Rishiraj Institute Of Technology, Indore

RISHIRAJ INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INDORE REVTI GRAM, SAWER ROAD, INDORE-453331

MINNOR PROJECT ON

E-WASTE RECYCLING IN INDIA SESSION 2009-2010

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2006-2010

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL

GUIDED BY

SUBMITTED BY

H.O.D. S. B. DIGHE LECTURER R. MEHTA

NITIN SINGH

CONTENT 1.

ABSTRAC

1

E-waste recycling in India

2.

INTRODUCTION

3.

DEFINITION

4.

DESTINATION OF E-WASTE

5.

INDIAN SCENARIO

6.

THE STATUS

7.

BASEL CONVENTION

8.

E-TOXICS IN E-WASTE 8.1.

E-WASTE AND ITS EFFECT ON HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT

9.

LIFE CYCLE OF E-WASTE

10.

MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTES

11.

12.

10.1.

INVENTORY MANAGEMENT

10.2.

PRODUCTION-PROCESS MODIFICATION

10.3.

VOLUME REDUCTION

10.4.

RECOVERY AND REUSE

10.5.

SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

WASTE MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS 11.1.

RESOURCE RECOVERY

11.2.

RECYCLING

11.3.

WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 11.3.1.

LANDFILL

11.3.2.

INCINERATION

11.3.3.

COMPOSTING AND ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

11.3.4.

MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

11.3.5.

PYROLYSIS & GASIFICATION

RECYCLING OF E-WASTE 12.1.

RECYCLING/RECOVERY SYSTEM

12.2.

BIFURCATION OF ELECTRONIC SCRAP 12.2.1.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS (PCBS)

12.2.2.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PCB SCRAP

12.2.3.

DENSITY DIFFERENCES

12.2.4.

MAGNETIC AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY DIFFERENCES

12.2.5.

POLYFORMITY

12.2.6.

LIBERATION SIZE

12.2.7.

CHEMICAL REACTIVITY

12.2.8.

ELECTROPOSITIVITY

12.3.

DISASSEMBLY

12.4.

MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL RECYCLING PROCESS

12.5.

MECHANICAL APPROACHES OF RECYCLING ELECTRONIC SCRAP

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E-waste recycling in India

13.

12.6.

HYDROMETALLURGICAL APPROACHES

12.7.

EXTRACTION OF IC/ OTHER COMPONENTS FROM PCB 12.7.1.

RECOVERY OF GOLD

12.7.2.

MONITORS 12.7.2.1.

Recovery of Glass from CRT

12.7.2.2.

Yoke Core, Metallic Core and Copper from Transformers

12.7.2.3.

Copper Extraction from Wires

12.7.2.4.

Manual drawing of Wires for Copper

12.7.2.5.

Plastic Shredding and Graining

12.7.2.6.

Dismantling of compressor & segregation of compressor & cooling box

12.8.

DISPOSAL

12.9.

ADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING E-WASTE

RESPONSIBILITIES OF GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRIES, AND CITIZEN 13.1.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT

13.2.

RESPONSIBILITY AND ROLE OF INDUSTRIES

13.3.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CITIZEN

14.

E-WASTE POLICY FOR INDIA

15.

CONCLUSION

16.

REFERENCES

1. ABSTRACT The production of electric and electronic equipment (EEE) is one of the fastest growing areas.This development has resulted in an increase of waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE).In view of the environmental problems involved in the management of WEEE, many counties and

3

E-waste recycling in India

organizations have drafted national legislation to improve the reuse, recycling and other forms of recovery of such wastes so as to reduce disposal. Recycling of WEEE is an important subject not only from the point of waste treatment but also from the recovery of valuable materials.

"E-waste" is a popular, informal name for electronic products nearing the end of their "useful life. "E-wastes are considered dangerous, as certain components of some electronic products contain materials that are hazardous, depending on their condition and density. The hazardous content of these materials pose a threat to human health and environment. Discarded computers, televisions, VCRs, stereos, copiers, fax machines, electric lamps, cell phones, audio equipment and batteries if improperly disposed can leach lead and other substances into soil and groundwater. Many of these products can be reused, refurbished, or recycled in an environmentally sound manner so that they are less harmful to the ecosystem. This paper highlights the hazards of e-wastes, the need for its appropriate management and options that can be implemented.

2. INTRODUCTION Industrial revolution followed by the advances in information technology during the last century has radically changed people's lifestyle. Although this development has helped the human race, mismanagement has led to new problems of contamination and pollution. The technical prowess acquired during the last century has posed a new challenge in the management of wastes. For

4

E-waste recycling in India

example, personal computers (PCs) contain certain components, which are highly toxic, such as chlorinated and brominated substances, toxic gases, toxic metals, biologically active materials, acids, plastics and plastic additives. The hazardous content of these materials pose an environmental and health threat. Thus proper management is necessary while disposing or recycling ewastes. These days computer has become most common and widely used gadget in all kinds of activities ranging from schools, residences, offices to manufacturing industries. E-toxic components in computers could be summarized as circuit boards containing heavy metals like lead & cadmium; batteries containing cadmium; cathode ray tubes with lead oxide & barium; brominates flame retardants used on printed circuit boards, cables and plastic casing; poly vinyl chloride (PVC) coated copper cables and plastic computer casings that release highly toxic dioxins & furans when burnt to recover valuable metals; mercury switches; mercury in flat screens; poly chlorinated biphenyl's (PCB's) present in older capacitors; transformers; etc. Basel Action Network (BAN) estimates that the 500 million computers in the world contain 2.87 billion kg of plastics, 716.7 million kg of lead and 286,700 kg of mercury. The average 14-inch monitor uses a tube that contains an estimated 2.5 to 4 kg of lead. The lead can seep into the ground water from landfills thereby contaminating it. If the tube is crushed and burned, it emits toxic fumes into the air. Long-term exposure to deadly component chemicals and metals like lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury and polyvinyl chlorides (PVC) can severely damage the nervous systems, kidneys and bones, and the reproductive and endocrine systems, and some of them are carcinogenic and neurotoxin. It is a generic term used to describe old, end-of-life electronic appliances such as computers, laptops, TVs, DVD players, Mobile Phones, MP-3 players, etc., which have been disposed of by their original users. Though there is no generally accepted definition of E-waste, in most cases, E-waste comprises of relatively expensive and essentially durable products used for data processing, tile-communications or entertainment in private house-holds and businesses. Public perception of E-waste is often restricted to a narrower sense, comprising mainly of end-of life information and tile-communication equipment, and consumer electronics. However, technically speaking, electronic waste is only a sub-set of WEEE (Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment). According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development (OECD), any appliance using an electric power supply that has reached its end-of-life would come under WEEE. At macro-level, there are two ways to handle the E-Wastes: Disposal or Recycle / Refurbish.

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E-waste recycling in India

3. DEFINITION Electronic waste includes computers, entertainment electronics, mobile phones and Other items that have been discarded by their original users. While there is no Generally accepted definition of electronic waste, in most cases electronic waste Consists of electronic products that were used for data processing, Telecommunications or entertainment in private households and businesses that are now considered obsolete, broken, or un-repairable. Despite its common classification as a waste, disposed electronics are a considerable category of secondary resource due to their significant suitability for direct reuse, refurbishing, and material recycling of its constituent raw

6

E-waste recycling in India

materials. Re-conceptualization of electronic waste as a resource thus preempts its potentially hazardous qualities.

