIFFERENT GENRE ON THE WHEEL 7HEN THE QUARTER ENDED EACH CHILD SHOULD HAVE COMPLETED AND COLORED HALF OF THE SLICES ON THEIR GENRE WHEEL 5NLIKE IN FORMER CLASSROOM MANIFESTATIONS OF 332 TEACHERS KEPT A LISTING OF STUDENT NAMES WITH WHOM THEY HAD CONDUCTED BRIEF READING CONFERENCES $URING THESE BRIEF READING CONFERENCES THE TEACHER ASKED STUDENTS TO READ PART OF THE BOOK ALOUD CONDUCTED A BRIEF DISCUSSION ABOUT THE READING AND ASKED THE CHILD TO SET GOALS FOR FINISHING THE BOOK WITHIN A REASONABLE TIME FRAME 4HESE RANDOM MONITORING CONFERENCES TOOK ABOUT n MIN EACH SO THAT THE TEACHER WAS ABLE TO CONFERENCE WITH BETWEEN AND STUDENTS EACH DAY
3IMILARITIES 4HERE WERE THREE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE TWO TREATMENTS 4EACHERS IN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREATMENTS PROVIDED EQUAL LENGTHS OF FLUENCY PRACTICE TIME AND EQUAL LENGTHS OF CORE READING INSTRUCTION TIME FOR ALL FOUR CLASS ROOMS IN THE STUDY 4EACHERS IN ALL FOUR CLASSROOMS ALSO USED THE SAME INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES !LSO ALL FOUR CLASSROOMS USED A TAKE HOME READING LIBRARY FROM WHICH STUDENTS WERE EXPECTED TO TAKE HOME DAILY AN INDEPENDENT LEVEL BOOK FOR PERSONAL READING 4EACHERS TRACKED ALL STUDENTS WEEKLY TO ASSURE THEY WERE READING MIN PER DAY OUT OF SCHOOL AS REPORTED BY THE STUDENTS PARENTS 3ECOND EVERY DAY THE TEACHERS IN BOTH FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS BEGAN THE ALLOCATED FLUENCY PRACTICE TIME BY MODELING FLUENT READ ING OF A TEXT AND DISCUSSING WITH STUDENTS ALTHOUGH BRIEFLY ABOUT MIN VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUENT READING ,AST THE TEACHER OR ANOTHER THIRD GRADE STUDENT PROVIDED FEEDBACK AND MONITORED STUDENTS IN BOTH TREATMENT GROUPS DURING THEIR FLUENCY READING PRACTICE TIME $IFFERENCES 4HE TWO TREATMENTS IN THIS STUDY WERE DIF FERENTIATED BY SIX CONTRASTING CHARACTERISTICS A MODE OF READING SILENT VS ORAL B NATURE OF READING WIDE VS REPEATED C FREQUENCY OF FEEDBACK AND MONITORING DAILY VS WEEKLY D SOCIAL NATURE OF READING ISOLATED VS COLLAB ORATIVE E TEACHER ASSIGNED TEXTS VERSUS STUDENT SELECTED TEXTS FROM LEVELED CLASSROOM LIBRARIES AND F LEVEL OF TEXT DIFFICULTY GRADE VS INDEPENDENT LEVEL TEXTS 4HE 3C32 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ TEXTS SILENTLY WHERE AS THE '2/2 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ TEXTS ORALLY 4HE 3C32 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ WIDELY FROM A VARIETY OF TEXT GENRES USING A GENRE WHEEL EACH FOR WEEK PERIOD 4HE '2/2 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ TEACHER ASSIGNED TEXTS REPEATEDLY BETWEEN THREE AND FIVE TIMES )N THE 3C32 TREATMENT THE TEACHER PROVIDED FEEDBACK AND MONITORED STUDENTS AT LEAST WEEKLY )N THE '2/2 TREATMENT EITHER A TEACHER OR A PEER PROVIDED FEEDBACK AND MONITORED STU DENTS DAILY )N THE 3C32 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ TEXTS IN ISOLATION )N THE '2/2 TREATMENT STUDENTS READ EITHER CHORALLY WITH THE WHOLE CLASS OR WITH A SELF SELECTED BUDDY OR PEER IN PAIRED READING 3TUDENTS IN THE 3C32 TREATMENT SELF SELECTED THEIR TEXTS 3TUDENTS IN THE '2/2 TREATMENT PRACTICED READING TEXTS THAT WERE SELECTED BY THE TEACHER ,AST STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 TREATMENT PRACTICED FLUENCY BY READING TEXTS AT THEIR INDEPENDENT READING LEVELS FROM AMONG SEVERAL GENRES STORED IN LEVELED CONTAINERS IN THE CLASSROOM LIBRARIES 3TUDENTS IN THE '2/2 TREATMENT PRACTICED FLUENCY WITH GRADE LEVEL TEXTS &IGURE HIGH LIGHTS SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS
3CAFFOLDED 3ILENT 2EADING 4REATMENT
'2/2 7ITH &EEDBACK 4REATMENT 4HE TEACHERS WHO ALSO ROTATED THROUGH THE '2/2 TREAT MENT GROUPS HAD BEEN TRAINED IN USING A VARIETY OF METHODS FOR HELPING STUDENTS TO REPEATEDLY READ TEXTS ALOUD TO DEVELOP
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
4REATMENT CHARACTERISTIC
'UIDED 2EPEATED /RAL 2EADING '2/2
3CAFFOLDED 3ILENT 2EADING 3C32
4IME ALLOCATED
MIN DAILY -ONDAYn4HURSDAY
MIN DAILY -ONDAYn4HURSDAY
0URPOSE
4O INCREASE STUDENTS mUENCY AND COMPREHENSION
4O INCREASE STUDENTS mUENCY AND COMPRE HENSION
4HEORETICAL EMPHASIS
7ORD LEVEL AUTOMATICITY LEADS TO INCREASED COMPREHENSION
%XPERIENCE WITH DIFFERING TEXT GENRES STRUCTURES AND KNOWLEDGE DOMAINS LEADS TO INCREASED COMPREHENSION
-ODE OF READING PRACTICE
/RAL READING
3ILENT READING
&OCUS OF PRACTICE
2EPEATED READINGS OF SHORT TEXT SEGMENTS TO FACILITATE AUTOMATIC WORD RECOGNITION
7IDE READING OF BOOK LENGTH TEXTS ACROSS DIFFERING GENRES TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION AND EXPERIENCE WITH TEXT ORGANIZATION
,EVEL OF TEXT DIFlCULTY PRACTICED
'ROUP GRADE LEVEL TEXT
)NDIVIDUAL INDEPENDENT LEVEL TEXTS
2OLE OF TEACHER DURING PRACTICE
-ONITOR AND PROVIDE FEEDBACK TO STUDENTS
-ONITOR AND PROVIDE FEEDBACK TO STUDENTS
4EACHER INSTRUCTION
%XPLAIN AND MODEL mUENT READING
%XPLAIN AND MODEL mUENT READING
.ATURE OF TEACHER PEER FEEDBACK AND GUIDANCE
3TUDENT READS ALOUD AND INFORMATION CONVEYED ABOUT ACCURACY RATE AND EXPRESSION BY TEACHER OR PEER
3TUDENT READS ALOUD WITH BRIEF INTERACTIONS WITH THE TEACHER AROUND mUENCY AND TEXT UNDERSTANDING GOAL SETTING AND TIMELINE FOR COMPLETION
&OCUS OF TEACHER PEER FEEDBACK AND GUIDANCE
&LUENCY
&LUENCY AND COMPREHENSION
3OCIAL CONTEXT
