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“I Want Muscles like that Guy!” Males and Body Image: The Effects of the Media Reach More than Just Women

Megan Whitehead Professor Wilkerson English 103 29 October 2009 Megan Whitehead

Whitehead 2 Professor Wilkerson English 103 29 October 2009

“I Want Muscles like that Guy!” Males and Body Image: The Effects of the Media Reach More than Just Women

Many Americans are familiar with the claims that the media plays a significant role in influencing female body image. There has been a noteworthy amount of research which has investigated the link between media influence and eating disorders among teenage girls, as well as the link between female celebrities and athletes and the resulting low self-esteem of the female audience. However, has anyone thought about the guys? Men have long been thought to be free from pressures to shape their bodies in a certain manner because they had other avenues upon which to base their self-opinion (Crandall). However, while women have been the major source of concern, there has been a recently rising debate that male body image is also heavily influenced by the media, from athletes to clothing advertisements, and from action figures and comic book heroes to “muscle-enhancing” supplements. In a recent surge of male-directed media, men are becoming more and more aware of their own body. Numerous articles argue that the media traditionally distorts only the images of female athletes, degrading women everywhere. One such article presents that, “Photos of successful male athletes overwhelmingly show them in serious, action poses, while powerhouse women are often trivialized, romanticized, and sexualized”(Holste, 2000). The article references both scholars and womens’ sports experts in continuing its argument, claiming that men often find powerful and athletic women “threatening”, and therefore must portray them in a much more delicate fashion so as to not be intimidated.

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However, it is possible to read a bit deeper into this supposed “insecurity” of men. Yes, women are becoming more and more stereotyped by sports media, but aren’t men as well? In contrast to women, men are shown as being strong, hardy, determined, and tough. Isn’t this a stereotype that has the potential to negatively influence male body image? Male athletes in the media are often portrayed as the “epitome of manliness”(Rehberg, 2001). In the report “Boys To Men: Media Messages about Masculinity”, the authors identify “The Jock” as one of the most popular stereotypes in the media. The report goes on to define the jock as being willing to compromise his long-term health for short-term athletic success, feeling a necessity to “fight other men” in games of sport, avoiding “softness” in favor of being aggressive, and demonstrating “his power and strength … to win the approval of other men and the adoration of women” (Children Now). While there is limited research on such stereotypes, it is not Image

unreasonable to assume that such portrayals in the sports media can and do have a significant impact on American males. Although most of the focus is still on females and their “unfair” portrayal in sports, there are subtle suggestions that do point to a potential issue with male influences as well. For example, ESPN’s website - a prominent sports programming network has listed the top 10 hottest male athletes on one of its main pages (“Hottest Male Athletes”). According to the New York Daily News, “While we admire [male] professional athletes for their incredible abilities, it doesn't hurt that they also have some of the world's hottest bodies” (“Hottest Male Athletes”). In a journal article from Evolution and Human Behavior, research concluded that student athletes claimed to have more sexual partners than non-athletes, supporting the theory that athlete equals attractive (Faurie, Charlotte, Dominique Pontier, and Michel Raymond). Furthermore, it has been noted that the adolescent male is, just like his female counterpart, vulnerable to pressures to attain the “ideal” body. The “ideal” male body consists of a masculine physique, tallness, and muscularity (Parks, Pamela S. McKay and Marsha H. Read).