Definition of electronic waste according to the WEEE directive : · Large household appliances (ovens, refrigerators etc.) · Small household appliances (toasters, vacuum cleaners etc.) · Office & communication (PCs, printers, phones, faxes etc.) · Entertainment electronics (TVs, HiFis, portable CD players etc.) · Lighting equipment (mainly fluorescent tubes) · E-tools (drilling machines, electric lawnmowers etc.) · Sports & leisure equipment (electronic toys, training machines etc.) · Medical appliances and instruments · Surveillance equipment · Automatic issuing systems (ticket issuing machines etc.)

DESTINATION OF E-WASTE:

4.

The waste is imported by over 35 countries, which include India, China, Pakistan, and Malaysia etc. Fig. 1 shows the global E-waste traffic routes across Asia. The waste generated by the consumers of electronic goods gets collected by scavengers or garbage collectors, and usually gets deported to backyard stripping houses etc, where the potentially valuable substances are separated from the waste and the residue, which may still contain many hazardous (or useful) substances, is dumped or incinerated.

7

E-waste recycling in India

Fig-1 Asian E-Waste Traffic

INDIAN SCENARIO

5.

There is an estimate that the total obsolete computers originating from government offices, business houses, industries and household is of the order of 2 million nos. Manufactures and assemblers in a single calendar year, estimated to produce around 1200 tons of electronic scrap. It should be noted that obsolesce rate of personal computers (PC) is one in every two years. The consumers find it convenient to buy a new computer rather than upgrade the old one due to the changing configuration, technology and the attractive offers of the manufacturers. Due to the lack of

8

E-waste recycling in India

governmental legislations on e-waste, standards for disposal, proper mechanism for handling these toxic hi-tech products, mostly end up in landfills or partly recycled in a unhygienic conditions and partly thrown into waste streams. Computer waste is generated from the individual households; the government, public and private sectors; computer retailers; manufacturers; foreign embassies; secondary markets of old PCs. Of these, the biggest sources of PC scrap are foreign countries that export huge computer waste in the form of reusable components. Electronic waste or e-waste is one of the rapidly growing environmental problems of the world. In India, the electronic waste management assumes greater significance not only due to the generation of our own waste but also dumping of e-waste particularly computer waste from the developed countries. With extensively using computers and electronic equipments and people dumping old electronic goods for new ones, the amount of E-Waste generated has been steadily increasing. At present Bangalore alone generates about 8000 tonnes of computer waste annually and in the absence of proper disposal, they find their way to scrap dealers. E-Parisaraa, an eco-friendly recycling unit on the outskirts of Bangalore which is located in Dobaspet industrial area, about 45 Km north of Bangalore, makes full use of E-Waste. The plant which is India’s first scientific e-waste recycling unit will reduce pollution, landfill waste and recover valuable metals, plastics & glass from waste in an eco-friendly manner. E-Parisaraa has developed a circuit to extend the life of tube lights. The circuit helps to extend the life of fluorescent tubes by more than 2000 hours. If the circuits are used, tube lights can work on lower voltages. The initiative is to aim at reducing the accumulation of used and discarded electronic and electrical equipments. India as a developing country needs simpler, low cost technology keeping in view of maximum resource recovery in an environmental friendly methodologies. E-Parisaraa, deals with practical aspect ofe-waste processing as mentioned below by hand. Phosphor affects the display resolution and luminance of the images that is seen in the monitor. E-Parisaraa’s Director Mr. P. Parthasarathy, an IIT Madras graduate, and a former consultant for a similar e-waste recycling unit in Singapore, has developed an eco-friendly methodology for reusing, recycling and recovery of metals, glass & plastics with non-incineration methods . The hazardous

9

E-waste recycling in India

materials are segregated separately and send for secure land fill for ex.: phosphor coating, LED’s, mercury etc. We have the technology to recycle most of the e-waste and only less than one per cent of this will be regarded as waste, which can go into secure landfill planned in the vicinity by the HAWA project.

6.

THE STATUS

The first comprehensive study to estimate the annual generation of E-waste in India and answer the questions above is being under taken up by the National WEEE Taskforce. The preliminary estimates suggest that total WEEE generation in India is approximately 1,46,000 tonne per year. The top states in order of highest contribution to WEEE are:1.Maharashtra, 5.West Bengal,

2.Andhra Pradesh, 6.Delhi, Karnataka,

9.Punjab.

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E-waste recycling in India

3.Tamil Nadu, 7.Gujarat,

4. Uttar Pradesh, 8.Madhya Pradesh, and

The city-wise ranking of largest WEEE generators are:1.Mumbai,

2.Delhi,

3.Bangalore,

4.Chennai,

7.Hyderabad,

8.Pune,

9.Surat, and

10.Nagpur.

5.Kolkatta,

6.Ahmedabad,

An estimated 30,000 computers become obsolete every year from the IT industry in Bangalore alone simply due to an extremely high obsolescence rate of 30 per cent per annum. Almost 50 per cent of the PCs sold in India are products from the secondary market and are reassembled on old components. The remaining market share is cover by multinational-manufacturers (30 per cent), and Indian brands (20 per cent). Three categories of WEEE account for almost 90 per cent of the generation - Large Household Appliances (42 per cent), Information & Communications Technology Equipment (34 per cent), Consumer Electronics (14 per cent). The E-waste recycled by the formal recyclers is done under environmentally sound practices which ensure that damage is minimized to the environment. They also adopt processes so that the workforce is not exposing to toxic and hazardous substances released during recycling process. But they cannot match either the reach or the network of the informal recyclers used for sourcing of old electrical and electronic items from business as well as individual households. The items are collect, segregated and the informal recyclers further dismantle the ones that cannot be sold as it is. The final step is recycling which is mainly manual using simple tools like hammer, screw driver, etc., and by the use of rudimentary techniques like burning of wires in the open, using acid bath for extraction of precious metals. Furthermore, these activities are carried out without wearing any protective gear like masks, gloves, etc. In the absence of suitable processes and protective measures, recycling E-waste results in toxic emission to the air, water, soil and poses serious environmental and health hazards. Thus, the challenges are manifold: environmental and health hazards; lack of awareness amongst various stakeholders including public at large; investment required for setting up of state-of-the-art waste management facilities; monitoring and reporting of the E-waste generated; and most importantly, reconciling technological advancement with sustainable development.

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E-waste recycling in India

E-WASTE SITUATION IN INDIA At present, the e-waste management system in India is characterised by a market driven collection and recycling implying no direct cost to consumers, producers or taxpayers. The system is dominated by the informal sector in backyard workshops . Backyard workshops are considered being a part of the informal economy. Informal and underground economy is defined by Frey and Schneider (2000): “It comprises all presently not recorded productive (i.e. value-adding) activities which should be in the national product (GNP).” In this thesis the informal scrap industry is seen as recycling facilities that do not comply with state regulations regarding taxation, environmental protection or safety standards (Streicher-Porte, 2006). Up to now no regulations or controls on material or financial flows, standards of emissions or occupational hazards have been implemented (Sinha, 2004). Though India signed the Basel Convention, there is no specific legislation regulating the export or the collection and treatment of E-waste. There are however several existing environmental legislations which are of importance and useful in the context of E-waste. India is one of the countries that have to deal with the arising load of E-waste. Figure 2 indicates that the PC growth per capita in India had been over 1’000 % between 1993 and 2000. From 2002 to 2004 the sales of computers in India almost doubled as a market study shows, which had been performed in 22 Indian cities (see Figure 2).