0EER COLLABORATION IN LISTENING TO PRACTICING WITH AND PROVIDING FEEDBACK TO OTHER STUDENTS STUDENT PERFOR MANCES ONCE MONTHLY
,IMITED INTERACTION WITH OTHER PEERS LARGELY INDIVIDUAL IN A SOLITARY SETTING
#HARACTERISTICS OF READ ING MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT
4EACHER CHOICE
3TUDENT CHOICE WITHIN STRUCTURE INDEPEN DENT LEVEL
&)'52% 4HEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE TWO FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS 3HADED BOXES HIGHLIGHT CONTRASTS
&ANTASY
&OLKTALES
0OETRY
&ABLES
!UTOBIOGRAPHY
!DVENTURE
(ISTORICAL lCTION
3CIENCE lCTION
"IOGRAPHY
(UMOR -YSTERY
3PORTS
&)'52% 2EADING GENRE WHEEL $ 2 2EUTZEL 0 # &AWSON
FLUENCY 4HESE METHODS INCLUDED A VARIOUS TYPES OF CHORAL READING FOR WHOLE GROUP PRACTICE INCLUDING UNISON ANTIPHO NAL AND ECHOIC B PAIRED ASSISTED BUDDY OR DYAD READING WITH A STUDENT SELECTED PARTNER AND C READERS THEATER RADIO READING AND RECITATION 4EACHERS SELECTED GRADE LEVEL TEXTS THAT WERE REPEATEDLY READ ALOUD AT LEAST n DIFFERENT TIMES 4HE DAILY '2/2 TREATMENT BEGAN WITH THE TEACHERS MODELING THE FLUENT READING OF THE SELECTED GRADE LEVEL TEXT 4HEN THE TEACHERS CONDUCTED BRIEF DISCUSSIONS WITH STUDENTS ABOUT WHAT MADE THEIR MODELED READING FLUENT 4HESE DISCUSSIONS TYPICALLY FOCUSED ON THE FLUENCY ELEMENTS OF hREADING WHAT WAS ON THE PAGE v hSOUNDING LIKE SOMEONE TALKING v OR hREADING TOO FAST TOO SLOW OR JUST RIGHTv 7HEN THIS MIN MODELING AND DISCUSSION ENDED STUDENTS READ THE GRADE LEVEL TEACHER SELECTED TEXT AS A WHOLE CLASS WITH THE TEACHER USING SOME FORM OF CHORAL READING SUCH AS UNISON ECHOIC OR ANTIPHONAL READINGS !FTER THE WHOLE GROUP CHORAL READING PRACTICE CONCLUDED STUDENTS REREAD ALOUD THE ASSIGNED GRADE LEVEL TEXT WITH ANOTHER STUDENT WHOM THEY SELECTED AS A BUDDY FOR PAIRED READING BECAUSE THIS APPROACH TO PAIRING STUDENTS HAS SHOWN POSITIVE RESULTS
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
IN THE PAST -EISINGER 3CHWANENFLUGEL "RADLEY +UHN 3TAHL /N OCCASION STUDENTS PRACTICED READING THE TEXT ALOUD BY READING INTO A FLUENCY PHONE CONSTRUCTED OF WHITE IN POLYVINYL CHLORIDE 06# PIPE AND 06# PIPE ELBOWS 4HE BOTTOM PART OF THE 06# FLUENCY PHONE SWIVELED OUT FOR THE READER TO READ INTO 4HE EARPIECE WAS PLACED ON THE EAR OF THE LISTENER DURING PAIRED READING TO HEAR THE BUDDYS READ ING THROUGH THE FLUENCY PHONE /NE TIME PER MONTH THE TEACHER SELECTED A TEXT THAT WAS TO BE PRACTICED BY STUDENTS FOR WEEK IN ANTICIPATION OF A PERFORMANCE USING READERS THEATER RADIO READING OR RECITATION FOR OTHER STUDENTS IN CLASSES WITHIN THE SCHOOL
FOR GAIN SCORES BETWEEN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREATMENT GROUPS ON ACCURACY RATE EXPRESSION AND COMPREHENSION ON TWO $)"%,3 /2& THIRD GRADE PASSAGES 7E USED 3033 FOR 7INDOWS WITHIN THE GENERAL LINEAR MODEL ',- FOR THE ANALYSES 4HE PARTICIPANTS WERE ENTERED AS THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS BECAUSE NO 4REATMENT ¾ 4EACHER INTERACTION FOR ANY OF THE MEASURES OCCURRED WHEN TESTED IN A NESTED !./6! AS POTENTIAL TEACHER EFFECTS WERE CONTROLLED BY DESIGN 1UALITATIVE OBSERVATIONAL DATA WERE ANALYZED TO ASSESS THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE TWO TREATMENTS WERE IMPLEMENTED WITH FIDELITY IN THE FOUR CLASSROOMS #LASSROOM OBSERVATIONS WERE ALSO PERIODICALLY VIDEOTAPED TO PROVIDE RESEARCHERS WITH INTACT RECORDS OF ACTUAL PRACTICE SESSIONS AND THE ACCOMPANYING DIALOGUE BETWEEN TEACHERS AND STUDENTS 7E USED THESE DATA ALONG WITH WRITTEN OBSERVATIONS TO CON STRUCT THE CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL AND PROCEDURAL DESCRIP TIONS IN THIS REPORT 7E COLLECTED 42*S TO GAIN INSIGHTS INTO TEACHERS PERCEIVED STRUGGLES AND TRIUMPHS IN WORKING WITH THE VARIED READING FLUENCY PRACTICE ROUTINES 3TUDENT ANSWERS TO PRE AND POSTSTUDY STRUCTURED QUESTIONS PROVIDED INSIGHT INTO STUDENTS PERCEPTIONS OF THE TWO READING PRAC TICE TREATMENTS
0ROCEDURE 7E ASSESSED THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE STRATIFIED RANDOM ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES PRIOR TO THE ONSET OF THE STUDY WITH AN ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE !./6! #OMPARISON OF STU DENTS PRETEST PASSAGE SCORES CONFIRMED NO SIGNIFICANT INITIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO RANDOMLY ASSIGNED FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENT GROUPS A ACCURACY 0OTS PASSAGE & P ACCURACY &IELD 4RIP PASSAGE & P B RATE 0OTS PASSAGE & P RATE &IELD 4RIP PASSAGE & P C EXPRES SION 0OTS PASSAGE & P EXPRESSION &IELD 4RIP PASSAGE & P D COMPREHENSION 0OTS PASSAGE & P ORAL RETELLING &IELD 4RIP PASSAGE & P
1UANTITATIVE 2ESULTS 4ABLES AND DISPLAY PRETEST AND POSTTEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THIRD GRADE CLASSROOMS AND THE TWO TREATMENTS ON ACCURACY RATE EXPRESSION AND COMPRE HENSION SCORES FOR THE TWO PRETEST PASSAGES 0OTS AND 4HE &IELD 4RIP AND THE TWO POSTTEST PASSAGES -Y 0ARENTS AND 0LANTING A 'ARDEN %IGHT SEPARATE !./6! GAIN SCORE ANALYSES WERE USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE 3C32 OR '2/2 READING FLUENCY PRACTICE ROUTINES WERE EQUALLY EFFECTIVE IN TERMS OF DECREASING
$ATA 3OURCES AND !NALYSIS 7E ANALYZED DATA ACCORDING TO A SEQUENTIAL QUANTITA TIVEnQUALITATIVE PROCESS 4ASHAKKORI 4EDDLIE 4HE DOMINANT QUANTITATIVE DATA WERE ANALYZED USING !./6!
