Sentence Structure

Parts of the Sentence By George Babineau

Parts of the Sentence The parts of the sentence are a set of terms for describing how people construct sentences from smaller pieces. There is not a direct correspondence between the parts of the sentence and the parts of speech.

Parts of the Sentence The subject of a sentence, for example, could be a noun, a pronoun, or even an entire phrase or clause. Like the parts of speech, however, the parts of the sentence form part of the basic vocabulary of grammar, and it is important that you take some time to learn and understand them.

Phrase A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words without a subject and predicate. A group of grammatically-linked words with a subject and predicate is called a clause. The group "teacher both students and" is not a phrase because the words have no grammatical relationship to one another.

Phrase Similarly, the group "bay the across" is not a phrase. In both cases, the words need to be rearranged in order to create phrases. The group "both teachers and students" and the group "across the bay" are both phrases. You use phrase to add information to a sentence and can perform the functions of a subject, an object, a subject or object complement, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

Phrase The highlighted words in each of the following sentences make up a phrase: She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store. Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky. They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.

Phrase The highlighted words in each of the following sentences make up a phrase: In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately, squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed. Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.

The function of Phrases A phrase may function as a verb, noun, an adverb, or an adjective.

Verb Phrases A verb phrase consists of a verb, its direct and/or indirect objects, and any adverb, adverb phrases, or adverb clauses which happen to modify it. The predicate of a clause or sentence is always a verb phrase: Corinne is trying to decide whether she wants to go to medical school or to go to law school.

Verb Phrases He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he decided to make something else. After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent. We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.

Noun Phrases A noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any associated modifiers, including adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses, and other nouns in the possessive case. Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the object of a verb or verbal, as a subject or object complement, or as the object of a preposition, as in the following examples:

Noun Phrases subject Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves. object of a verb To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal. object of a preposition The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the spring breakup.

Noun Phrases subject complement Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster. object complement I consider Loki my favorite cat.

Noun Phrases Using Verbals Since some verbals in particular, the gerund and the infinitive can act as nouns, these also can form the nucleus of a noun phrase: Ice fishing is a popular winter past-time. However, since verbals are formed from verbs, they can also take direct objects and can be modified by adverbs.

Noun Phrases Using Verbals A gerund phrase or infinitive phrase, then, is a noun phrase consisting of a verbal, its modifiers (both adjectives and adverbs), and its objects: Running a marathon in the Summer is thirsty work. I am planning to buy a house next month.

Adjective Phrases An adjective phrase is any phrase which modifies a noun or pronoun. You often construct adjective phrases using participles or prepositions together with their objects: I was driven mad by the sound of my neighbor's constant piano practicing. In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of my neighbour's constant piano practising" acts as an adjective modifying the noun "sound."

Adjective Phrases My father-in-law locked his keys in the trunk of a borrowed car. Similarly in this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of a borrowed car" acts as an adjective modifying the noun "trunk."

Adjective Phrases We saw Peter dashing across the quadrangle. Here the participle phrase "dashing across the quadrangle" acts as an adjective describing the proper noun "Peter.“

Adjective Phrases We picked up the records broken in the scuffle. In this sentence, the participle phrase "broken in the scuffle" modifies the noun phrase "the records."

Adverb Phrases A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences. She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store. In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "to the corner store" acts as an adverb modifying the verb "went." Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky. In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night sky" functions as a adverb modifying the verb "flashed."

Adverb Phrases A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences. In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately, squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed. In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in early October" acts as an adverb modifying the entire sentence.

Adverb Phrases A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences. We will meet at the library at 3:30 P.M. In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "at 3:30 P.M." acts as an adverb modifying the verb phrase "will meet."

Adverb Phrases A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences. The dogs were capering about the clown's feet. In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "about the clown's feet" acts as an adverb modifying the verb phrase "were capering."

Clause A clause is a collection of grammatically-related words including a predicate and a subject (though sometimes is the subject is implied). A collection of grammatically-related words without a subject or without a predicate is called a phrase. Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of one or more clauses.

Clause cows eat grass. This example is a clause, because it contains the subject "cows" and the predicate "eat grass."