12

E-waste recycling in India

Fig 2. Top scoring countries in PC growth rates (left) and penetration rates (right) (Schwarzer et al., 2005). Since the growth of PC sales correlates with the generation of E-waste (Jain and Sareen, 2006) these sales implicate a massive increase of E-waste. As an outcome of Phase I of seco’s global E-waste programme the Indo-German-Swiss Initiative for E-waste management had been set up. It brings together the experience and expertise of all the partners (MoEF, GTZ, seco) involved. The partners work in close collaboration with manufacturers, users, recyclers, and NGOs to develop a sustainable e-waste management system in India (e-Waste Guide India, 2006).

13

E-waste recycling in India

Fig 3. PC market trends in India from 1997 to 2004 (BIRD, 2005).

14

E-waste recycling in India

7. BASEL CONVENTION The fundamental aims of the fundamental aims of the Basel Convention are the control and reduction of trans-boundary movements of hazardous and other wastes including the prevention and minimization of their generation, the environmentally sound management of such wastes and the active promotion of the transfer and use of technologies. A Draft Strategic Plan has been proposed for the implementation of the Basel Convention. The Draft Strategic Plan takes into account existing regional plans, program or strategies, the decisions of the Conference of the Parties and its subsidiary bodies, ongoing project activities and process of international environmental governance and sustainable development. The Draft requires action at all levels of society: training, information, communication, methodological tools, capacity building with financial support, transfer of know-how, knowledge and sound, proven cleaner technologies and processes to assist in the concrete implementation of the Basel Declaration. It also calls for the effective involvement and coordination by all concerned stakeholders as essential for achieving the aims of the Basel Declaration within the approach of common but differentiated responsibility. Are the control and reduction of trans-boundary movements of hazardous and other wastes including the prevention and minimization of their generation, the environmentally sound management of such wastes and the active promotion of the transfer and use of technologies? A set. of interrelated and mutually supportive strategies are proposed to support the concrete implementation of the activities as indicated is described below: 1. To involve experts in designing communication tools for creating awareness at the highest level to promote the aims of the Basel Declaration on environmentally sound management and the ratification and implementation of the Basel Convention, its amendments and protocol with the emphasis on the short-term activities. 2. To engage and stimulate a group of interested parties to assist the secretariat in exploring fund raising strategies including the preparation of projects and in making full use of expertise in non-governmental organizations and other institutions in joint projects. 3. To motivate selective partners among various stakeholders to bring added value to making progress in the short-term.

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E-waste recycling in India

4. To disseminate and make information easily accessible through the internet and other electronic and printed materials on the transfer of know-how, in particular through Basel Convention Regional Centers (BCRCs). 5. To undertake periodic review of activities in relation to the agreed indicators; 6. To collaborate with existing institutions and program to promote better use of cleaner

technology and its transfer, methodology, economic instruments or policy to facilitate or support capacity-building for the environmentally sound management of hazardous and other wastes. The Basel Convention brought about a respite to the trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste. India and other countries have ratified the convention. However United States (US) is not a party to the ban and is responsible for disposing hazardous waste, such as, e-waste to Asian countries even today. Developed countries such as US should enforce stricter legislations in their own country for the prevention of this horrifying act. In the European Union where the annual quantity of electronic waste is likely to double in the next 12 years, the European Parliament recently passed legislation that will require manufacturers to take back their electronic products when consumers discard them. This is called Extended Producer Responsibility. It also mandates a timetable for phasing out most toxic substances in electronic products.

8. E-TOXICS IN E-WASTE 16

E-waste recycling in India

"Printed Circuit Boards contain heavy metals such as Antimony, Silver, Chromium, Zinc, Lead, Tin and Copper. According to some estimates there is hardly any other product for which the sum of the environmental impacts of raw material, extraction, industrial, refining and production, use and disposal is as extensive as for printed circuit boards." "In short, the product developers of electronic products are introducing chemicals on a scale which is totally incompatible with the scant knowledge of their environmental or biological characteristics." TABLE-1 Material used in a desktop computer and the efficiency of current recycling processes Name

content (%

Recycling

Weight of

of total

Efficiency %

material (lb)

13.8

20

Use/Location

weight) Plastics

22.9907

Includes organics, oxides other than silica

Lead

6.2988

3.8

5

Metal joining, radiation shield/CRT, PWB

Aluminu

14.1723

8.5

80

m

Structural, conductivity/housing, CRT,PWB, connectors

Germaniu

0.0016

< 0.1 0

Semiconductor/PWB

0.0013

< 0.1 0

Semiconductor/PWB

20.4712

12.3

m Gallium Iron

80

Structural, magnetivity/ (steel) housing CRT, PWB

Tin

1.0078

0.6

70

Metal joining/PWB, CRT

Copper

6.9287

4.2

90

Conductivity/CRT, PWB, connectors

Barium

0.0315

< 0.1

0

Nickel

0.8503

0.51

80

In vacuum tube/CRT Structural, magnetivity/ (steel) housing, CRT,

17

E-waste recycling in India

PWB Zinc

2.2046

1.32

60

Battery, phosphor emitter/PWB, CRT

Tantalum

0.0157

< 0.1

0

Capacitors/PWB, power supply

Indium

0.0016

< 0.1

60

Transistor, rectifiers/PWB

Vanadiu

0.0002

< 0.1

0

m

Red phosphor emitter/CRT

Terbium

0

0

0

Green phosphor activator, dopant /CRT, PWB

Beryllium

0.0157

< 0.1

Thermal conductivity/PWB, connectors

Gold

0.0016

< 0.1

99

Connectivity, conductivity/PWB, connectors

Europium

0.0002

< 0.1

0

Phosphor activator/PWB

Titanium

0.0157

< 0.1

0

Pigment, alloying agent/ (aluminum),housing

Rutheniu

0.0016

< 0.1

80

Resistive circuit/PWB

0.0157

< 0.1

85

Structural, magnetivity

m Cobalt

/(steel) housing, CRT, PWB Palladium

0.0003

< 0.1

95

Connectivity, conductivity/PWB,

18

E-waste recycling in India

connectors Mangane

0.0315

< 0.1

0

se

Structural, magnetivity/ (steel) housing, CRT, PWB

Silver

0.0189

< 0.1

98

Conductivity/PWB, connectors

Antinomy

0.0094

< 0.1

0

Diodes/housing, PWB, CRT

Bismuth

0.0063

< 0.1

0

Wetting agent in thick film/PWB

Chromiu

0.0063

< 0.1

0

m

Decorative, hardener/ (steel) housing

Cadmium

0.0094

< 0.1

0

Battery, glu-green phosphor emitter/housing, PWB, CRT

Selenium

0.0016

0.00096

70

Rectifiers/PWB

Niobium

0.0002

< 0.1

0

welding allow/housing

Yttrium

0.0002

< 0.1

0

Red phosphor emitter/CRT

Rhodium

0

50

thick film conductor/PWB

Platinum

0

95

Thick film conductor/PWB

Mercury

0.0022

< 0.1

0

Batteries, switches/housing, PWB

Arsenic

0.0013

< 0.1

0

Doping agents in transistors/PWB

Silica

24.8803

15

0

Glass, solid state devices/CRT,PWB

19

E-waste recycling in India

E-waste and its effect on health and the environment E-waste cannot be considered or treated like any kind of waste, because it contains hazardous and toxic substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium or others such as dioxins and furans, bromined flame retardants (produced when e-waste is incinerated). For instance, lead represents 6% of the total weight of a computer monitor. Another example: nearly 36 chemical elements are Incorporated in electronic equipment. This data further demonstrates the un-sustainability of irresponsible electronic equipment disposal, its negative effect on the environment and the need to implement management regulations which include actions like refurbishment and recycling. Even though in the last years recycling has become a regular practice almost everywhere in the world, some e-waste components present difficulties when they are recycled mainly because of their complexity and the lack of methods. Such is the case of plastics used in electronic equipment which contain flame retardants that impede the recycling process. In order to amplify the information submitted in the web page “We Re-cycle” following is a more detailed description of electronic equipment components effects on human health and the environment.