4!",% $ESCRIPTIVE 3TATISTICS FOR &LUENCY AND #OMPREHENSION 0RETESTS BY #LASSROOM AND 4REATMENT 0RETEST !CCURACY 0OTS 4HE &IELD 4RIP 2EADING RATE 0OTS 4HE &IELD 4RIP %XPRESSION 0OTS 4HE &IELD 4RIP #OMPREHENSION 0OTS 4HE &IELD 4RIP
'2/2 CLASSROOMS #LASS
#LASS
3C32 CLASSROOMS 4REATMENT GROUP
#LASS
#LASS
4REATMENT GROUP
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3$
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3$
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3$
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3$
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3$
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3$
.OTE '2/2 GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING 3C32 SCAFFOLDED SILENT READING
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
4!",% $ESCRIPTIVE 3TATISTICS FOR &LUENCY AND #OMPREHENSION 0OSTTESTS BY #LASSROOM AND 4REATMENT 0OSTTESTS !CCURACY -Y 0ARENTS 0LANTING A 'ARDEN 2EADING RATE -Y 0ARENTS 0LANTING A 'ARDEN %XPRESSION -Y 0ARENTS 0LANTING A 'ARDEN #OMPREHENSION -Y 0ARENTS 0LANTING A 'ARDEN
'2/2 CLASSROOMS #LASS
#LASS
3C32 CLASSROOMS 4REATMENT GROUP
#LASS
#LASS
4REATMENT GROUP
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3$
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3$
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3$
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3$
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3$
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3$
.OTE '2/2 GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING 3C32 SCAFFOLDED SILENT READING
STUDENTS ERRORS AND IMPROVING STUDENTS ACCURACY READING RATE EXPRESSION AND COMPREHENSION !CCURACY 4HERE WAS NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 TREATMENTS ON THE MEAN GAIN SCORES REDUCTION OF ERRORS DURING MIN READING SAMPLES FOR THE -Y 0ARENTS PASSAGE & P OR THE 0LANTING A 'ARDEN PASSAGE & P "OTH READING TREATMENT APPROACHES RESULTED IN A AVERAGE DECREASE IN THE MEAN NUMBER OF ERRORS MADE BY STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 GROUPS OVER THE COURSE OF THE YEAR LONG STUDY 2ATE
PACE ON THE 0LANTING A 'ARDEN PASSAGE & P "OTH TREATMENTS RESULTED IN A AVERAGE INCREASE IN MEAN EXPRESSION RATING SCORES FOR STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 GROUPS #OMPREHENSION /RAL 2ETELLING 3CORES 4HERE WAS NO SIGNIFICANT MEAN GAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 TREATMENTS IN THE PROPORTION OF NUM BER OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM ON THE -Y 0ARENTS PASSAGE & P OR THE 0LANTING A 'ARDEN PASSAGE & P "OTH READING FLUENCY PRAC TICE APPROACHES RESULTED IN A AVERAGE INCREASE IN THE PROPORTION OF NUMBER OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM BY STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 GROUPS
4HERE WAS NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 TREATMENTS ON THE MEAN GAIN SCORES FOR NUMBER OF WCPM FOR THE -Y 0ARENTS PASSAGE & P OR THE 0LANTING A 'ARDEN PASSAGE & P OVER THE COURSE OF THE YEAR LONG STUDY "OTH TREATMENTS RESULTED IN A AVERAGE INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY IN MIN OF READING BY STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 GROUPS
1UALITATIVE 2ESULTS
%XPRESSION
3TUDENT )NTERVIEWS
4HERE WAS A SIGNIFICANT MEAN GAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 TREATMENTS FAVORING THE 3C32 GROUP MEAN GAIN ON EXPRESSION AS MEASURED BY PHRASING VOLUME SMOOTHNESS AND PACE ON THE -Y 0ARENTS PASSAGE & P 4HERE WAS NO SIGNIFICANT MEAN GAIN DIFFER ENCE BETWEEN THE 3C32 OR '2/2 TREATMENTS ON EXPRES SION AS MEASURED BY PHRASING VOLUME SMOOTHNESS AND
!T THE OUTSET AND CONCLUSION OF THE STUDY THE THIRD GRADE STUDENTS WERE ASKED TO RESPOND TO THREE STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 7E PRESENT THESE QUESTIONS AND TYPICAL RESPONSES IN THE FALL AND SPRING OF THE SCHOOL YEAR 1UESTION (OW DO YOU THINK YOUR READING ALOUD SOUNDS NOW 2ESPONSES BY STUDENTS IN BOTH PRACTICE GROUPS IN THE FALL RANGED FROM hNOT VERY GOODv TO hSOUNDS GREATv OR
4REATMENT &IDELITY /N THE BASIS OF CONSISTENT WEEKLY CLASSROOM OBSERVA TIONS THE RESEARCH TEAM JUDGED THE FIDELITY OF TREATMENT IMPLEMENTATION TO BE GOOD WITH THE TEACHERS REGULARLY IMPLEMENTING THE SPECIFIED READING FLUENCY PRACTICE ROU TINES AS PER THE TRAINING THEY RECEIVED
hSOUNDS EXCITING LIKE A GOOD STORYv 4HE MOST FREQUENTLY OCCURRING RESPONSE WAS hOKAY v WITH FEWER STUDENTS INDI CATING hGOODv )N THE SPRING RESPONSES BY STUDENTS IN BOTH PRACTICE GROUPS HAD SHIFTED FROM THE MOST FREQUENT RESPONSE OF hOKAYv TOWARD THE RESPONSE OF hGOODv 3TU DENTS IN THE 3C32 GROUP ADDED LITTLE OR NO EXPLANATION TO THESE BRIEF CHARACTERIZATIONS OF THEIR READING ALOUD (OW EVER THE STUDENTS IN THE '2/2 GROUP RESPONDED NOT ONLY WITH THE TYPICAL hOKAYv OR hGOOD v BUT SEVERAL STUDENTS VOLUNTARILY ADDED EXPLANATIONS FOR THESE RESPONSES SUCH AS hBETTER THAN LAST TIMEv OR hBETTER THAN IT USED TO BEv h3OMETIMES ) HAVE EXPRESSION SOMETIMES ) DONT AND SOMETIMES ) GO TOO FASTv AND h) STOP AT PERIODS NOW AND HAVE BETTER EXPRESSIONv 1UESTION )F YOU DONT THINK YOUR READING ALOUD SOUNDS GOOD WHAT DO YOU DO TO FIX IT )N THE FALL ANSWERS TO THIS QUESTION FROM STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 GROUP INCLUDED RESPONSES SUCH AS hREAD ALOUDv OR hREAD MORE OFTEN v hPRAC TICE v hREAD LOUDER v AND hREAD IT AGAINv OR hOVER AND OVERv !NSWERS TO THIS QUESTION FROM THE '2/2 GROUP IN THE FALL INCLUDED