Scientific Research In Medecine

Scientific Research in Medecine .

1. STAGES AND ELEMENTS WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH- GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

1.1. Choosing the topic  1.2. Defining the work theory  1.3. Elaborating the plan  1.4. Bibliographical documentation  1.5. The development of the research plan  1.6. The analysis of the results 

1.1. Choosing the topic 

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- the interest for a specific field - individual motivation - the amount of general theoretical knowledge - the amount of theoretical knowledge in the field (to inquire into the field individually) - documentation possibilities - prior knowledge - practical aptitudes

1.2. Defining the work theory Consideration points:  - defining aspects on the subject  - the existence of former concerns  - suggestions of solutions  - the existing unknown quantity  - possible difficulties  On the bases of this, there can be formulated at least one theory of work 

1.3. Elaborating the plan 

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- setting out the manner for planned research: experiment, direct observation, inquiry, comparative analysis - estimating the period of time necessary for the development of the research - identifying some intermediary stages/phasesallow the periodical evaluation of the results and the acomplished progress - estimating the necessary material and equipement, in accordance with the organization on intermediary stages/phases

1.4. Bibliographical documentation 

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- knowledge of the preocupations and recent results on the themes approached - access to the bibliographic sources specific to the themes, known as international scientific authorities (high reputation magazines, recent editions of some monographs, volumes of works presented within some congresses, sites that belong to institutions with programs of research on the subject )

1.5. The development of the research plan The Experiment 

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- a phenomenon created in experimental conditions which are known, by eliminating as many outside influences as possible - it is created under strit observation to emphasize the relations between phenomena - it requires knowing in detail the technical methods used in order to be able to estimate the limits and the precision degree that can be achieved.

Fundamental rules in the organization and development of experiments 

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- the variability of one agent ( modern statistic methods allow the testing of a larger nomber of variables at the same time) - the systematic elimination of various alternatives in the interpretation of the relation cause- effect thus obtaining a limited area upon which the research can be concentrated - the possibility of repetition - hard to achieve in the case of the biological experiment - registering every detail - objectivity in the interpretation and evaluation of results - disregarding these fundamental rules > the stoppage of the research

The reproduction of an experiment - the results vary in the case of the constant maintenance of known agents  > one or more than one unknown agents alter the results > interesting discovery  > technical error > examination of the technical details is very important 

The "controlled" experiment - the basis of experimental studies       

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- uses similar groups (randomly chosen, as similar as possible on all accounts, except for the variable agent on study) - group "controll", "witness" - standard - group "test", "experimental" - subjected to a procedure which has an effect that is expected to be known - selecting the groups: - logic, common sense - statistic methods to decide the criteria > distribution - random selection - one group = a sample from a hypothetical population, infinetely large (special techniques to choose a random sample and estimate the necessary size for it to be representative) - the variability of the biological material - limited controll over the subjects, mathematic techniques of correcting the differences

A classification of experiments               

a) the crucial experiment - verifies if the main hypothesis is true or not b) the preliminary experiment - economic nature - achieves a partial evaluation - subtypes: - the pilot experiment - provides information about the opportunity of a field experiment on a large scale - the acknoledgement experiment - offers the necessary data to orientate the planning of the main experiment - the selection experiment - tests a large nomber of substances to discover which of them can be later on selected for a purpose. c) the simple, one- variable experiment - tests a single variable d) the complex, multi- variable experiment - includes more than one variable in the same experiment - economy of time and effort - offers a larger amount of information in comparison to the information received if every variable would be treated separately.

1.6. The analysis of the results      

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- objective quantitative determinations - mathematical statistis methods: - utilizable in the examination of a hypothesis - limited significance, does not initiate a discovery - the medium value of the results offers a small amount of information - more useful: the curve of the frequence distributions, concrete numerical values with reference to individual cases - the error degree tolerated in the result correlated with the precision imposed by the purpose of the research

2. THE MOTIVATIONS AND THE QUALITIES OF THE RESEARCH WORKER 

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- the challenge of the unknown (personal, intelectual) - ambition - the professional schooling (as a future practitioner medical examiner, for the didactic carrier, for the CV) - the education of the way of thinking - to achieve a name in the medical community

2. THE MOTIVATIONS AND THE QUALITIES OF THE RESEARCH WORKER                  

- open, curious mind, independent thought - logical thinking - objectivity - imagination - close analysis of the documentation with a certain degree of skepticism - solid knowledge, in order to be able to understand the existing information in the specialized literature - discipline - tenacity, perseverance - ambition - ingenuity - self-evaluation, knowing one's limits - perceptive faculty - adventureous spirit - initiative - patience (whole years of waiting) - taking chances - personal sacrifices - power to work

3. THEORIES AND OBSERVATIONS AS ORIGIN OF THE RESEARCH APPROACH 

3.1. The hypothesis

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- assumption, temporary explanation, stated on the basis of some facts, connections or known laws regarding some connections between phenomena, at the cause or the intern mechanism which produces it - mental technique is the most important device the researcher can use - every scientific theory appears at the beginning under the shape of a hypothesis (the natural selection theory) - objective thinking is to be kept at all times ( attachment, modification or elimination; avoiding the misinterpretation of the observations and the personal interpretations in favour of the hypothesis) - the purposes of the hypothesis: - (i) to descipher the meaning of a phenomenon/ event that is insufficiently known; - (ii) to lead to new observations and new experiments

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- types of hypothesis: a) correct; b) incorrect; c) personal; d) taken over.