Table-2 Products and Health Effects of E-Waste name of chemicals Polychlorinate d Biphenyl (PCB)

20

Characteristics

Effects on Humans

Impacts on the

Can be present in

Humans are exposed

Environment This chemical

condensers and

through

compound could drip

transformers of old

contaminated food

through subsurface

electronic

consumption or

layers reaching

equipment because

direct contact at

water and

of its properties as

their workplace,

contaminating it if

cooler, lubricant

(e.g inadequate

buried in landfills.

and its resistance

disassembly of

Because it is poorly

to high

electronic

soluble, it is very

temperatures.

equipment).

dangerous when it

Exposure to this

enters water currents

compound can cause

as it could

E-waste recycling in India

anemia, damages to

contaminate the

the skin, liver,

chain of production

stomach and thyroid.

of some foods.

Contamination of pregnant women is very risky and research results show that it can be Tetra Bromo

TBBA is a flame-

carcinogen It has not been prove

Unlike other flame-

Bisphenol-A

retardant, which is

that it can cause

retardants, TBBA

use in computer

mutations or

when used as a

motherboards. This

carcinogen effects

reactive, bounds

compound

on human beings.

chemically to plastic

represents 50% of

Nevertheless, it has

or polymers for

all

been prove that

protection. This

bromined flame-

TBBA may interfere

impedes its liberation

retardants

in the transport and

into the

produced

metabolism of some

environment. It is

worldwide. 96% of

hormones. A

biodegradable but

all motherboards

technical study has

one of the products

use this chemical

demonstrated that

of this

compound which

there is a direct

biodegradation is

represents 1 to 2%

correlation between

bisphenol, which can

of their weight

TBBA in the blood

cause damages to

flow and in the air.

the endocrine

TBBA is toxic to

system. The fact that

aquatic organisms

TBBA dissolves

(TBBPA)

poorly in water and tends to adhere to soil, where it can reach food, has created great concern because

21

E-waste recycling in India

TBBA levels magnify while passing through the food chain from 20 to 3200 times.

Polybrominat

Originally, this

Exposure to this

PBB dissolves poorly

ed Biphenyls

substance was add

substance can

in water but can

to plastics of

damage kidneys,

adhere strongly to

electronic

liver and thyroids.

soil, through which it

equipment for

Fetuses that were

could reach food. It

inflammability

expose to PBB had

keeps magnifying

reduction.

endocrinal problems.

while passing along

Nevertheless, PBB

Likewise it is

the food chain.

production in the

suspected that PBB

US was stop in

is carcinogen

(PBB)

1976 and in the world in 2000. PBDE is another

Since it was tested

PDBE is easily

ed Diphenyl

brominates flame-

for the first time in

liberated into the

Ethers (PBDE)

retardant with its

1970, PBDE was

environment and,

number of bromine

found in numerous

like other

atoms varying up

samples of human

flameretardants,

to 209 times. Three

tissue, and with

dissolves poorly in

types are sold for

increasing

water and strongly

commercial use

concentrations of

adheres to soil,

referred to as pent,

factor 100 in the last

crossing to

octa and deca, two

30 years. Exposure

organisms, animals,

of them used in

can occur the

and food. This

electronic

moment that plastics

crossing depends on

equipment: octa,

containing this

the brominated

used in high impact

substance are

concentration level;

Polybrominat

22

E-waste recycling in India

housings, and deca

recycled. Concerns

the lower it is, the

used in wire

for human health

more toxic PDBE gets

insulation. Even

arise because PBDE

(for example when

though the

containing 4 to 6

exposed to UV Light).

production of this

brominated

This compound is

compound has

molecules that can

almost omnipresent,

decreased since

act as thyroxin,

as it is found both in

1999 its presence

damaging the

sea and fresh water

in the environment

endocrine system.

organisms,

is increasing,

Exposed children

mammals, birds and

becoming a global

show thyroid

water and soil

problem.

damages and

samples. When PBDE

neurological

is incinerated, it

anomalies.

produces dioxins and

Chlorofluoroc

CFC are used in

There are no

furans. When in contact with

arbons (CFC)

aerosol propellants,

significant impacts

the ozone layer, CFC

cleansing agents,

on human health.

destroys it. One

foaming agents,

Nevertheless there

chlorine atom is

and

are indirect negative

responsible for the

other packaging

effects. Fir example,

destruction of

materials like

the release of CFC

100.000 ozone

solvents

attacks levels of the

molecules. The

and refrigerants. In

atmosphere

ozone layer protects

1987, a prohibition

earth from radiation

campaign was

which causes skin

initiated reaching

cancer and blindness

its

in living beings

objective in 1996, an objective that developing countries aim to reach in 2010.

23

E-waste recycling in India

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

PVC plastic is used

In the amounts

This compound is

as an insulator in

present in the

disseminated in the

certain types of

environment, there

environment

wiring in electronic

is no proof that DEHP

because of its

equipment. Risks

causes damage to

extended usage,

arise from vinyl

humans

being soluble in

chloride since this

beings but it been

water if oils or

compound is toxic

proven that it can

grease are present.

and the DEHP used

damage to lab

Bonds easily with soil

to soften PVC

animal kidneys.

but also degrades

carries great risks

Recent debates

easily in contact with

to human health

about this compound

oxygen.

suggest that it can cause endocrine and gender anomalies in Arsenic (As)

Arsenic is present

embryos Gas is carcinogen

Gallium Arsenide is

in small amounts in

and causes skin and

an inorganic

electronic equipment in forms such as Gallium Arsenide Gas, which hassemiconductor properties and can befound in electronic equipment diodes.

lung cancers. The

compound with low

most common

water solubility. It is

means of exposure is

transformed into an

direct contact with

organic compound

dust containing this

when bio-

compound especially

accumulated in fish

by workers of

and crustaceans.

semiconductor manufacturers.

24

E-waste recycling in India

Barium (Ba)

Barium is generally

Barium compounds’

Its impact on the

use in cathode

toxicity is link to its

environment

ray tubes (CRT) in

solubility in water.

depends on its

computer monitors.