RESPONSES SUCH AS hSPEAK CLEARLY v hREAD THE WORDS CORRECTLY v hREAD OVER UNTIL IT SOUNDS RIGHT v h) DONT KNOW v hSOUND OUT THE WORD v hREAD SLOWER v hFIX MISTAKES v hPRAC TICE v AND hREAD EASIER BOOKSv )N THE SPRING STUDENTS IN BOTH GROUPS ADDED A NUMBER OF ELABORATED RESPONSES TO THIS QUESTION 2EPONSES IN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 GROUPS INCLUDED SUGGESTIONS SUCH AS A PRACTICE B READ MORE C USE EXPRESSION D GO BACK AND START ALL OVER E IF YOU DONT KNOW A WORD ASK FOR HELP F READ SLOWERUNDERSTAND WORDS NOT JUST GO QUICKLY G USE PUNCTUATION H MAKE THE SOUND OF EACH LETTER AND THEN BLEND THEM TOGETHER TO GET THE WORD I MAKE IT EXCITING J TAKE A BIG BREATH AND READ TO THE COMMA OR END PUNC TUATION K SLOW DOWN AND L USE MORE EXPRESSION 1UESTION 7HAT DOES A GOOD READER SOUND LIKE TO YOU 3TUDENTS IN THE 3C32 GROUP IN THE FALL INDICATED THAT GOOD READERS SOUND LIKE A h4HEY KNOW WHAT THEY ARE SAYING 9OU GET A PICTURE IN YOUR MINDv B h3OMEONE WHO CAN READ FASTv C h3OMEONE WHO TALKS OUT LOUD WITH EXPRES SIONv D h2EADS NOT TOO FAST AND NOT TOO SLOWJUST RIGHTv E h&IXES MISTAKESv AND F h,OOK AT EACH WORD CAREFULLY AND READ NICELYv 3TUDENTS IN THE '2/2 GROUP IN THE FALL INDICATED THAT GOOD READERS SOUND LIKE THEY A h2EAD EVERY WORD GOODv B h(AVE A BEAUTIFUL VOICEv C h'O BACK AND REREADv D h.OTICE THE PUNCTUATIONv E h2EAD SLOWER AND THINK ABOUT THE BOOKv AND F h2EAD LOUDER WITH EXPRESSION AND DONT MAKE MISTAKESv )N THE SPRING STUDENTS IN THE 3C32 GROUP INDICATED THAT GOOD READERS A h'O BACK AND FIX MISTAKESv B h2EAD SMOOTH CLEARLY AND LOUD ENOUGH THAT OTHERS CAN HEARv C h2EAD LOTS OF BOOKSv D h$ONT READ DULL PUT VOICE IN REALLY UNDERSTAND AND NOT TOO FAST AND NOT TOO SLOWv E h2EAD WITH VOICE 7ATCHES BOLD WORDS WHEN SHE MESSES UP SHE REREADS )F SHE DOESNT KNOW A WORD SHE GETS HELP OR LOOKS IT UPv F h7ATCHES COMMAS AND EXCLAMATION POINTSv AND G h'OES BACK AND FIXES MISTAKESv
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
3TUDENTS IN THE '2/2 GROUP IN THE SPRING INDICATED THAT GOOD READERS A h!CT LIKE ITS HAPPENING TO THEM AS THEY READ 3TOP AT PERIODSv B h-AKES THINGS EXCITING (AS LOTS OF EXPRESSION 2EAD AT A GOOD SPEEDv C h3AY THE WORDS CLEARLY TALK SO EVERYONE CAN HEAR NOT BORING USES GOOD EXPRESSIONv D h2EADS GOOD BOOKSv E h.OT CHOPPY CAN READ HARD BOOKSv AND F h&IXES MISTAKESv 4EACHER 2EFLECTION *OURNALS )N ADDITION TO THE STUDENT RESPONSES TO THE PRE AND POST STUDY STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS EACH WEEK TEACHERS WERE ASKED TO RESPOND IN WRITING TO THREE QUESTIONS 1UESTION 7HAT DIFFICULTIES ARE YOU ENCOUNTERING WITH THE TWO FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS !T FIRST THERE WAS CLEAR EVIDENCE THAT TEACHERS IN BOTH GROUPS WERE SOMEWHAT UNSURE OF THEM SELVES 4HIS MAY HAVE BEEN BECAUSE OF CONDITIONS IN WHICH THEIR TEACHING WAS UNDER INTENSE OBSERVATION AND THEIR WRIT TEN LESSON PLANS WERE SCRUTINIZED !LSO FLUENCY PRACTICE WAS NOT A COMMON PART OF THEIR REGULAR READING INSTRUCTION UP TO THIS TIME !LL TEACHERS INDICATED A CONCERN ABOUT WHETHER THEY WERE hDOING THE FLUENCY PRACTICE RIGHTv 4HEY MADE COMMENTS SUCH AS h) FELT A LITTLE UNSURE ABOUT HOW ) SHOULD MONITOR THE STUDENTSv OR h) WAS WORRIED THAT ) WAS NOT DOING THE READING PRACTICE RIGHT MAYBE ) WAS LEAVING SOMETHING OUTv !S TIME PROGRESSED THE TEACHERS SEEMED TO RELAX AND FEEL COMFORTABLE WITH THEIR FLUENCY PRACTICE SESSIONS AND THE ONGOING PROCESS OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS 4HEIR COMMENTS INCLUDED h) FELT MORE RELAXED AND LESS STRESSEDv AND h3EEMS TO BE GOING WELLFEELS VERY COMFORTABLEv ! CONSTANT COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CLASSROOM OBSER VATIONS INDICATED SIMILAR TRENDS 4EACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FLUENCY PRACTICE ROUTINES BEGAN A LITTLE UNSURE BUT WITHIN A MATTER OF TO WEEKS FROM THE ONSET OF THE STUDY THE TEACHERS WERE IMPLEMENTING THEIR ASSIGNED FORMS OF FLU ENCY PRACTICE WELL AND WITH LESS STRESS AND INCREASED CONFI DENCE 4HIS IS NOT TO SAY THAT IMPLEMENTATION AT THE INITIAL STAGES OF THE STUDY WAS POOR /N A FIVE POINT OBSERVATION SCALE AT THE ND WEEK INITIAL TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION WAS JUDGED AN AVERAGE OF (OWEVER BY THE END OF THE STUDY TH WEEK THE TEACHERS WERE AVERAGING A OBSERVA TION RATING SHOWING THE IMPROVED CONFIDENCE AND SKILL 1UESTION 7HAT IS GOING WELL FOR YOU WITH THE FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS 4HERE WAS AGAIN SOME EVIDENCE WITHIN RESPONSES INITIALLY THAT TEACHERS IN BOTH GROUPS WERE UNSURE OF THEIR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS (OWEVER THE PREPONDERANCE OF RESPONSES TO THIS PARTICULAR QUESTION SEEMED TO FOCUS ON THE STUDENTS AND THEIR PARTICIPATION RATHER THAN ON TEACHERS AND THEIR COMFORT LEVELS &OR EXAMPLE COMMENTS WERE MADE SUCH AS THE FOLLOWING h4HE STUDENTS WHO LOVE TO READ ARE ENJOY ING THIS TIMEv h-ORE STUDENTS ARE READING CHAPTER BOOKS AND SEEM TO BE REALLY ENJOYING THEMv AND h+IDS ARE REALLY ENJOYING IT AND GETTING MORE EXPRESSIVE IN THEIR ORAL READ INGv !S THE STUDY PROGRESSED RESPONSES TO THIS QUESTION VARIED SIGNIFICANTLY &OR EXAMPLE h3OME STUDENTS WHO
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