Objective thinking a) abandoning or modifying an incorrect hypothesis       

- the facts must be interpreted objectively and not in accordance with the hypothesis - the value of the visible proof (negative) - avoiding the auxiliary hypotheses, complicated or improbable (saving device) - the difference between: - maintaining a hypothesis contradicted by evidence - maintaining a hypothesis (difficult to demontrate) against which there is no evidence - the hypothesis goes beyond the technical/ data level of the auxiliary domains (necessary for verification) existing at a certain point

Objective thinking b) objectivity  - hypothesis = assumption  - personal opinions > subordinated to the objective evidence  - the respect for the truth  - not altering the results  - the principle of the multiple hypotheses  - the principle of the successive order of the hypotheses  - the value of the information that is not in accordance with the hypothesis

Objective thinking c) estimating an idea     

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- not every idea can become a hypothesis - the grounds on which an idea can become a scientific hypothesis are: - it has to be in accordance with the factual material for the explanation of which it was formulated - verifiable on principle - it has to be explainatory for a sphere as large as possible of phenomena, not only for the restricted group on the basis of which it was initially formulated - the danger of the "clear" ideas

Correct/ incorrect hypothesis ( correctness) a) Correct hypothesis    

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- verified through experiment > concordant results > necessary other experimental evidence for certitude - veracity - established for those particular circumstances which prevale in the achieved experimental conditions - an immediate solution of the problem under study is obtained - the arrival to a different hypothesis > different directions > new directions of investigation, available in as many as possible particular cases - the work hypothesis ( temporary aspect, formulated on the basis of the experimental data existing at a certain point, orientates the development of new directions in research) - validity in any given conditions > theory > law

Correct/ incorrect hypothesis ( correctness) b) Incorret hypothesis   

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- can be productive > descoveries - verified through experiment > nonconcordant results > renounciation? - the contradictory results can be brought into unison with another auxiliary hypothesis, playing an explanatory part - the main hypothesis > the new hypothesis ( synthesizes the added data)

Personal/ taken over hypothesis (originality) - the motivation of confirmation is stronger for the personal hypothesis;  - the confirmation of a hypothesis that was taken over > reward for the actual author  - the hypothesis that was taken over > by inducing, not imposing 

3.2. The observation  

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- an active intelectual process, not passsive visualization - a device for the scientific knowledge > the methodical and deliberate contemplation of an object or process according to a purpose - very difficult, subjective ( depending on the person that observes - the degree of the observation of details, the direction of the observation according to personal interests) - very simple phenomena are difficult to notice and hard to describe with precision - depending on the degree of novelty of the element ( it is possible to see an element more than one time without mentaly registering it), on the interest of the observer - the observers: - attentive, focused ( watching, searching)

3.2. The observation     

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- calm, relaxed - prepared ( for the expected elements as well as for the unforeseen ones) - there still appear errors that they are not aware of - the efficient observation = to signal a certain element, to point out the meaning connecting it with something that was priorly known - the risk of making a false observation: sensorial, of reason ( the mind has the involuntary tendency to fill out the gaps in knowledge with information in accordance with the prior experience or knowledge, or with some conscious expectations) - elements that are involved: - sensorial - perceptive ( visual, etc. ) - intelectual - partially conscious, partially uncounscious - the field of observation: selective, without neglecting the whole and the unexpeted elements

Types of observation a) Spontaneous or passive observation 

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- requires the establishment of facts as they happen naturally, without the intervention of the subject > significant, if related to the memory (theoretical, practical data) or if they trigger the formulation of a hypothesis - the purpose of the ovservation in the establishment of correlations betweeen things apparently not connected - the accuracy and selection of information depends on: - the experience of the "trained" observer (details, signification) - the capacity to pass judgement - the level of training - the ditributive attention > the observation of exceptions - intelectual, speculative-contemplative attitude - useful: notes, drawings - allows the development of the hypothesis from which the observer started on or the development of other hypotheses

Types of observation b) Induced or active observation  - deliberately searched for, usually on the basis of a hypothesis  - the experiment = provoked observation

4. INTUITION AND IMAGINATION IN THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 

4.1. Intuition

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- its origin is in the subconscious - clearing up or quick understanding of a situation - the moment can be dependent or independent of the pursuit of a problem - not every intuitive thought is correct - circumstances that lead to the emergence of the intuitive thought: - a period of concentration on one subject - the will to finalize it