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Parks and Read also state that in order to achieve such a body, many adolescents opt to participate in athletics. Where could these boys have learned that being an athlete will help you achieve an “ideal body”? While it is possible that they could have been taught that regular exercise and physical activity can lower body fat and boost confidence, it is also highly probable that young males associate the athletes that they see on TV with attractiveness, and therefore associate attractiveness with being an athlete. Considering Image 1, David Beckham is the chosen model for a “got milk” ad, which sends the message that male athletes are healthy, buff, serious, and attractive (Image 1). Nathalie Koivula further confirms the claim of media influence by concluding her research with the statement that sports coverage “continues to reinforce … traditional expectations regarding … masculinity (Koivula, Nathalie).” Even male athletes themselves feel the need to be more muscular and stronger, as evidenced by the proliferation of steroid-use in professional male sports (Parssinen M. and T. Seppala). In addition to body image influences from male athletes, there are other forms of advertisement that also have a negative impact on male body image. According to Tracy Tylka, the lead psychology researcher at Ohio State University has stated that, “Men see these idealized, muscular men in the media and feel their own bodies don’t measure up (Crandall).” In a recently published study in the North American Journal of Psychology, Amy Baird and Frederick Grieve’s findings indicated that “exposure to male models in advertisement [did lead] to a decrease” in male participants’ body satisfaction (Baird, Amy L and Frederick G. Grieve). In Image 2, the advertisement is for a clothing company, Abercrombie and Fitch, but the model isn’t wearing any particularly noticeable clothes – other than about an inch of jeans that are shown. Instead of just selling their product, they are also selling an idealized body image of a

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male. The message the billboard is sending is “This body is hot, fierce, attractive, and 100% male.” It is evident that seeing such images could make a man who is less muscular and fit feel somewhat depressed about his body image. According to additional studies, the “value of having a muscular body” has greatly increased over time (Pope, et al). While women, on average, claim to want to lose between five and l0 pounds of body weight (Cash, Antis, & Strachan), men are now claiming to want to gain, on average, 3 times that amount in muscle mass (Pope et al., 2000). Although the “ideal” body goal for men is to develop a more muscular and beefed up frame rather than the female’s thin Image 2

frame, men are still subject to the same advertisement pressures as women are. According to Stice, “the internalization of the ideal body shape as presented in the media is well accepted as a causal factor in the development of eating disorders (Stice). This holds true for both females and males. While it can be argued that the

media pressures on men are still much less influential than those on women, there is still much need for awareness of the male situation. It is true that in American society, men have several other ways in which to promote their masculinity, including income, vehicles, occupation, etc (Baird). According to Pope et al. however, the “commercial value of the male body has increased” since the mid-1980s, and one can only expect this trend to continue (Pope et al.). In addition, Baird and Grieve admit that their results, as well as those of similar studies, produced small differences between the exposed and non-exposed groups. However, they justify this by reminding the audience that the amount of exposure time to the advertisements was very short (Baird). In reality, men are exposed to such advertisements on a much more frequent and regular basis, which actually supports the theory that the total effect of such advertisements on male body satisfaction is probably much more significant than the study sample results. It can also be

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argued that many of the studies have been conducted using college-aged Caucasian males as test subjects, and therefore lacks diversity which could create skewed results. However, it is noteworthy to mention that college-aged Caucasion males are the population most likely to be affected by pressures to obtain a certain body image (Lynch & Zellner). Therefore, the results do apply to the population in which they are the most representative and important. This holds true as well for studies and claims surrounding female body image; results are typically only generalizable to the young female population, but again, “young women are at most risk for dissatisfaction with their bodies (Baugh).

Can this be healthy? Americans recognize the terms “anorexia” and “bulimia” and understand that many females, both young and adult, often starve themselves in order to appear thinner and, in their mind, “more attractive.” However, it is becoming more and more evident that men experience mental disorders associated with low self-esteem as well. There is a new term that has emerged in the past decade: muscle dysmorphia. According to an article in Psychosomatics, muscle dysmorphia is a disorder characterized by an individual becoming “pathologically preoccupied with their degree of muscularity”(Pope, 1997 ). In other words, these individuals have developed a compulsive and habitual obsession to how sculpted and toned their bodies are. Pope and Gruber add that muscle dysmorphia may lead to serious health issues, including distress, impaired social functioning, and most importantly, abuse of steroids and other muscle-enhancing substances. It is noted that all of these consequences of muscle dysmorphia can have serious long-term effects. While steroid use is at the extreme end of ways to obtain an ideal image, they are extremely dangerous and are a probable cause of increased mortality amongst many athletes and people who power train at intense levels (Parssinen and Seppala). According to an