DID NOT ENJOY READING ARE NOW COMPLETING THEIR BOOKSv h4HE LESSONS ARE GOING FASTER WITH MORE AND MORE STUDENT PARTICIPATIONv AND h4HE STUDENTS LOVED LISTENING TO THE TEACHER MAKE MISTAKESv 4HIS WAS DONE WHILE MODELING FLUENCY AND FIX UP STRATEGIES !T THE END OF THE STUDY THE READING COACH NOTED IN HER OBSERVATIONS h%VERY TEACHER INCLUDING MYSELF LEARNED A LOT ABOUT PROVIDING THE CONDI TIONS FOR GOOD READING PRACTICEv 1UESTION 7HAT EFFECTS IF ANY ARE YOU NOTICING ON YOUR STUDENTS WITH EACH FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENT $URING THE INITIAL STAGES OF THE STUDY TEACHERS COMPLAINED ABOUT STU DENT PARTICIPATION IN READING SILENTLY /NE TEACHER WROTE h) NOTICE NOW THAT SOME STUDENTS JUST DO NOT READ DURING THE MINUTES OF PRACTICEv !NOTHER WROTE h3TUDENTS WHO REALLY WANT ME TO HEAR THEM PRACTICE ARE DEVELOPING GOOD SKILLS ) NOTICE THAT SOME STUDENTS DO NOT LIKE TO BE HEARD OR PERFORMv (OWEVER AS TIME PROGRESSED THE TEACH ERS FELT THAT STUDENTS WERE GETTING INTO PRACTICE TIME /NE '2/2 TEACHER RECORDED h4HE STUDENTS IN THIS GROUP ARE AN INTERESTING GROUP )T IS EXCITING TO PAIR THEM UP WITH A PARTNER THEY DID NOT EXPECT ) HAVE NOTICED THEM HELPING EACH OTHER COMMENTING ON EACH OTHER AND ENCOURAGING EACH OTHERv /NE 3C32 TEACHER WROTE h4HEY LIKE TO READ ) ENJOY HEARING THE STUDENTS TELL ME ABOUT THEIR READING 4HE EXCITEMENT AND ENERGY IS CONTAGIOUS WHEN THEY READ A BOOK THEY ENJOYv 4OWARD THE END OF THE STUDY ALL TEACHERS NOTED SOME FATIGUE WITH BOTH READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS 4HEY WROTE h4HEY ARE GETTING SICK OF JUST PRACTICING THEIR READING )M STARTING TO LOSE SOME OF THEMv AND h3OME ARE BEGINNING TO COMPLAIN EVERY MORNINGv $ISCUSSION 4HE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY WAS TO ANSWER THE RESEARCH QUESTION )S SCAFFOLDED SILENT READING 3C32 AS EFFECTIVE AS GUIDED REPEATED ORAL READING '2/2 WITH FEEDBACK IN PRO MOTING THIRD GRADE STUDENTS DEVELOPMENT OF READING FLUENCY AS MEASURED BY A REDUCTION IN ERROR RATES B INCREASE IN WORDS READ CORRECTLY PER MINUTE C INCREASE IN EXPRESSION RATING SCORES AND D INCREASE IN READING COMPREHENSION AS MEASURED BY THE PROPORTION OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED FROM READING DIVIDED BY THE NUMBER OF WORDS READ CORRECTLY PER MINUTE 7E DISCUSS EACH OF THE MAJOR FINDINGS OF THIS STUDY &LUENCY 0ERFORMANCE 4HE RESULTS OF THE STUDY FOUND NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREATMENTS ON THIRD GRADE STUDENTS MEAN GAIN SCORES OF READING FLUENCY AS MEASURED BY ACCURACY OR RATE 4HERE WAS ONE SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE FOUND ON STUDENTS EXPRESSION RATING SCORES FAVORING THE 3C32 GROUP MEAN GAINS OVER THE '2/2 GROUP 4HUS THESE FINDINGS INDICATE THAT AN 3C32 APPROACH FOR FLUENCY PRACTICE PRODUCED RESULTS EQUIVALENT TO THOSE OF THE SCIEN TIFICALLY VALIDATED '2/2 ON FLUENCY GROWTH RATES FOR THIS PARTICULAR SAMPLE OF THIRD GRADE STUDENTS
'IVEN THAT THE FINDING BETWEEN THE TWO TREATMENT GROUPS WAS ESSENTIALLY EQUIVALENT WE ASK WHAT WAS THE OVERALL IMPACT OF THESE TWO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREAT MENTS ON THE FLUENCY GROWTH OF THE THIRD GRADE STUDENTS IN THIS STUDY !T THE BEGINNING OF THE THIRD GRADE YEAR THE AVERAGE READING RATE OF THE THIRD GRADE GROUP OF STUDENTS IN THIS STUDY WAS WCPM AS MEASURED BY THE COMBINED AVERAGE WCPM SCORES ON THE TWO PRETEST PASSAG ES !S MEASURED THE AVERAGE READING RATE FOR THIS COHORT GROUP OF THIRD GRADERS WAS BELOW THE TH PERCENTILE PER FORMANCE OF WCPM FOR END OF SECOND GRADE STUDENTS NATIONALLY (ASBROUCK 4INDAL !T THE END OF THE THIRD GRADE YEAR THE AVERAGE READ ING RATE OF THE THIRD GRADE STUDENTS IN THIS STUDY WAS WCPM AS MEASURED BY THE COMBINED AVERAGE WCPM SCORES ON THE TWO POSTTEST PASSAGES 4HUS THESE STUDENTS READING FLUENCY RATES IN AT RISK SCHOOL SETTINGS AT END OF YEAR WAS APPROACHING NATIONAL TH PERCENTILE NORMS THAT DEPENDING ON THE NORMS CONSULTED RANGE BETWEEN n WCPM !LSO THE '2/2 AND 3C32 TREATMENTS HAD BEGUN TO CLOSE THE GAP BETWEEN BEGINNING AND END OF YEAR NORMED TH PERCENTILE AVERAGE READING RATES FROM AN POINT DEFICIT TO A TO POINT DEFICIT AGAIN DEPENDING ON THE NORMS CONSULTED (ASBROUCK 4INDAL 4ORGESON (UDSON !CCORDING TO NATIONAL NORMS THE AVERAGE FLUENCY WCPM GAIN FROM END OF SECOND GRADE TO END OF THIRD GRADE IS WCPM (ASBROUCK 4INDAL 4HE 3C32 AND '2/2 GROUPS EXCEEDED THE NATIONAL AVERAGE OF WCPM FLUENCY GAIN PER YEAR BY ATTAINING A WCPM PER YEAR AVERAGE FLU ENCY GAIN 7E NOTE STUDENTS IN 2%! SCHOOLS WERE SELECTED BECAUSE STUDENTS IN THESE SCHOOLS WERE CONSIDERED HIGH POVERTY AND LOW PERFORMING 4HEREFORE PERFORMING AT THE AVERAGE WOULD BE CONSIDERED AN EXCELLENT OUTCOME IN THESE SCHOOLS (OWEVER THE AVERAGE WCPM READING RATE GAIN IN THE 3C32 GROUP OVER THE YEAR SLIGHTLY EXCEEDED THE '2/2 GROUP AVERAGE WCPM READING RATE GAIN BUT ULTIMATELY RESULT ED IN NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO GROUPS MEAN GAIN SCORES 4HUS RELATIVELY AND ABSOLUTELY SPEAKING THE TWO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS IN THIS STUDY HELPED STUDENTS IN THESE AT RISK SCHOOLS MAKE BETTER THAN NATIONAL AVERAGE GAINS IN WCPM READING RATES AND ALSO HELPED TO CLOSE THE GAP BETWEEN THESE STUDENTS BEGINNING AND END OF YEAR READING FLUENCY PERFORMANCE AS COMPARED WITH TH PERCENTILE NATIONAL FLUENCY NORMS #OMPREHENSION 0ERFORMANCE 4HE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY REVEALED NO SIGNIFICANT DIF FERENCES BETWEEN THE 3C32 AND '2/2 READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS IN IMPROVING THIRD GRADE STUDENTS READING COMPREHENSION "ECAUSE THE FINDING BETWEEN THE TWO COMPARISON READING FLUENCY TREATMENT GROUPS WAS ESSENTIALLY EQUIVALENT AGAIN WE ASK WHAT WAS THE OVERALL IMPACT OF THESE TWO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS ON THE COMPREHENSION PERFORMANCE OF THE STUDENTS IN