Clause phrase cows eating grass What about "cows eating grass"? This noun phrase could be a subject, but it has no predicate attached to it: the adjective phrase "eating grass" show which cows the writer is referring to, but there is nothing here to show why the writer is mentioning cows in the first place.

Clause cows eating grass are visible from the highway This is a complete clause again. The subject "cows eating grass" and the predicate "are visible from the highway" make up a complete thought.

Clause Run! This single-word command is also a clause, even though it does seem to have a subject. With a direct command, it is not necessary to include the subject, since it is obviously the person or people you are talking to: in other words, the clause really reads "[You] run!". You should not usually use direct commands in your essays, except in quotations.

Clause Run! This single-word command is also a clause, even though it does seem to have a subject. With a direct command, it is not necessary to include the subject, since it is obviously the person or people you are talking to: in other words, the clause really reads "[You] run!". You should not usually use direct commands in your essays, except in quotations.

Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs If a clause can stand alone as a sentence, it is an independent clause, as in the following example: Independent the Prime Minister is in Ottawa Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they are dependent clauses or subordinate clauses. Consider the same clause with the subordinating conjunction "because" added to the beginning:

Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs Dependent when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself, since the conjunction "because" suggests that the clause is providing an explanation for something else. Since this dependent clause answers the question "when," just like an adverb, it is called a dependent adverb clause (or simply an adverb clause, since adverb clauses are always dependent clauses). Note how the clause can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the following examples:

Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs adverb The committee will meet tomorrow. adverb clause The committee will meet when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa. Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for nouns and for adjectives.

Noun Clauses A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb or the object of a preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or "what?". Consider the following examples: noun I know Latin. In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of the verb "know."

Noun Clauses noun clause I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language. In this example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct object.

Noun Clauses In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions: noun Their destination is unknown. noun clause Where they are going is unknown. The question "Where are they going?," with a slight change in word order, becomes a noun clause when used as part of a larger unit -- like the noun "destination," the clause is the subject of the verb "is."

Noun Clauses Here are some more examples of noun clauses: about what you bought at the mall This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and answers the question "about what?“ Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it. This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay," and answers the question "who will have to pay?“ The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again. This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers the question "what do the fans hope?"

Adjective Clauses An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun, answering questions like "which?" or "what kind of?" Consider the following examples:

Adjective Clauses Adjective the red coat Adjective clause the coat which I bought yesterday Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause "which I bought yesterday" in the second example modifies the noun "coat." Note that an adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an adjective usually comes before.

Adjective Clauses In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative pronouns "who(m)," "that," or "which." In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it is not the subject of the adjective clause, but you should usually include the relative pronoun in formal, academic writing:

Adjective Clauses informal The books people read were mainly religious. formal The books that people read were mainly religious. informal Some firefighters never meet the people they save. formal Some firefighters never meet the people whom they save.

Adjective Clauses Here are some more examples of adjective clauses: the meat which they ate was tainted This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the question "which meat?". about the movie which made him cry This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the question "which movie?".

Adjective Clauses they are searching for the one who borrowed the book The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the question "which one?". Did I tell you about the author whom I met? The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the question "which author?".

Adverb Clauses An adverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adverb in another clause or phrase. An adverb clause answers questions such as "when?", "where?", "why?", "with what goal/result?", and "under what conditions?". Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following example:

Adverb Clauses adverb The premier gave a speech here. adverb clause The premier gave a speech where the workers were striking. Usually, a subordinating conjunction like "because," "when(ever)," "where(ever)," "since," "after," and "so that," will introduce an adverb clause.

Adverb Clauses Note that a dependent adverb clause can never stand alone as a complete sentence: independent clause they left the locker room dependent adverb clause after they left the locker room The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but the second cannot -- the reader will ask what happened "after they left the locker room".

Adverb Clauses Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition: cause Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had murdered Hamlet's father. The adverb clause answers the question "why?".

Adverb Clauses Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition: effect Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's murder would be avenged. The adverb clause answers the question "with what goal/result?".

Adverb Clauses Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition: time After Hamlet's uncle Claudius married Hamlet's mother, Hamlet wanted to kill him. The adverb clause answers the question "when?". Note the change in word order -- an adverb clause can often appear either before or after the main part of the sentence.

Adverb Clauses Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition: place Where the whole Danish court was assembled, Hamlet ordered a play in an attempt to prove his uncle's guilt. The adverb clause answers the question "where?".