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exploratory study in 2002, male participants reported that they associated muscularity with “being healthy and fit”, and that being fat was related to “weakness of will and lack of control” (Grogan and Richards). Not only do these results demonstrate the shift in American culture towards a more-concerned-with-body-image male population, but also demonstrate the skewed mental assumptions of men which can lead to unhealthy behaviors. In addition, muscle dysmorphia can lead to damaged muscles, joints, tendons, and ligaments through excessive exercise and weight-lifting (Mccan). In addition, those with muscle dysmorphia spend up to 5 hours a day thinking about the fact that they are “too small” and “not big enough (Pope, et al.). This is clearly mentally unhealthy. In addition, because muscle dysmorphia is very similar to an obsessive compulsive disorder, there are many unhealthy social side effects. These include missing important events, risking unemployment by extending lunch breaks at the gym, and missing exams because they conflict with workout schedules. Also, men with muscle dysmorphia typically suffer from related depression from their lack of self-confidence, as well as a constant fear of losing muscle mass and becoming unattractive. Muscle dysmorphia may also lead to relationship issues. In two extreme examples, one man feared having sex with his wife because he felt that he would waste energy that could be used in his workouts, and one man refused to kiss his girlfriend because he feared that calories could be transmitted through saliva (Pope, et al.). Excessive dieting associated with muscle dysmorphia can also lead to the more familiar eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia.

Unfortunately, there do not appear to be any current efforts or policy changes in effect that are working to fight the stereotypical male body image seen in the media. However, there is promise in that there is evidence for efforts against female representations in the media. Just as the research and awareness into male issues lagged behind that of women, perhaps the same will

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be true for efforts to correct this phenomena. Until then, Jeanne Rust, PhD and CEO of a treatment program for teens with eating disorders offers the following suggestions: When you feel that an advertisement message makes you feel bad about your body image, argue back by writing a letter to the advertiser. Also, you can attempt to “boycott” certain industries and products that appear to send negative body image messages. Rust suggests getting friends and students involved as well, and comments on the power of grassroots movements. Image 3 depicts a very muscular and strong Superman action figure, which is an example of an item that could Image

be boycotted due to its association with negative body image and muscle dysmorphia among 3 males. She reminds us that “consumers have much more influence with corporations than we realize” (Rust). In conclusion, while there is limited research and opinion at this point on the effects of the media and advertising on male body image, there is substantial evidence that there is indeed a need for concern and further investigation. Females are not the only gender suffering from low self esteem and negative body image, and are also not the only ones who are resorting to unhealthy behaviors in order to live up to societal standards which are presented through the media. It is important that we as a nation become less fixated on looking at just one side of the argument, and become aware of issues on the other side as well. It appears that Americans are focusing too much on the struggles of women in this masculine, patriarchal society, and are forgetting that this mindset puts pressures on men as well. Not only are women being feminized and “put down”, men are being “masculinized” and pressured to be successful, powerful, and now more than ever, attractive.

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Works Cited Baird, Amy L and Frederick G. Grieve. “Exposure to Male Models in Advertisements Leads to a Decrease in Men's Body Satisfaction.” North American Journal of Psychology 8.1 (2006): 115-121. Web. 27 Oct. 2009. http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=1&hid=5&sid=46ee3331-22344227-a2e2b759af5d8668%40sessionmgr4&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d %3d#db=aph&AN=20451952. Baugh, Eboni J. “Body Image and the Ageing Female.” University of Florida IFAS Extension. (2009): n. pag. Web 27 Oct. 2009. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/FY1090 Cash, T.F., J.R. Ancis, and M.D. Strachan. “Gender Attitudes, Feminist Identity, and Body Images Among College Women.” Sex Roles 36 (1997): 434-444.