THIS STUDY ! COMPARISON OF THE AVERAGE PROPORTION OF THE NUMBER OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM AT PRETEST TO THE AVERAGE PROPORTION OF THE NUMBER OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM AT POSTTEST BY THESE STUDENTS REVEALED A AVERAGE INCREASE IN THE MEAN PROPORTION OF THE NUMBER OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM REPRESENT ING A SUBSTANTIAL INCREASE IN READING COMPREHENSION OVER THE YEAR FOR BOTH GROUPS 4EACHER #OMMENTS AND 3TUDENT )NTERVIEWS )N GENERAL STUDENTS INDICATED BOTH READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS HELPED THEM TO BECOME BETTER READ ERS 4EACHERS FOUND SOME INITIAL PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENT ING THE READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS (OWEVER AS THE YEAR PROGRESSED STUDENTS AND TEACHERS SEEMED TO ENJOY THE TIME FOR PRACTICE 4OWARD THE END OF THE YEAR STUDENTS EXPRESSED FATIGUE WITH READING FLUENCY PRACTICE BUT THIS MAY HAVE REFLECTED A GENERAL FATIGUE WITH SCHOOL ING 0REVIOUS RESEARCHERS HAVE INDICATED THAT STUDENTS DO BECOME FATIGUED WITH SINGULAR FORMS OF READING FLU ENCY PRACTICE 'AMBRELL ,EE $ANIELS -URRAY )N GENERAL THE TEACHERS FELT 3C32 AND '2/2 WERE READILY IMPLEMENTED AND HAD THE INTENDED EFFECT OF IMPROVING STUDENTS READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION OVER THE YEAR !LSO STUDENTS SEEMED TO CONCUR WITH THESE OBSERVATIONS THAT 3C32 AND '2/2 WERE ENJOYABLE AND USEFUL AND THEY BOTH LEAD TO INCREASED CONFIDENCE IN THEIR ABILITIES AS READERS &ROM THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY AND OTHERS IT APPEARS THAT STUDENTS CONTINUE TO DEVELOP FLUENCY THROUGHOUT THIRD GRADE 3CHWANENFLUGEL ET AL 4HE DIMINISHED ROLE THAT AUTOMATICITY AND DECODING PLAY IN READING COMPRE HENSION AS STUDENTS GET OLDER IS WELL ESTABLISHED 0ARIS #ARPENTER 0ARIS (AMILTON 0IKULSKI #HARD 3CHWANENFLUGEL ET AL (OWEVER BY THIRD GRADE WORD READING TYPICALLY REQUIRES REDUCED COGNITIVE RESOURCES ALLOWING STUDENTS TO FOCUS THEIR ATTENTION MORE INTENTLY ON READING COMPREHENSION !S MEASURED IN THIS STUDY THE MODE OF READING FLUENCY PRACTICE WHETHER ORAL READING OR 3C32 PROVIDED NO DATA SHOWING NEGATIVE CON SEQUENCES ON THE STUDENTS READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHEN SION PERFORMANCE "OTH REPEATED AND WIDE READING FLUENCY PRACTICE HELPED STUDENTS IN THIS THIRD GRADE COHORT IN TWO AT RISK ELEMEN TARY SCHOOLS TO INCREASE THEIR READING FLUENCY AND COM PREHENSION 4HE USE OF DIFFERING LEVELS OF TEXT DIFFICULTY DEPENDENT ON THE AMOUNT OF SCAFFOLDING SUPPORT AND MONITORING APPEARED TO PROVIDE EQUALLY EFFECTIVE FLU ENCY AND COMPREHENSION OUTCOMES FOR THESE THIRD GRADE STUDENTS 3IMILARLY THE PRACTICE OF READING IN ISOLATION VERSUS WITH OTHERS DID NOT APPEAR TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE IN THE OUTCOME OF THESE STUDENTS READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION OUTCOMES NOR DID TEACHER VERSUS STUDENT SELECTION OF THE TEXTS TO BE PRACTICED 4HUS THE DIFFER ENCES OR CONTRASTS BETWEEN 3C32 AND '2/2 DID NOT SEEM
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
TO RESULT IN MEASURABLE DIFFERENCES IN READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION OUTCOMES ,IMITATIONS AND %DUCATIONAL )MPLICATIONS 4HIS STUDY WAS LIMITED IN SEVERAL IMPORTANT WAYS &IRST THE STUDY WAS LIMITED TO A PARTICULAR SOCIOCULTURAL CON TEXTTWO HIGH POVERTY LOW PERFORMING SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTHWESTERN 5NITED 3TATES 4HUS THE RESULTS MAY NOT BE GENERALIZABLE TO ALL STUDENTS ATTENDING MIDDLE OR UPPER CLASS AND HIGH PERFORMING SCHOOLS 3ECOND THE SAMPLE SIZE WAS LIMITED TO THIRD GRADE STUDENTS !LTHOUGH THIS MOD ERATE SAMPLE SIZE ALLOWED FOR CAREFUL CONTROL AND FIDELITY RELATED TO INTERNAL VALIDITY THE SAMPLE SIZE ALSO LIMITED THE GENERALIZABILITY OF THE FINDINGS AND THE DEGREES OF FREEDOM AVAILABLE FOR CONDUCTING HYPOTHESIS TESTING 4HIRD THE ASSESSMENT OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES IE FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION WAS LIMITED TO READING $)"%,3 PASSAGES TWO PRE AND TWO POSTASSESSMENT PASSAGES &OURTH THE INABILITY TO IMPLEMENT A TRUE CONTROL GROUP OF NO TREATMENT LIMITS THE INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS &IFTH WE COULD NOT ACCOUNT FOR THE TOTAL TIME CHILDREN SPENT READING OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL 7E CANNOT BE CERTAIN THAT 3C32 AND '2/2 WOULD HAVE BEEN SIGNIFICANTLY BETTER THAN A CONTROL GROUP IN WHICH THE REGULAR READING INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES WERE EXTENDED FOR AN EQUAL AMOUNT OF TIME FOR IMPROVING THIRD GRADE STUDENTS READING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION (OWEVER IN DEFENSE OF THE DESIGN USED THE STUDY WAS NOT A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF NO READING FLUENCY PRACTICE BUT RATHER A STUDY OF TWO PRACTICALLY AND THEORETICALLY DIFFERENT READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS3C32 AND '2/2 &URTHERMORE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF '2/2 IN IMPROVING STUDENTS READING ACHIEVEMENT IS WELL ESTABLISHED IN SCORES OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES AS REPORTED BY THE .20 .)