Adverb Clauses Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition: condition If the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve monetary union. The adverb clause answers the question "under what conditions?".

Adverb Clauses Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition: condition If the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve monetary union. The adverb clause answers the question "under what conditions?".

Adverb Phrases A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences. Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky. In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night sky" functions as a adverb modifying the verb "flashed."

Subject and Predicate Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted.

Subject and Predicate In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted. Judy {runs}. Judy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}. To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.

Subject and Predicate The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn. The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate (which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject: what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn."

Imperative sentences Sentences that give a command or an order differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather than expressed. Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.") Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the true subject will soon follow.

Imperative sentences There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning. If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is "three stray kittens," the correct subject.

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate Every subject is built around one (or more) noun or pronoun that, when stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the simple subject. Consider the following example: A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger. The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the subject "a" and "of pepperoni pizza“ modifying the noun. "Piece" is the simple subject.

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate Likewise, a predicate has at its center a simple predicate, which is always the verb or verbs that link up with the subject. A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger. In the example we just considered, the simple predicate is "would satisfy“ in other words, the verb of the sentence.

Compound Subject A sentence may have a compound subject, a simple subject consisting of more than one noun or pronoun as in these examples: Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the boy's bedroom walls.

Compound Predicate Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there. The second sentence above features a compound predicate, a predicate that includes more than one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this case, "walked" and "admired").

Subject Quick Review Question: His terror of spiders kept him out of the dark basement.

Subject Quick Review Question: His terror of spiders kept him out of the dark basement.

Answer: "Terror" is the simple subject because it answers the question "what?" before the verb "kept." "Of spiders" and "his" are simply modifying the simple subject "terror."

Subject Quick Review Question: There will be three concerts in the arts centre tonight.

Subject Quick Review Question: There will be three concerts in the arts centre tonight.

Answer: "Concerts" is the simple subject because it answers the question "what?" before the verb "will be." Remember that "there" is merely signalling that the true subject will follow.

Subject Quick Review Question: Would you willingly exchange half your intelligence for one million dollars?

Subject Quick Review Question: Would you willingly exchange half your intelligence for one million dollars?

Answer: "You" is the simple subject because it answers the question "who?" before the verb "would exchange."

Subject Quick Review Question: Despite the storm's destructiveness, the ship, with its crew of amateurs, might have survived in more experienced hands.

Subject Quick Review Question: Despite the storm's destructiveness, the ship, with its crew of amateurs, might have survived in more experienced hands.

Answer: "Ship" is the simple subject because it answers the question "what?" before the verb "might have survived." "With its crew of amateurs" is modifying the simple subject "ship."

Subject Quick Review Question: After the movie, Emma and her brother bought a birthday present for their mother.

Subject Quick Review Question: After the movie, Emma and her brother bought a birthday present for their mother.

Answer: "Emma, brother" is the simple subject because it answers the question "who?" before the verb "bought." This sentence has a compound subject.

Predicate Quick Review Question: His terror of spiders kept him out of the dark basement.

Predicate Quick Review Question: His terror of spiders kept him out of the dark basement.

Answer: "Kept him out of the dark basement" is the predicate because it contains the verb "kept" and it tells us something about the subject, "his terror of spiders."

Predicate Quick Review Question: There will be three concerts in the arts centre tonight.

Predicate Quick Review Question: There will be three concerts in the arts centre tonight.

Answer: "There will be...in the arts centre tonight" is the predicate because it contains the verb "will be" and it tells us something about the subject, "three concerts."

Predicate Quick Review Question: Would you willingly exchange half your intelligence for one million dollars?

Predicate Quick Review Question: Would you willingly exchange half your intelligence for one million dollars?

Answer: "Would ... willingly exchange half your intelligence for one million dollars" is the predicate because it contains the verb "would exchange" and it tells us something about the subject, "you."

Predicate Quick Review Question: Despite the storm's destructiveness, the ship, with its crew of amateurs, might have survived in more experienced hands.

Predicate Quick Review Question: Despite the storm's destructiveness, the ship, with its crew of amateurs, might have survived in more experienced hands.

Answer: "Despite the storm's destructiveness,...might have survived in more experienced hands" is the predicate because it contains the verb "might have survived" and it tells us something about the subject, "the ship, with its crew of amateurs."