Some of these

solubility. Barium

When functioning in compounds

compounds that are

the monitor this

produced in monitors

highly soluble in

metal reacts with

are extremely

water are very

CO, CO2, N2, O2,

soluble. Intake of

mobile and tend to

H2O y H2 which

these compounds

cumulate in aquatic

produces a series

can cause

organisms

of

gastrointestinal

barium compounds

disorders and muscle

including oxides,

weakness. Higher

hydroxides and

doses can cause

carbonates.

changes in heart beat rate, paralysis and death. Direct contact with dust containing barium can cause eye and

Beryllium (Be)

25

Beryllium is a metal

skin irritation. Beryllium is only

This metal doesn’t

that generally

dangerous if inhaled,

dissolve in water and

forms alloys with

as dust or fumes,

it remains into soil

copper to increase

which could occur

its endurance,

when electronic

conductivity and

equipment is

elasticity. Initially,

disassembled,

Beryllium was used

burned or crushed.

in the production of

Its inhalation can

motherboards but

cause pneumonia,

its major usage is

respiratory

in contact circuits,

inflammation

relays and in some

(chronic illness of

E-waste recycling in India

Cadmium (Cd)

laser printer

Beryllium) and can

mechanisms

raise the risk of lung

Cadmium is a

cancer Cadmium exposure

Cadmium enters the

heavy metal

commonly occurs

environment through

included in many

through inhalation

water and soil that is

electronic

and ingestion of food

absorbed by plants.

components, such

or contaminated

Low concentrations

as

water. Inhaling large

can cause alterations

contact plates,

amounts of

in the ecology and

switches, or used to

Cadmium can cause

balance of soil

prevent corrosion.

lung damage and

nutrients. This metal

Cadmium is

death. Exposure to

can bio-accumulate

particularly found

small amounts over

in mushrooms,

in chip resistors,

a long period of time

oysters, shrimps,

infrared detectors,

can cause high

mussels and fish.

and

pressure and kidney

semiconductors.

damage. This metal

Old monitors

is arcinogen.

contain around 5 to 10 grams of Cadmium and some batteries are made of Nickel Cadmium. It is added as a plastic stabilizer and pigment to wiring, motherboards, pcs, monitors and printed circuit Chromium VI (Cr+6)

26

boards. Chromium VI, i.e.

The effect of this

Chromium VI is

chromium ions with

compound on

hardly found in

E-waste recycling in India

a charge of +6, is

humans depends on

nature. Its presence

chromium’s only

the type of exposure.

in the environment

toxic form. Its

For example,

(air) is

presence is small in

inhalation can cause

attributed to

electronic

catarrh, nose

industrial plant

equipment where it

bleeding, ulcers and

emissions, fuel

is used as a plastic

sinus perforations.

combustion in

hardener and

Ingestion of

commercial and

protection layer for

contaminated water

residential zones.

some metal

and food can

components. When

damage the

electronic

stomach, kidneys,

components are

liver and cause

burned, 99% of

ulcers, convulsions

Chromium VI stays

and even death. If

in residuals and

there is a direct

ashes,

contact with skin it

contaminating soil

can cause ulcers.

in a toxic way,

This metal is

which could reach

carcinogen only

water currents with

when inhaled.

significant higher Lead (Pb)

27

risk. Lead is found in

Humans are exposed

The chemical

many electronic

to this metal by

structure of this

equipment

particle inhalation

metal is directly

components. For

and through

affected by its pH but

example,

contaminated foods.

most lead

in a PC, the largest

The first effects and

compounds are

amount of this

symptoms of lead

insoluble in water

metal is found in

exposure are

and remain in that

the CRT of the

anorexia, muscle

state. They are

monitor: 0 to 3% in

pain, malaise and

difficultly

the panel, 70% in

headache but an

accumulated in

E-waste recycling in India

the frit, 24% in the

extended exposure

plants or transferred

funnel and 30% in

can cause a

to food. Lead doesn’t

the neck. Lead is

decrease in nervous

bio-accumulate in

also present in

system performance,

fish but it does in

weldings (40%),

weakness, brain

other seafood. If

motherboards,

damage and even

broken or incinerated

circuits and wiring

death. Likewise, it

to the environment,

plastic.

can affect the

particles will be

reproductive system

transmitted by air

both in men and

and soil.

women and is considered Lithium (Li)

Lithium is present

carcinogen. Lithium doesn’t

Not many studies

in computer

cause toxicological

about the effects of

batteries and

problems as lead,

modern electronic

cadmium or mercury

equipment.

do. But, a great risk

Typically batteries

exists for workers

contain an anode of

that have a direct

lithium or lithium

contact. Lithium is

oxide, a

classified as a

lithium on the environment have beenpublished. These compounds tend to stay dissolved in water and they aren’t easily absorbed through soil.

magnesium dioxide

corrosive alkali that

(magnesium oxide

can burn skin, eyes

and carbon)

and, if inhaled,

cathode and lithium

lungs. To avoid these

salt dissolved in an

risks lithium

organic solvent.

batteries must not

This type of

be exposed to hot

batteries replaces

environments or

alkaline and NiCd

broken, factors that

batteries. It is

can cause the

environmentally

battery to explode.

more sustainable

28

E-waste recycling in India

than its predecessors.

Mercury (Hg)

29

Mercury is found in

All forms of mercury

The impact of

three specific

represent a risk to

mercury on the

places in a

human health, but

environment has

computer. The

mercury in metal

been thoroughly

largest

form that is not

studied. Mercury in

amount is found in

combined with other

pure form is

LCD screen

components and

extremely volatile

fluorescent light,

organic methyl

and mining,

computer or

mercury are the

incineration and

monitor

ones that possess

manufacture release

switches, which

the greater risk,

this compound to the

enable them to

especially to the

atmosphere. When

shut

nervous system.

mercury, in any of its

down while idle,

Short-term

forms, gets in

and finally in

exposures to this

contact with water or

batteries. Mercury

compound cause

soil, turns into

is very volatile and

lung damage,

organic methyl

easily liberated by

nausea, vomiting,

mercury by bacteria

incineration or

diarrhea, high

action. In organic

breaking, which

pressure, and, skin

form mercury is

could liberate up to

and eye irritation.

more accessible to

E-waste recycling in India

90% of the mercury

Long or permanent

living organisms and

contained in the

exposure might

food. Many studies

monitor screen, for

cause permanent

have shown mercury

example.

damages to the

presence in fish,

brain, kidneys and

causing great

fetus development,

concern in many

besides neurological

regions worldwide.

changes, irritability, tremors, shortsightedness, deafness, memory problems, delirium, hallucinations and Níckel (Ni)

Nickel is present in

suicidal tendencies. Nickel causes skin

Nickel generally

the batteries of

damages and

enters the

some electronic

asthma symptoms in

environment through

equipment (NiCd),

about 10 to 20% of

air. These particles

which are being

the population that

are then placed in

gradually replaced

has direct contact.

water and soil,

with lithium

Workers that are

especially if they

batteries. Likewise,

exposed to dust

contain magnesium

nickel

containing nickel

and steel.

is used in CRT of

suffer bronchitis and

Nevertheless, this

computer monitors

lung damages. There

compound does not

is evidence that

bio-accumulate in

many nickel

living organisms.

compounds such as nickel hydroxide are carcinogen Antimony (Sb) Antimony is present Elevated exposure to

30

Antimony released

in electronic

antimony via

into the environment

equipment in small

electronic equipment

is commonly found in

quantities.

is unlikely.

soil and sediments.

E-waste recycling in India

Antimony trioxide is Experiments in

Its mobility greatly

added to plastic as

animals have

depends on soil

a flame-retardant.

emonstrated that

structure, the form

This compound is

short-term exposure

which it takes, and

also used in the

can cause eye and

its pH. This element

CRT glass of

skin irritation, hair

is better absorbed in

monitors and wire

loss, lung and heart

soils containing steel,

welding.

damages, and

magnesium or

fertility problems.

aluminum.

Antimony trioxide is considered as Zinc Sulfide (ZnS)

Zinc Sulfide is

possibly carcinogen This element is

Zinc is one of the

mixed with other

corrosive to the skin

most common

metals

and lungs and its

minerals in nature.

to create a

ingestion can be

phosphor coating,

very harmful

which is

because it forms a

used in the inside

toxic gas (hydrogen

of the monitor

sulfide) within the

glass.

stomach

Exposure to this compound happens when the monitor breaks.