#(($ &IRST FUTURE RESEARCHERS SHOULD USE OTHER COMPARISON GROUPS AND IF POSSIBLE A CONTROL NO TREATMENT GROUP AND LARGER NUMBERS OF STUDENTS TO INCREASE THE EXTERNAL VALIDITY AND THE DEGREES OF FREEDOM FOR HYPOTHESIS TEST ING 3ECOND FUTURE RESEARCHERS SHOULD EXAMINE THE USE OF 3C32 AND '2/2 WITH A VARIETY OF LEVELS OF STUDENT ABILITY AND ACROSS A VARIETY OF SCHOOLS 4HIRD TIME SPENT READING AT THE INDIVIDUAL AND CLASSROOM LEVELS BOTH IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL NEEDS TO BE CAREFULLY CONTROLLED OR ACCOUNTED FOR IN FUTURE RESEARCH TO ASSURE THAT THE EFFECTS OF COMPARISONS ARE ONLY ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE TREATMENTS &OURTH WE EVALUATED WHOLE APPROACHES FOR PRACTICING READING FLUENCY AND DID NOT ENGAGE IN ANALYTIC MEASUREMENT OF EVERY CONTRASTING ELEMENT WITHIN THESE PROGRAMS PACKAGES OR APPROACHES TO FLUENCY PRACTICE )T IS POSSIBLE THAT ONLY A FEW OF THE CONTRASTING AND SIMILAR FEATURES OF THE FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS MAY HAVE ACCOUNTED FOR THE FINDING OF NO DIF FERENCES BETWEEN THE GAINS SCORES OF THE 3C32 AND '2/2 TREATMENT GROUPS &UTURE RESEARCHERS MAY NEED TO TAKE A MORE ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO UNCOVER WHICH DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS MAY WHEN COMBINED
3EPTEMBER/CTOBER ;6OL .O =
WITH OTHERS RESULT IN POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE OUTCOMES FOR FLUENCY PRACTICE ,AST THE STUDY WAS LIMITED TO 3C32 AND '2/2 AS THE ONLY FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS EVALUATED WITH A SINGLE GRADE LEVEL OF STUDENTS ! LOGICAL STEP FOR FUTURE RESEARCHERS WOULD INVOLVE THE SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS OR CONTRASTS OF A VARIETY OF READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TREATMENTS WITH A VARIETY OF GRADE LEVELS )N SPITE OF THESE LIMITATIONS THIS STUDY EFFECTIVELY ADDRESSED SEVERAL CONCERNS RELATED TO PAST FLUENCY RESEARCH )N THE .20 NOTED A NEED FOR MORE RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERING TYPES OF FLUENCY PRACTICE AND DIFFERING AMOUNTS OF TIME ON FLUENCY OUTCOMES !LTHOUGH WE DID NOT EXAMINE DIFFERING AMOUNTS OF TIME ALLOCATED TO FLUENCY PRACTICE AS WAS RECOMMENDED BY THE .20 .)#(($ WE DID ADDRESS THE SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATION OF THE .20 THAT MORE RESEARCH ON 332 AND OTHER FLUENCY PRAC TICE APPROACHES WAS NEEDED !FTER A CAREFUL EXAMINATION OF POTENTIAL PROBLEMS WITH THE PRACTICES AND CONDITIONS OF TRADITIONALLY IMPLEMENTED 332 WE ADDRESSED THESE BY DESIGNING AND TESTING AN ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT FOR READING FLUENCY PRACTICE CALLED 3C32 !S SUCH 3C32 IS DIFFERENT FROM THE TRADITIONALLY IMPLEMENTED INDEPENDENT 332 7ITH RESPECT TO THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THIS STUDY THE .20 .)#(($ OBSERVED h4HERE IS A NEED FOR RIGOROUS EVALUATIONS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENCOURAGING WIDE READING ON READING ACHIEVEMENT PAR TICULARLY WITH POPULAR PROGRAMS SUCH AS 332 $%!2 AND !2v .)#(($ P (IEBERT NOTED h3UCCESSFUL FLUENCY INTERVENTIONS NEED TO PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES FOR STUDENTS TO TRANSFER THEIR SKILLS TO SILENT READING 'IVING STUDENTS A PURPOSE FOR READING A TEXT AND A DEFINITE TIME PERIOD IN WHICH TO ACCOMPLISH IT PROVIDES SCAFFOLDING FOR SILENT READINGv P )N THIS STUDY WE DEMONSTRATED THAT THIRD GRADE STUDENTS CAN BENEFIT FROM READING FLUENCY PRACTICE USING 3C32 AND '2/2 AS MEASURED BY ASSESSMENTS OF STUDENT READING FLU ENCY DECREASES IN NUMBERS OF ERRORS AND INCREASES IN WCPM AND EXPRESSION RATING SCORES AND COMPREHENSION INCREAS ES IN THE PROPORTION OF IDEA UNITS RECALLED PER WCPM 4HIS STUDY ALSO OFFERS TEACHERS GUIDANCE ON HOW TO EFFECTIVELY SCAFFOLD SILENT READING FOR THIRD GRADE STUDENTS 4HESE STU DENTS NEED TO BE ACTIVELY MONITORED DURING SILENT READING PRACTICE AS THEY TRANSFER THEIR ORAL READING FLUENCY SKILLS TO SILENT READING PRACTICE )N CONCLUSION THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY PROVIDE EVIDENCE THAT 3C32 IMPROVES THIRD GRADE STUDENTS FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION GROWTH AS EFFECTIVELY AS '2/2 4HUS THIS FINDING PROVIDES TEACHERS AND CHILDREN A COMPLEMENTARY APPROACH 3C32 FOR READING FLUENCY PRACTICE TO THE EVI DENCE BASED AND WELL ESTABLISHED '2/2 APPROACH 7E ALSO FOUND THAT HAVING MORE THAN ONE EFFECTIVE WAY TO PROVIDE YOUNG CHILDREN READING FLUENCY PRACTICE IS IMPORTANT FOR REA SONS OF ENGAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION /UR QUALITATIVE FINDINGS SHOWED THAT WHEN SINGLE READING FLUENCY PRACTICE APPROACH ES WERE USED EXCLUSIVELY OVER LONG PERIODS THESE APPROACHES TENDED TOWARD TEDIUM FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