Predicate Quick Review Question: After the movie, Emma and her brother bought a birthday present for their mother.

Predicate Quick Review Question: After the movie, Emma and her brother bought a birthday present for their mother.

Answer: "After the movie,...bought a birthday present for their mother" is the predicate because it contains the verb "bought" and it tells us something about the subject, "Emma and her brother."

Objects and Complements A verb may be followed by an object that completes the verb's meaning. Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate the verb and make it into a question by placing "whom?" or "what?" after it. The answer, if there is one, is the direct object: The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche. Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.

Objects and Complements Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers. The sentence above also contains an indirect object. An indirect object (which, like a direct object, is always a noun or pronoun) is, in a sense, the recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an indirect object, isolate the verb and ask to whom?, to what?, for whom?, or for what? after it. The answer is the indirect object.

Objects and Complements Not all verbs are followed by objects. Consider the verbs in the following sentences: The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest. After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Verbs that take objects are known as transitive verbs. Verbs not followed by objects are called intransitive verbs. Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on the context: Direct Object I hope the Senators win the next game. No Direct Object

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third kind of verb called a linking verb. The word (or phrase) which follows a linking verb is called not an object, but a subject complement.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs The most common linking verb is "be." Other linking verbs are "become," "seem," "appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell," "taste," and "sound," among others. Note that some of these are sometimes linking verbs, sometimes transitive verbs, or sometimes intransitive verbs, depending on how you use them:

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Linking verb with subject complement He was a radiologist before he became a fulltime yoga instructor. Linking verb with subject complement Your homemade chili smells delicious. Note that a subject complement can be either a noun ("radiologist", "instructor") or an adjective ("delicious").

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Transitive verb with direct object I can't smell anything with this terrible cold. Intransitive verb with no object The interior of the beautiful new Buick smells strongly of fish.

Object Complements An object complement is similar to a subject complement, except that it modifies an object rather than a subject. Consider this example of a subject complement: The driver seems tired. In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired" modifies the noun "driver," which is the subject of the sentence.

Object Complements Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the following example: I consider the driver tired. In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb "consider," but the adjective "tired" is still acting as its complement.

Object Complements In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of the sentence into a sentence of its own using a subject complement: Paint it black. “It is black," The judge ruled her out of order. “She is out of order," I saw the Prime Minister sleeping. “The Prime Minister is sleeping."

Modifier A modifier can be an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase or clause acting as an adjective or adverb In every case, the basic principle is the same: the modifier adds information to another element in the sentence.

Modifier Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and sometimes clauses and whole sentences. Adjectives are words that modify nouns and pronouns. Be careful not to use an adjective where you need an adverb. Consider the following sentences, for instance:

Modifier [WRONG] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slow out of the classroom. [RIGHT] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slowly out of the classroom. The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the verb "walked."

Modifier [WRONG] We tried real hard to get the muffin mixture perfect. [RIGHT] We tried really hard to get the muffin mixture perfect. The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the adjective "hard." (Note that "really" is an informal substitute for "very", and you should avoid in in formal essays.)

Using "good," "bad," "well," and "badly." You might also note the distinctions between "good" and "bad" (which are adjectives) and "well" and "badly" (which are adverbs): Shelley plays the piano well and the drums badly. The actor's performance was good even though he felt bad that night. "Well" is an adjective only when it refers to health or condition: She protested that she was well enough to start playing sports again.

Using Adjectives with Linking Verbs In the same vein, remember that adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Do not mistakenly use an adverb to modify these parts of speech. For example, after a linking verb you may be tempted to use an adverb instead of an adjective.

Using Adjectives with Linking Verbs You will recall that the linking verb is a special kind of verb because it links its subject to a subject complement. A subject complement can be either a noun (renaming the subject) or a modifier (describing the subject). When it is a modifier it must be an adjective because it describes the subject (always a noun or pronoun).