31

E-waste recycling in India

9. Life Cycle of E-waste. To ensure proper and nearly complete collection of used electronic equipments after they are rendered useless, it is important to study the processes, which the equipment has undergone. That is to say, the study of the life cycle of the equipment is equally relevant. The Fig. 5 shows the life span of electronic equipments, taking into account that it may have switched users during the course of its operational life. This course will have to be considered for effective collection so that maximum or all of the E-Waste can be recycled. For instance, computer hardware would appear to have up to 3 distinct product lives: the original life or first product life (when it is being used by the primary user) and up to 2 further lives depending on reuse. Fig. 5 depicts the flow of computer hardware units from point-of-sale to the original purchaser and on to the reuse phases. The duration of the product’s first life is estimated to be between 2 and 4

32

E-waste recycling in India

years for corporate users and between 2 and 5 years for domestic users. The life cycle of computer waste is defined as, the period from when it is discarded by the primary user to when it goes for recycling or is disposed of in a landfill.

Product manufacturer

Material recycling

Primary user

second user

third/fourth user

landfill

Fig-4Flow of E-waste During Its Life Cycle

10.MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTES It is estimated that 75% of electronic items are stored due to uncertainty of how to manage it. These electronic junks lie unattended in houses, offices, warehouses etc. and normally mixed with household wastes, which are finally disposed off at landfills. This necessitates implementable management measures. In industries management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation. This can be done by waste minimization techniques and by sustainable product design. Waste minimization in industries involves adopting: •

inventory management,

•

production-process modification,

•

volume reduction,

•

recovery and reuse.

10.1.Inventory management

33

E-waste recycling in India

Proper control over the materials used in the manufacturing process is an important way to reduce waste generation (Freeman, 1989). By reducing both the quantity of hazardous materials used in the process and the amount of excess raw materials in stock, the quantity of waste generated can be reduced. This can be done in two ways i.e. establishing material-purchase review and control procedures and inventory tracking system. Developing review procedures for all material purchased is the first step in establishing an inventory management program. Procedures should require that all materials be approved prior to purchase. In the approval process all production materials are evaluated to examine if they contain hazardous constituents and whether alternative non-hazardous materials are available. Another inventory management procedure for waste reduction is to ensure that only the needed quantity of a material is ordered. This will require the establishment of a strict inventory tracking system. Purchase procedures must be implemented which ensure that materials are ordered only on an as-needed basis and that only the amount needed for a specific period of time is ordered. Production-process modification Changes can be made in the production process, which will reduce waste generation. This reduction can be accomplished by changing the materials used to make the product or by the more efficient use of input materials in the production process or both. Potential waste minimization techniques can be broken down into three categories: i) Improved operating and maintenance procedures, ii) Material change and iii)Process-equipment modification. Improvements in the operation and maintenance of process equipment can result in significant waste reduction. This can be accomplished by reviewing current operational procedures or lack of procedures and examination of the production process for ways to improve its efficiency. Instituting standard operation procedures can optimise the use of raw materials in the production process and reduce the potential for materials to be lost through leaks and spills. A strict maintenance program, which stresses corrective maintenance, can reduce waste generation caused by equipment failure. An employee-training program is a key element of any waste reduction program. Training should include correct operating and handling procedures, proper equipment use, recommended

34

E-waste recycling in India

maintenance and inspection schedules, correct process control specifications and proper management of waste materials. Hazardous materials used in either a product formulation or a production process may be replaced with a less hazardous or non-hazardous material. This is a very widely used technique and is applicable to most manufacturing processes. Implementation of this waste reduction technique may require only some minor process adjustments or it may require extensive new process equipment. For example, a circuit board manufacturer can replace solvent-based product with water-based flux and simultaneously replace solventvapor degreaser with detergent parts washer. Installing more efficient process equipment or modifying existing equipment to take advantage of better production techniques can significantly reduce waste generation. New or updated equipment can use process materials more efficiently producing less waste. Additionally such efficiency reduces the number of rejected or off-specification products, thereby reducing the amount of material which has to be reworked or disposed of. Modifying existing process equipment can be a very cost-effective method of reducing waste generation. In many cases the modification can just be relatively simple changes in the way the materials are handled within the process to ensure that they are not wasted. For example, in many electronic manufacturing operations, which involve coating a product, such as electroplating or painting, chemicals are used to strip off coating from rejected products so that they can be recoated. These chemicals, which can include acids, caustics, cyanides etc are often a hazardous waste and must be properly managed. By reducing the number of parts that have to be reworked, the quantity of waste can be significantly reduced. Volume reduction Volume reduction includes those techniques that remove the hazardous portion of a waste from a non-hazardous portion. These techniques are usually to reduce the volume, and thus the cost of disposing of a waste material. The techniques that can be used to reduce waste-stream volume can be divided into 2 general categories: source segregation and waste concentration. Segregation of wastes is in many cases a simple and economical technique for waste reduction. Wastes containing different types of metals can be treated separately so that the metal value in the sludge can be recovered. Concentration of a waste stream may increase the likelihood that the material can be recycled or reused. Methods include gravity and vacuum filtration, ultra filtration, reverse osmosis, freeze vaporization etc.

35

E-waste recycling in India

For example, an electronic component manufacturer can use compaction equipments to reduce volume of waste cathode ray-tube. Recovery and reuse This technique could eliminate waste disposal costs, reduce raw material costs and provide income from a salable waste. Waste can be recovered on-site, or at an off-site recovery facility, or through inter industry exchange. A number of physical and chemical techniques are available to reclaim a waste material such as reverse osmosis, electrolysis, condensation, electrolytic recovery, filtration, centrifugation etc. For example, a printed-circuit board manufacturer can use electrolytic recovery to reclaim metals from copper and tin-lead plating bath. However recycling of hazardous products has little environmental benefit if it simply moves the hazards into secondary products that eventually have to be disposed of. Unless the goal is to redesign the product to use nonhazardous materials, such recycling is a false solution. Sustainable product design Minimization of hazardous wastes should be at product design stage itself keeping in mind the following factors* •

Rethink the product design: Efforts should be made to design a product with fewer amounts of hazardous materials. For example, the efforts to reduce material use are reflected in some new computer designs that are flatter, lighter and more integrated. Other companies propose centralized networks similar to the telephone system.

•

Use of renewable materials and energy: Bio-based plastics are plastics made with plantbased chemicals or plant-produced polymers rather than from petrochemicals. Bio-based toners, glues and inks are used more frequently. Solar computers also exist but they are currently very expensive.

•

Use of non-renewable materials that are safer: Because many of the materials used are nonrenewable, designers could ensure the product is built for re-use, repair and/or upgradeability. Some computer manufacturers such as Dell and Gateway lease out their products thereby ensuring they get them back to further upgrade and lease out again.

36

E-waste recycling in India

9.