2%&%2%.#%3 !LLINGTON 2 , "IG BROTHER AND THE NATIONAL READING CURRICULUM (OW IDEOLOGY TRUMPED EVIDENCE 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN "EAVER * $EVELOPMENTAL READING ASSESSMENT 5PPER 3ADDLE 2IVER .* 0EARSON %DUCATION "RYAN ' &AWSON 0 # 2EUTZEL $ 2 3USTAINED SILENT READ ING %XPLORING THE VALUE OF LITERATURE DISCUSSION WITH THREE NON ENGAGED READERS 2EADING 2ESEARCH AND )NSTRUCTION n "URLEY * % 3HORT TERM HIGH INTENSITY READING PRACTICE METHODS FOR 5PWARD "OUND STUDENTS !N APPRAISAL .EGRO %DUCATIONAL 2EVIEW n #AMPBELL $ 4 3TANLEY * # %XPERIMENTAL AND QUASI EXPERI MENTAL DESIGNS FOR RESEARCH "OSTON (OUGHTON -IFFLIN #LINE 2 + * +RETKE ' , !N EVALUATION OF LONG TERM 332 IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL *OURNAL OF 2EADING n #OLES ' -ISREADING READING 4HE BAD SCIENCE THAT HURTS STUDENTS 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN #OLLINS # 3USTAINED SILENT READING PERIODS %FFECTS ON TEACHERS BEHAVIORS AND STUDENTS ACHIEVEMENT %LEMENTARY 3CHOOL *OURNAL n #UNNINGHAM * 7 4HE .ATIONAL 2EADING 0ANEL 2EPORT 2EADING 2ESEARCH 1UARTERLY n #UNNINGHAM 0 - 3YSTEMATIC SEQUENTIAL PHONICS THEY USE &OR BEGINNING READERS OF ALL AGES 'REENSBORO .# #ARSON $ELLOSA $AVIS : 4 ! COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SUSTAINED SILENT READING AND DIRECTED READING ACTIVITY ON STUDENTS READING ACHIEVEMENT (IGH 3CHOOL *OURNAL n %DMONDSON * 3HANNON 0 4HE WILL OF THE PEOPLE )N 2 , !LLINGTON %D "IG BROTHER AND THE NATIONAL READING CURRICULUM (OW IDEOLOGY TRUMPED EVIDENCE PP n 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN %VANS ( - 4OWNER * # 3USTAINED SILENT READING $OES IT INCREASE SKILLS 2EADING 4EACHER n &OUNTAS ) # 0INNELL ' 3 'UIDED READING 'OOD FIRST TEACHING FOR ALL CHILDREN 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN 'AMBRELL , " 'ETTING STARTED WITH SUSTAINED SILENT READING AND KEEPING IT GOING 2EADING 4EACHER n 'OOD 2 ( +AMINSKI 2 ! $)"%,3 /RAL 2EADING &LUENCY 0ASSAGES FOR FIRST THROUGH THIRD GRADES 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT .O %UGENE 5NIVERSITY OF /REGON (ASBROUCK * 4INDAL ' /RAL READING FLUENCY NORMS ! VALUABLE ASSESSMENT TOOL FOR READING TEACHERS 2EADING 4EACHER n (IEBERT % ( "ECOMING FLUENT 2EPEATED READING WITH SCAFFOLDED TEXTS )N 3 * 3AMUELS ! % &ARSTRUP %DS 7HAT RESEARCH HAS TO SAY ABOUT FLUENCY INSTRUCTION PP n .EWARK $% )NTERNATIONAL 2EADING !SSOCIATION (OLT 3 " /4UEL & 3 4HE EFFECT OF SUSTAINED SILENT READING AND WRITING ON ACHIEVEMENT AND ATTITUDES OF SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADE STUDENTS READING TWO YEARS BELOW GRADE LEVEL 2EADING )MPROVEMENT n +RASHEN 3 -ORE SMOKE AND MIRRORS ! CRITIQUE OF THE .ATIONAL 2EADING 0ANEL 2EPORT ON &LUENCY )N 2 , !LLINGTON %D "IG BROTHER AND THE NATIONAL READING CURRICULUM (OW IDEOLOGY TRUMPED EVIDENCE PP n 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN ,ANGFORD * # !LLEN % ' 4HE EFFECTS OF 5332 ON STU DENTS ATTITUDE AND ACHIEVEMENT 2EADING (ORIZONS n ,EE $ANIELS 3 , -URRAY " ! $%!2 ME 7HAT DOES IT TAKE TO GET MY STUDENTS READING 2EADING 4EACHER n ,EINHARDT ' :IGMOND . #OOLEY 7 2EADING INSTRUCTION AND ITS EFFECTS !MERICAN %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH *OURNAL n -ANNING ' , -ANNING - 7HAT MODELS OF RECREATIONAL READING MAKE A DIFFERENCE 2EADING 7ORLD n -EISINGER ( 3CHWANENFLUGEL 0 * "RADLEY % +UHN - 2 3TAHL 3 ! $ECEMBER )NTERACTION QUALITY DURING PARTNER READING 0APER PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE .ATIONAL 2EADING #ONFERENCE -IAMI &, .ATIONAL )NSTITUTE OF #HILD (EALTH AND (UMAN $EVELOPMENT .)#( ($ 2EPORT OF THE .ATIONAL 2EADING 0ANEL 4EACHING STUDENTS TO READ 7ASHINGTON $# !UTHOR
4HE *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH
/PITZ - & 2ASINSKI 4 6 'OOD BYE ROUND ROBIN EFFECTIVE ORAL READING STRATEGIES 0ORTSMOUTH .( (EINEMANN 0ARIS 3 ' #ARPENTER 2 $ 0ARIS ! ( (AMILTON % % 3PURIOUS AND GENUINE CORRELATES OF STUDENTS READING COMPREHENSION )N 3 ' 0ARIS 3 ! 3TAHL %DS 3TUDENTS READING COMPREHENSION AND ASSESSMENT PP n -AHWAH .* %RLBAUM 0ARIS 3 ' 3TAHL 3 ! #HILDRENS READING COMPREHENSION AND ASSESSMENT -AHWAH .* %RLBAUM 0IKULSKI * * #HARD $ * &LUENCY "RIDGE BETWEEN DECODING AND READING COMPREHENSION 2EADING 4EACHER n 2EUTZEL $ 2 &AWSON 0 # 9OUR CLASSROOM LIBRARY .EW WAYS TO GIVE IT MORE TEACHING POWER .EW 9ORK 3CHOLASTIC 2EUTZEL $ 2 (OLLINGSWORTH 0 - 2EADING COMPREHENSION SKILLS 4ESTING THE DISTINCTIVENESS HYPOTHESIS 2EADING 2ESEARCH AND )NSTRUCTION n 3AMUELS 3 * 4HE $)"%,3 TESTS )S SPEED OF BARKING AT PRINT WHAT WE MEAN BY READING FLUENCY 2EADING 2ESEARCH 1UARTERLY n 3CHWANENFLUGEL 0 * -EISINGER % " 7ISENBAKER * - +UHN - 2 3TRAUSS ' 0 -ORRIS 2 $ "ECOMING A FLUENT AND AUTOMATIC READER IN THE EARLY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS 2EADING 2ESEARCH 1UARTERLY n 3HADISH 7 2 #OOK 4 $ #AMPBELL $ 4 %XPERIMENTAL
AND QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS FOR GENERALIZED CAUSAL INFERENCE "OSTON (OUGHTON -IFFLIN 3NOW # % "URNS - 3 'RIFFIN 0 %DS 0REVENTING READING DIF FICULTIES IN YOUNG CHILDREN 7ASHINGTON $# .ATIONAL !CADEMIES 0RESS 3TAHL 3 7HAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT FLUENCY )N 0 -C#ARDLE 6 #HHABRA %DS 4HE VOICE OF EVIDENCE IN READING RESEARCH PP n "ALTIMORE 0AUL ( "ROOKES 3TAHL 3 ! (EUBACH + &LUENCY ORIENTED READING INSTRUCTION )N + ! $OUGHERTY 3TAHL - # -C+ENNA %DS 2EADING RESEARCH AT WORK &OUNDATIONS OF EFFECTIVE PRACTICE PP n .EW 9ORK 'UILFORD 0RESS 3UMMERS % ' -C#LELLAND * 6 ! FIELD BASED EVALUATION OF SUSTAINED SILENT READING 332 IN INTERMEDIATE GRADES !LBERTA *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 2ESEARCH n 4ASHAKKORRI ! 4EDDLIE # -IX METHODOLOGY #OMBINING QUALI TATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES 4HOUSAND /AKS #! 3AGE 4ORGESON * + (UDSON 2 & 2EADING FLUENCY #RITICAL ISSUES FOR STRUGGLING READERS )N 3 * 3AMUELS ! % &ARSTRUP %DS 7HAT RESEARCH HAS TO SAY ABOUT FLUENCY INSTRUCTION PP n .EWARK $% )NTERNATIONAL 2EADING !SSOCIATION :UTELL * 2ASINSKI 4 4RAINING TEACHERS TO ATTEND TO THEIR STU DENTS ORAL READING FLUENCY 4HEORY )NTO 0RACTICE n
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