Using Adjectives with Linking Verbs It does not modify the linking verb itself and should therefore not be an adverb: [WRONG] We felt badly about having caused the accident [RIGHT] We felt bad about having caused the accident.

conjunctive adverb The conjunctive adverb is a special kind of adverb that often serves as a transition between two independent clauses in a sentence. Some common conjunctive adverbs are "therefore," "however," "moreover," "nevertheless," "consequently," and "furthermore."

conjunctive adverb When using a conjunctive adverb at the beginning of the second independent clause, be sure to precede it with a semicolon not a comma. My roommate usually listens to rock music; however, he also likes John Coltrane and several other jazz musicians.

Linking Verb A linking verb connects a subject to a subject complement which identifies or describes the subject, as in the following sentences: The play is Waiting for Godot. In this sentence, the linking verb "is" links the noun phrase "the play" to the identifying phrase "Waiting for Godot," which is called a subject complement.

Linking Verb Some of us thought that the play was very good. In this sentence, the verb "was" links the subject complement "very good" to subject "the play". Others thought it became tedious after the first fifteen minutes. In this sentence, the linking verb "became" links the subject "it" to the subject complement "tedious." The phrase "after the first fifteen minutes" functions as a adverb modifying the clause "it became tedious".

Linking Verb The cast appears disorganized and confused; perhaps Beckett intended this. Here "appears" is functioning as a linking verb that connects the subject "the cats" to its subject complement "disorganised and confused". The play seems absurd to me. The subject "the play" is joined to its subject complement "absurd" by the linking verb "seems".

Linking Verb Linking verbs are either verbs of sensation ("feel," "look," "smell," "sound," "taste") or verbs of existence ("act," "appear," "be," "become," "continue," "grow," "prove," "remain," "seem," "sit," "strand," "turn"). Many linking verbs (with the significant exception of "be") can also be used as transitive or intransitive verbs.

Linking Verb In the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the highlighted verb as a linking verb and the second uses the same verb as either a transitive or an intransitive verb: Linking Griffin insists that the water in Winnipeg tastes terrible. In this sentence, the adjective "terrible" is a subject complement that describes a quality of the water. Transitive I tasted the soup before adding more salt. Here the noun phrase "the soup" identifies what "I tasted." "The soup" is the direct object of the verb "tasted.“

Linking Verb Linking My neighbour's singing voice sounds very squeaky despite several hours of daily practice. In this example, the phrase "very squeaky" is a subject complement that describes or identities the nature of the "singing voice.“ Transitive Upon the approach of the enemy troops, the gate-keeper sounded his horn. Here the verb "sounded" takes a direct object, the noun phrase "his horn."

Linking Verb Linking Cynthia feels queasy whenever she listens to banjo music. In this sentence, the adjective "queasy" is a subject complement that describes Cynthia. Transitive The customer carefully feels the fabric of the coat. Here the noun phrase "the fabric of the coat" is the direct object of the verb "feels" and identifies what the customer feels.

Comparative You should use the comparative form of an adjective or adverb to compare exactly two things. You can form the comparative by adding the suffix "-er" to the modifier (for some short words) or by using the word "more" with the modifier: Of the two designs, the architect is convinced that the city will select the more experimental one. (comparing two designs) Now that it is March, the days are getting longer. (longer now than before)

Superlative You should use the superlative form to compare three or more things. You can form the superlative by adding the suffix "-est" to the modifier (for some short words) or by using the word "most" with the modifier: This is definitely the smartest, wittiest, most imaginative comic strip I have ever seen. (implying that I have seen more than two) Note: if you are not certain, you should check a dictionary to see which words take use "more" and "most" and which words take the suffixes "-er" and "-est".

Common Problems with the Comparative and Superlative There are certain modifiers which you cannot logically use in the comparative and superlative forms. Adjectives like "perfect" and "unique," for instance, express absolute conditions and do not allow for degrees of comparison. Something cannot be more perfect than another thing: it is either perfect or not perfect.

Common Problems with the Comparative and Superlative You should also avoid using a double comparison -- that is, using both a suffix and an adverb to indicate the comparative or superlative: [WRONG] I am convinced that my poodle is more smarter than your dachshund. [RIGHT] I am convinced that my poodle is smarter than your dachshund.

Common Problems with the Comparative and Superlative You should also avoid using a double comparison -- that is, using both a suffix and an adverb to indicate the comparative or superlative: [WRONG] Laurel and Hardy are the most funniest slapstick comedians in film history. [RIGHT] I am convinced that my poodle is smarter than your dachshund.