Waste management concepts:

The waste hierarchies there are a number of concepts about waste management, which vary in their usage between countries or regions. The waste hierarchy: ➢ reduce ➢ reuse ➢ recycle Classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability. The waste hierarchy has taken many forms over the past decade, but the basic concept has remained the cornerstone of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste. Some waste management experts have recently incorporated a 'fourth R': "Re-think", with the implied meaning that the present system may have fundamental flaws, and that a thoroughly effective system of waste management may need an entirely new way of looking at waste. Some "re-think" solutions may be counter-intuitive, such as cutting fabric patterns with slightly more "waste material" left -- the now larger scraps are then used for cutting small parts of the pattern, resulting in a decrease in net waste. This type of solution is by no means limited to the clothing industry. Source reduction involves efforts to reduce hazardous waste and other materials by modifying industrial production. Source reduction methods involve changes in manufacturing technology, raw material inputs, and product formulation. At times, the term "pollution prevention" may refer to source reduction. Another method of source reduction is to increase incentives for recycling. Many communities in the United States are implementing variable rate pricing for waste disposal (also known as Pay as You

37

E-waste recycling in India

Throw - PAYT) which has been effective in reducing the size of the municipal waste stream. Source reduction is typically measure by efficiencies and cutbacks in waste. Toxics use reduction is a more controversial approach to source reduction that targets and measures reductions in the upstream use of toxic materials. Toxics use reduction emphasizes the more preventive aspects of source reduction but due to its emphasis on toxic chemical inputs, has been oppose more vigorously by chemical manufacturers. Resource recovery A relatively recent idea in waste management has been to treat the waste material as a resource to be exploited, instead of simply a challenge to be managed and disposed of. There are a number of different methods by which resources may be extracted from waste: the materials may be extracted and recycled, or the calorific content of the waste may be converted to electricity. The process of extracting resources or value from waste is variously referred to as secondary resource recovery, recycling, and other terms. The practice of treating waste materials as a resource is becoming more common, especially in metropolitan areas where space for new landfills is becoming scarcer. There is also a growing acknowledgement that simply disposing of waste materials is unsustainable in the long term, as there is a finite supply of most raw materials. There are a number of methods of recovering resources from waste materials, with new technologies and methods being developed continuously. In some developing nations some resource recovery already takes place by way of manual laborers who sift through un-segregated waste to salvage material that can be sold in the recycling market. These unrecognized workers called waste pickers or rag pickers, are part of the informal sector, but play a significant role in reducing the load on the Municipalities' Solid Waste Management departments. There is an increasing trend in recognizing their contribution to the environment and there are efforts to try and integrate them into the formal waste management systems, which is proven to be both cost effective and also appears to help in urban poverty alleviation. However, the very high human cost

38

E-waste recycling in India

of these activities including disease, injury and reduced life expectancy through contact with toxic or infectious materials would not be tolerate in a developed country. Recycling Recycling means to recover of other use a material that would otherwise be consider waste. The popular meaning of ‘recycling’ in most developed countries has come to refer to the widespread collection and reuse of various everyday waste materials. They are collected and sorted into common groups, so that the raw materials from these items can be used again (recycled). In developed countries, the most common consumer items recycled include aluminum beverage cans, steel, food and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET plastic bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, and cardboard. Other types of plastic (PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS) are also recyclable, although not as A materials recovery facility, where different materials are separated for recycling commonly collected. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of obsolete computers and electronic equipment is important, but more costly due to the separation and extraction problems. Electronic waste is send to Asia, where recovery of the gold and copper can cause environmental problems Recycled or used materials have to compete in the marketplace with new (virgin) materials. The cost of collecting and sorting the materials often means that they are equally or more expensive than virgin materials. This is most often the case in developed countries where industries producing the raw materials are well established. Practices such as trash picking can reduce this value further, as choice items are removing (such as aluminum cans). In some countries, recycling programs are subsidized by deposits paid on beverage containers. The economics of recycling junked automobiles also depends on the scrap metal market except where recycling is mandated by legislation (as in Germany). However, most economic systems do not

39

E-waste recycling in India

account for the benefits to the environment of recycling these materials, compared with extracting virgin materials. It usually requires significantly less energy, water and other resources to recycle materials than to produce new materials. For example, recycling 1000 kg of aluminum cans saves approximately 5000 kg of bauxite ore being mined (source: ALCOA Australia) and prevents the generation of 15.17 tones CO2eq greenhouse gases; recycling steel saves about 95% of the energy used to refine virgin ore (source: U.S. Bureau of Mines). In many areas, material for recycling is collect separately from general waste, with dedicated bins and collection vehicles. Other waste management processes recover these materials from general waste streams. This usually results in greater levels of recovery than separate collections of consumer-separated beverage containers, but are more complex and expensive.

Waste management techniques Managing municipal waste, industrial waste and commercial waste has traditionally consisted of collection, followed by disposal. Depending upon the type of waste and the area, a level of processing may follow collection. This processing may be to reduce the hazard of the waste, recover material for recycling, produce energy from the waste, or reduce it in volume for more efficient disposal. Landfill: Disposing of waste in a landfill is the most traditional method of waste disposal, and it remains a common practice in most countries. Historically, landfills were often established in disused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. A properly-designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials in a way that minimizes their impact on the local environment. Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental impacts such as Wind-blown litter, Attraction of vermin, and

40

E-waste recycling in India

Generation of leach ate which can pollute groundwater and surface water. Another byproduct of landfills is landfill gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down an aerobically. This gas can create odor problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas. Design characteristics of a modern landfill are:•

Include methods to contain leach ate, such as clay or plastic lining material.

•

Disposed waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stabiles the new landform,

•

covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats) and reduce the amount of windblown litter. landfills also landfill compaction vehicles in operation have a landfill gas extraction system installed after closure to extract the landfill gas generated by the decomposing waste materials.

•

Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.

•

Even flaring the gas is a better environmental outcome than allowing it to escape to the atmosphere, as this consumes the methane, which is a far more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.

Many local authorities, especially in urban areas, have found it difficult to establish new landfills due to opposition from owners of adjacent land. Few people want a landfill in their local neighborhood. As a result, solid waste disposal in these areas has become more expensive as material must be transported further away for disposal. This fact, as well as growing concern about the impacts of excessive materials consumption, has given rise to efforts to minimize the amount of waste sent to landfill in many areas. These efforts include taxing or levying waste sent to landfill, recycling the materials, converting material to energy, designing products that use less material, and legislation mandating that manufacturers become responsible for disposal costs of products or packaging. A related subject is that of industrial ecology, where the material flows between industries is studied. The by-products of one industry may be a useful commodity to another, leading to a reduced materials waste stream.

41

E-waste recycling in India

Some futurists have speculated that landfills may one day be mined: as some resources become scarcer, they will become valuable enough that it would be economical to 'mine' them from landfills where these materials were previously discarded as valueless. A related idea is the establishment of a 'mono-fill' landfill containing only one waste type (e.g. waste vehicle tyres), as a method of longterm storage. Incineration: Incineration is a waste disposal method that involves the combustion of waste at high temperatures. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment". In effect, incineration of waste materials converts the waste into heat, gaseous emissions, and residual solid ash. Other types of thermal treatment include pyrolysis and gasification. A waste-to-energy plant (WtE) is a modern term for an incinerator that burns wastes in high-efficiency furnace/boilers to produce steam and/or electricity and incorporates modern air pollution control systems and continuous emissions monitors. This type of incinerator is sometimes called an energy-from-waste (EfW) facility. Incineration is popular in countries as Japan where land is a scarce resource, as they do not consume as such area as a landfill. Sweden has been a leader in using the energy generated from incineration over the past 20 years. Denmark also extensively uses waste-to-energy incineration in localised combined heat and power facilities supporting district-heating schemes. Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals, and on a large scale by industry. It is recognised as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste), though it remains a controversial method of waste disposal in many places due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants. Composting and anaerobic digestion :