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- professional discussions, elaborating material in writing or reading some articles - on different subjects

INTUITION 

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- the principle of temporary detachment: a consecutive period of pause, with the orientation of the attention to some other direction because the messages from the subconscious may not be received if the conscious thinking is constantly occupied or too tired - different influences: the interruption, competing interests, personal problems - the scientific flair - instinctive - "scientific instinct", scientific sense - practical: - the choice for a productive direction in the investigation - the capacity to anticipate the directions of development of the subject, using the imagination for a perspective view - recognizing the best solutions - eliminating the hypotheses that need too many modifications - forming an oppinion concerning some new discoveries

4.2. Imagination 

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- mental process of creation of some new ideas or representations, on the basis of the prior perceptive and cognitive experience - based on reality, essential moment of the creative thinking - types: (I) reproductive( mental representation of some objects or phenomena which are not directly perceived, on the basis of descriptions), (ii) creative( elaborating images and original new ideas) - educated, controlled by critical spirit and judgement - uneducated > false leads, incorrect results

4.3. Characteristics of the way of thinking Inventive thinking  - the information/ unknown elements, difficulties > the stimulus > the idea ( conscious thinking, unconscious thinking, imagination) > reason > examining the idea >accepting it/ rejecting it Productive thinking  - operates with a large nomber of various combinations Conditioned thinking  - instinctively, the same route is fallowed every time > the risk of the persistence of error 

- solution > a different way of approach, relaxing the thinking, discussion

5. REASONINGS AND STRATEGIES IN SETTING OUT THE METHODOLOGY OF WORK AND THE EVALUATION OF THE RESULTS

- research and actions orienting agent  - logical thinking  - occurs in descoveries, along with the experimental results, unexpected observations, intuition 

5.2. Reasoning   

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- verifies, interprets, develops descoveries, building a general theoretical scheme - consciously/ subconsciously influenced by feelings, prejudices, past experiences - medical sciences > complex phenomena = incompletely defined premise > uncertain argument - high degree of probability > argument/ speculation (upon something)

Types of reasoning a) inductive reasoning  - from particular cases to general principles, from facts to theories  - more productive > new theories  - its value is debatable > uses a series of facts from which more possible theories result, not all of these theories can be true  - it does not rely on the mecanic application of logic, but on intuition - personal judgement has its part

Types of reasoning b) deductive reasoning  - from general to particular, applying the theory to a particular case  - does not lead to new general conclusions

Types of reasoning c) reasoning by analogy  - similarity appears mostly between the systems of relations of things, than between things  - gives suggestions about clues and hypotheses for the phenomena and events which we can not directly perceive  - limits: may lead to error; does not give evidence

5.3. Strategy         

- planning the research: useful or not? - is best elaborated by the researcher commited to that theme - major descoveries are seldomly the result of the systematic accumulation of data in accordance with some planning - there are no general rules - general strategy: following an objective, but at the same time having the availability to notice any unexpected favourable event - three distinctive levels of planning: - (i) on short term ( the concrete way of performance; available only for the experiment it was created for) - (ii) on long term ( perspective approach, on larger coordinates) - (iii) planning policy > commitee (investigating problems, approving projects, supporting researchers)

Research as teamwork 

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- the part played by the leader is important, as well as the personality of every member of the team - distribution of responsabilities, without any detailed and rigid planning of the tasks everyone has to fulfill within the general plan of the team, this way not only does every member have to undestand the problems asigned to him/her but have a general view of the theme - the utility of the planning, the flexibility - conditions that contribute to the learning of the the research technique

5.4. Types of research The Applied research    

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- deliberate investigation of a problem of practical importance - it horizontally passes through many fundamental sciences - the objective is pre-established, the means to reach it are looked for - after the arrival to a solution of imediat interest, there follows an understanding of the basic principles > the results will have larger general applicability - the "transfer" method: the central idea is given by the application of a new principle or technique, discovered in a different domain > many discoveries have applications in other domains rather than the domains they were discovered in > once applied, they are instruments with the help of which other discoveries can be obtained

Types of research The Fundamental research

- the objective is the scientific knowledge per se  - it begins with un interesting, unexpected lead, without trying to obtain results having a practical value  - first there is the discovery, afterwards a utility for the discovery is searched for 

Types of research The Exploration research  - approaches new theories  - is independant and has its risks  - may lead to major discoveries or to nothing

Types of research The Progress research  - approaches a field already won over, consolidates the progress made, uses in practice the results obtained through the exploration research

Types of research The Frontier research  - implies a gathering of more than onesciences, or branches of one science  - uses and binds together knowledge

6. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE DOCUMENTATION IN THE RESEARCH ACTIVITY    

- selecting the bibliographical material in accordance with the type of research - the systematization of all the sources containing the data and existing information - the synthesizing and analysis of the resulted material from the documantation - the formulation, as precise as possible, of the research theme and the connections that must be followed with the results that are reported in literature