Common Problems with the Comparative and Superlative Similarly, although the double negative -- the use of two negative words together for a single negative idea -- is common in speech and has a long history in the English language, you should avoid using it in formal writing: [WRONG] We decided there wasn't no point in pursuing our research further. [RIGHT] We decided there wasn't any point in pursuing our research further. OR We decided there was no point in pursuing our research further.

Common Problems with the Comparative and Superlative Similarly, although the double negative -- the use of two negative words together for a single negative idea -- is common in speech and has a long history in the English language, you should avoid using it in formal writing: [WRONG] I can't get no satisfaction. [RIGHT] I can't get any satisfaction. OR I can get no satisfaction.

Common Problems with the Comparative and Superlative Double negatives involving "not" and "no" are fairly easy to spot and fix. However, some other adverbs -- for example, "hardly," "scarcely," "barely" -- imply the negative, and you should not use them with another negative: [WRONG] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he does not have hardly any friends there. [RIGHT] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he has hardly any friends there. OR Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he does not have many friends there.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers You have a certain amount of freedom in deciding where to place your modifiers in a sentence: We rowed the boat vigorously. We vigorously rowed the boat. Vigorously we rowed the boat.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers You must be careful to avoid misplaced modifiers. Modifiers that are positioned so that they appear to modify the wrong thing. In fact, you can improve your writing quite a bit by paying attention to basic problems like misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers Misplaced Words In general, you should place single-word modifiers near the word or words they modify, especially when a reader might think that they modify something different in the sentence.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers Consider the following sentence: [WRONG] After our conversation lessons, we could understand the Spanish spoken by our visitors from Madrid easily. Do we understand the Spanish easily, or do the visitors speak it easily? This revision eliminates the confusion: [RIGHT] We could easily understand the Spanish spoken by our visitors from Madrid.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers It is particularly important to be careful about where you put limiting modifiers. These are words like "almost," "hardly," "nearly," "just," "only," "merely," and so on. Many writers regularly misplace these modifiers. You can accidentally change the entire meaning of a sentence if you place these modifiers next to the wrong word:

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers [WRONG] Randy has nearly annoyed every professor he has had. (he hasn't "nearly annoyed" them) [RIGHT] Randy has annoyed nearly every professor he has had.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers [WRONG] We almost ate all of the Thanksgiving turkey. (we didn't "almost eat" it) [RIGHT] We ate almost all of the Thanksgiving turkey.

Misplaced Phrases and Clauses It is important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as close as possible to the word or words it modifies: [WRONG] By accident, he poked the little girl with his finger in the eye. [RIGHT] By accident, he poked the little girl in the eye with his finger.

Misplaced Phrases and Clauses It is important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as close as possible to the word or words it modifies: [WRONG] I heard that my roommate intended to throw a surprise party for me while I was outside her bedroom window. [RIGHT] While I was outside her bedroom window, I heard that my roommate intended to throw a surprise party for me.

Misplaced Phrases and Clauses It is important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as close as possible to the word or words it modifies: [WRONG] After the wedding, Ian told us at his stag party that he would start behaving like a responsible adult. [RIGHT] Ian told us at his stag party that he would start behaving like a responsible adult after the wedding.

Squinting Modifiers A squinting modifier is an ambiguously placed modifier that can modify either the word before it or the word after it. In other words, it is "squinting" in both directions at the same time: [WRONG] Defining your terms clearly strengthens your argument. (does defining "clearly strengthen" or does "defining clearly" strengthen?) [RIGHT] Defining your terms will clearly strengthen your argument. OR A clear definition of your terms strengthens your argument.

Split Infinitives In general, you should avoid placing long, disruptive modifiers between the "to" and the verb of an infinitive. However, you must use your judgment when it comes to single-word modifiers. Sometimes a sentence becomes awkward if a single-word modifier is placed anywhere but between the elements of the infinitive: [WRONG] The marketing team voted to, before they launched the new software, run an anticipatory ad campaign. (disruptive -- the infinitive should not be split) [RIGHT] The marketing team voted to run an anticipatory ad campaign before they launched the new software.