Whitehead 10 Children Now. “Boys To Men: Media Messages About Masculinity.” Mediate.com. Children Now Publications. Web 27 Oct. 2009. http://www.mediate.com/articles/children.cfm Crandall, C.S. “Prejudice Against Fat People: Ideology and Self-interest.” . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (1994): 882-894. Web. 27 Oct. 2009. Faurie, Charlotte, Dominique Pontier, and Michel Raymond. “Student Athletes Claim to Have More Sexual Partners Than Other Students.” Evolution and Human Behavior 25.1 (2004) 1-8. Web 27 Oct. 2009. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6H4BK15761&_user=590719&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1068448906&_rdoc =15&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5031&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ ct=16&_acct=C000030198&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=590719&m d5=d3899b8b728c666d1c3ccd819a3b12ad Grogan, Sarah and Helen Richards. “Body Image.” Men and Masculinities 4.3 (2002): 219-232. Web. 27 Oct. 2009. http://jmm.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/4/3/219. Holste, Glenda Crank. “Women Athletes Often Debased by Media Images.” Womensenews.com. 17 October 2000. Web. 26 October 2009 . “Hottest Male Athletes.” Espn.com. ESPN, n.d. Web. 27 Oct. 2009. http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/features/hottestMen “Hottest Male Athletes.” Nydailynews.com. NY Daily News, 16 Sept. 2009. Web. 27 Oct. 2009. http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/galleries/hottest_male_athletes/hottest_ male_athletes.html#ph38 Image 1. “David Beckham Milk Ad”. Google image search. Web. 28 Oct. 2009. http://davidbeckham.fans-online.com/beckhammilk.jpg Image 2. “Abercrombie and Fitch billboard.” Google image search. Web. 28 Oct. 2009. http://racked.com/uploads/2007_12_abercrombiefierce.jpg Image 3. “Superman Action Figure.” Google image search. Web. 28 Oct. 2009. http://images.google.com/imgres? imgurl=http://www.criticalbench.com/images/cartoon-weightgain4.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.criticalbench.com/cartoon-weightgain.htm&usg=__mRl1J3sitHfE_dzU9sTNdbzC8Uc=&h=267&w=215&sz=27& hl=en&start=9&um=1&tbnid=XjHW_U7TWNWfyM:&tbnh=113&tbnw=91&pr ev=/images%3Fq%3Dmuscle%2Bdysmorphia%2Bcartoon%26hl%3Den %26um%3D1

Whitehead 11 Koivula, Nathalie. “Gender Stereotyping in Televised Media Sport Coverage.” Sex Roles 41.7-8 (1999): 589-604. Web . 27 Oct. 2009. http://www.springerlink.com/content/w37986810223353q/.

Lynch, S.M. and D.A. Zellner. “Figure Preferences in Two Generations of Men: The Use of Figure Drawings Illustrating Differences in Muscle Mass.” Sex Roles 40 (1999): 833-843. Mccan, Steve. “Muscle Dysmorphia.” Office of Health Education. University of Pennsylvania, 2004-2009. Web. 28 Oct. 2009. http://www.vpul.upenn.edu/ohe/library/bodyimage/muscledysmorphia.htm Parks, Pamela S. McKay and Marsha H. Read. “Adolescent Male Athletes: Body Image, Diet, and Exercise. Adolescence 32 (1997): n. pag. Web. 27 Oct. 2009. http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=Kl3NbQ3rfY2BbLLyrpRt zQh1KMy5GG8G61tGPW0Qhp0P1yrMlftQ!-950397748!-1845046985? docId=5000574248. Parssinen M, and T. Seppala. “Steroid Use and Long-Term Health Risks in Former Athletes.” Sports Medicine 32.2 (2002): 83-94. Web. 27 Oct. 2009. http://clemson.library.ingentaconnect.com/content/adis/smd/2002/00000032/ 00000002/art00001. Pope, H. G., A.J. Gruber, B. Mangweth, B. Bureau, C. deCol, R. Jouvent, & J. I. Hudson. “Body Image Perception Among Men in Three Countries.” American Journal of Psychiatry 157 (2000): 1297-1301. Rehberg, Blake. “Oberlin Battles Stereotypes of Male Athletes in Sports.” The Oberlin Review. The Oberlin Review, 23 Feb. 2001. Web. 27 Oct. 2009. http://www.oberlin.edu/stupub/ocreview/archives/2001.02.23/sports/article01. htm. Rust, Jeanne. “6 Ways to Combat the Media's Body Image Message.” Ezine Articles. Web. 28 Oct. 2009. http://ezinearticles.com/?6-Ways-to-Combat-the-MediasBody-Image-Message&id=827128 Stice, E. “Risk and Maintenance Factors for Eating Pathology: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Psychological Bulletin 128 (2002): 825-848.