Dangling Modifiers The dangling modifier, a persistent and frequent grammatical problem in writing, is often (though not always) located at the beginning of a sentence. A dangling modifier is usually a phrase or an elliptical clause -- a dependent clause whose subject and verb are implied rather than expressed -- that functions as an adjective but does not modify any specific word in the sentence, or (worse) modifies the wrong word.

Dangling Modifiers Consider the following example: Raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea. The introductory phrase in the above sentence looks as if it is meant to modify a person or persons, but no one is mentioned in the sentence. Such introductory adjective phrases, because of their position, automatically modify the first noun or pronoun that follows the phrase -- in this case, "it." The connection in this case is illogical because "it" was not raised in Nova Scotia.

Dangling Modifiers You could revise the sentence in a number of ways: For a person raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase no longer functions as an adjective) Raised in Nova Scotia, I often miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase functions as an adjective but now automatically modifies "I," a logical connection)

Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier can also appear when you place an elliptical clause improperly: Although nearly finished, we left the play early because we were worried about our sick cat. The way this sentence is structured, the clause "Although nearly finished" illogically modifies "we," the pronoun directly following the clause. An easy way to rectify the problem is to re-insert the subject and verb that are understood in the elliptical clause: Although the play was nearly finished, we left early because we were worried about our sick cat.

Split Infinitives The infinitive form of the verb consists of the word "to" followed by the base form of the verb: "to be," "to serve," "to chop," etc. Inserting a word or words between the "to" and the verb of an infinitive creates what is known as a split infinitive. Prescriptive grammarians, who knew Latin grammar better than English, once decreed that a split infinitive was an error, but now it is growing increasingly acceptable even in formal writing. Nevertheless, some careful writers still prefer to avoid splitting infinitives altogether.

Final Review

Final Review The old house on the hill gave Leonora chills and conjured up images of ghosts and monsters and other unknown beings. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review The old house on the hill gave Leonora chills and conjured up images of ghosts and monsters and other unknown beings. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review Next to the china cabinet, Mrs. Wilkes placed a polished side table and an antique jug. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review Next to the china cabinet, Mrs. Wilkes placed a polished side table and an antique jug. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement Explanation: "Table" is a direct object because it answers the question "what?" after the verb "placed."

Final Review Despite winning the lottery last week, my cousin still seems unhappy. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review Despite winning the lottery last week, my cousin still seems unhappy. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement Explanation: "Unhappy" is a subject complement because it follows the linking verb "seems" and complements the subject, "my cousin."

Final Review They gave the university a large endowment for the scholarship fund. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review They gave the university a large endowment for the scholarship fund. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement Explanation: "University" is an indirect object because it answers the question "to what?" after the verb "gave." "A large endowment" is the direct object -- the thing that was given -- and the university is the recipient of the direct object.

Final Review Some experts believe it is easy to overstate the role that genes and heredity play in determining a person's predisposition to alcoholism. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review Some experts believe it is easy to overstate the role that genes and heredity play in determining a person's predisposition to alcoholism. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement Explanation: "Believe" is a verb. It is connected to the subject "some experts."

Final Review After the luncheon buffet, she grew drowsy and decided to take a nap. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review After the luncheon buffet, she grew drowsy and decided to take a nap. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement Explanation: "Drowsy" is a subject complement because it follows the linking verb "grew" and complements the subject, "she."

Final Review I don't know how you can understand anything that professor says. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review I don't know how you can understand anything that professor says. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement Explanation: "Anything" is a direct object because it answers the question "what?" after the verb "can understand."

Final Review There were no credits after the movie. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review There were no credits after the movie. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement Explanation: "Credits" is a simple subject because it answers the question "what?" before the verb "were." Remember that "there" is merely signalling that the true subject will follow.

Final Review His deaf aunt will be going to the symphony next week. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review His deaf aunt will be going to the symphony next week. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement Explanation: "Going" is a verb (technically, it is actually a verbal). It is connected to the subject "his deaf aunt" and is supported by the auxiliary verbs "will be."

Final Review The company has been mailing George CD catalogues ever since he bought his stereo. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement

Final Review The company has been mailing George CD catalogues ever since he bought his stereo. Simple Subject Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subject Complement Explanation: "George" is an indirect object because it answers the question "to whom?" after the verb "has been mailing." "CD catalogues" is the direct object -- the thing that has been mailed -- and George is the recipient of the direct object.