42

E-waste recycling in India

Active compost heap Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, are increasingly being recycled. These materials are put through a composting and/or digestion system to control the biological process to decompose the organic matter and kill pathogens. The resulting stabilized organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies, varying in complexity from simple windrow composting of shredded plant material, to automated enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste. These methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic in composting methods or anaerobic in digestion methods, although hybrids of the two methods also exist. Mechanical biological treatment; Mechanical biological treatment (MBT) is a technology category for combinations of mechanical sorting and biological treatment of the organic fraction of municipal waste. MBT is also sometimes termed BMT- Biological Mechanical Treatment however; this simply refers to the order of processing. The "mechanical" element is usually a bulk handling mechanical sorting stage. This either removes recyclable elements from a mixed waste stream (such as metals, plastics and glass) or processes it in a given way to produce a high calorific fuel given the term refuse derived fuel (RDF) that can be used in cement kilns or power plants. Systems, which are configure to produce RDF, include Herhofand Ecodeco. It is a common misconception that all MBT processes produce RDF. This is not the case. Some systems such as Arrow Bio simply recover the recyclable elements of the waste in a form that can be sending for recycling. Arrow Bio UASB anaerobic digesters, Hiriya, Tel Aviv, Israel The "biological" element refers to either anaerobic digestion or composting. Anaerobic digestion breaks down the biodegradable component of the waste to produce biogas and soil conditioner. The biogas can be use to generate renewable energy. More advanced processes such as the Arrow-Bio Process enable high rates of gas and green energy production without the

43

E-waste recycling in India

production of RDF. This is facilitate by processing the waste in water. Biological can also refer to a composting stage. Here the organic component is treat with aerobic microorganisms. They break down the waste into carbon dioxide and compost. There is no green energy produced by systems simply employing composting. MBT is gaining increased recognition in countries with changing waste management markets where WSN Environmental Solutions has taken a leading role in developing MBT plants.

Pyrolysis & gasification: Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The process typically occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Converting material to energy this way is more efficient than direct incineration, with more energy able to be recovered and used. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid oil and gas can be burn to produce energy or refined into other products. The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon. Gasification is use to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syn-gas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burn to produce electricity and steam. Gasification is use in biomass power stations to produce renewable energy and heat.

9. Recycling of e-waste The conventional e-waste processing and recycling is basically a five-step process

44

E-waste recycling in India

1. Generation and Stockpiling Many different “economic actors” purchase, use, and then stockpile or discard electronic waste. These range from manufacturers such as MNCs to large and small businesses, households, institutions, and non-profit organizations. 2. Collection There are wide varieties of possible collection alternatives for this e-waste. Varieties of entities are providing these services including the electronics industry, private or nonprofit recycling services, and the public sector through the solid waste management and recycling infrastructure. 3. Handling & Brokering The next link in the cycle is the handling and brokering services. Here computers, TVs, monitors and other collected electronics are consolidated and made ready for processing and/or sorted to determine what equipment can be refurbished or reused as whole units and what equipment must be disassembled for commodity processing. 4. Processing After electronic equipment is dismantling, it is then process into either feedstock for new production or refurbished into new equipment. Outputs from de-manufacturing activities include scrap commodities such as glass, plastics, and metals the primary elements from which all electronic hardware is made. For export, and to a lesser extent national processing markets, there are significant issues associated with the environmental and health practices of current service providers in this part of the cycle. 5. Production The final step in this cycle is to turn the processed commodities or refurbished whole electronics back into new products for sale and consumption by end users. There are many different players and industries involved in this production process. The recycling fraction is miniscule compared with the production of product using virgin materials. The substances procured by recycling may be use for several purposes, even for manufacturing the very same equipments they were derived from.

45

E-waste recycling in India

Recycling/Recovery System First of the operations involves dismantling and rapid separation of primary materials. The following materials are separate for further recycling: · Material containing copper: Including printer and other motors, wires and cables, CRT yokes, circuit boards, etc · Steel: Including internal computer frames, power supply housings, printer parts, washing machines, refrigerator, etc. · Plastic: Including housings of computers, printers, faxes, phones, monitors, keyboards, etc. · Copper: Extracted from transformer and CRT after their dismantling · Circuit Boards: These come from many applications including computers, phones, disc drives, printers, monitors, etc. Each of these processes has been described below. Following describes the conventional way of recycling a personal computer.

Bifurcation of electronic scrap 11.2.1. Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) The printed circuit boards contain heavy metals such as antimony, gold, silver, chromium, zinc, lead, tin and Copper. According to some estimates, there is hardly any other product for which the sum of the environmental impacts for raw material, industrial refining and production, use and disposal is as extensive as for printed circuit boards. The methods of salvaging material from circuit boards are highly destructive and harmful as they involve heating and open burning for the extraction of metals. Even after such harmful methods are used, only a few of the materials are recovered. The recycling of circuit boards, drawn from monitors, CPU, disc and floppy drives, printers, etc. involves a number of steps. Characteristics of PCB Scrap

46

E-waste recycling in India

PCB scrap is characterise by significant heterogeneity and relatively high complexity, although with the levels of complexity being somewhat greater for populated scrap boards. As has been seen in respect of materials composition, the levels of inorganic in particular are diverse with relatively low levels of precious metals being present as deposited coatings of various thicknesses in conjunction with copper, solders, and various alloy compositions, non ferrous and ferrous metals. In spite of the inherent heterogeneity and complexity, there are too many differences in the intrinsic physical and chemical properties of the many materials and components present in scrap PCBs, and indeed electronic scrap as a whole, to permit recycling approaches that separate such into their individual fractions. The following characteristics ultimately govern mechanical and hydrometallurgical separation and it is based upon such that current and potential recycling techniques and infrastructures have been envisaged, developed and implemented:Density Differences Differences in density of the materials contained within scrap PCBs have formed the basis for separation methods subsequent to their liberation as free constituents. The specific gravity ranges of typical materials are as shown below:Table-3 Materials

Specific Gravity Range (g/cm3)

Gold, platinum group, tungsten

19.3 - 21.4

Lead, silver, molybdenum

10.2 - 11.3

Magnesium, aluminium, titanium

1.7 - 4.5

Copper, nickel, iron, zinc

7.0 - 9.0

GRP

1.8 - 2.0

With these densities not being significantly affected by the addition of alloying agents or other additives, it is predictable that the deployment of various density separation systems available within

47

E-waste recycling in India

the raw materials process industry may be utilized to effect separation of liberated constituents of a similar size range. The utilization of density differences for the recovery of metals from PCB scrap has been investigated on many occasions and air classifiers have been used extensively to separate the non metallic (GRP) constituents, whilst sink-float and table separation techniques have been utilised to generate non ferrous metal fractions. Air techniques that effectively combine the actions of a fluidised bed, a shaking table and an air classifier, have been successfully implemented in applications involving a diversity of electronic scrap separations. It is essential, as has been noted, that the feed material must be of a narrow size range to guarantee effective stratification and separation.

Magnetic and Electrical Conductivity Differences Ferrous materials may be readily separate with the application of low intensity magnetic separators that have been well developing in the minerals processing industry. Many non-ferrous materials in respect of their high electrical conductivity may be separated by means of electrostatic and eddy current separators. Eddy current separation has been developing within the recycling industry since strong permanent magnets, such as iron boron- neodymium, have become available. Rotating belt type eddy current separation is the most extensively used approach for the recovery of nonferrous metal fractions. In application, the alternating magnetic fields caused by the rapidly rotating wheel mounted with alternating pole permanent magnets result in the generation of eddy currents in non-ferrous metal conductors, which in turn, generate a magnetic field that repels the original magnetic field. The resultant force, arising from the repulsive force and the gravitational force permits their separation from non-conducting materials. Polyformity

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E-waste recycling in India

One of the important aspects of both PCB and electronic scrap is the polyformity of the various materials and components and the effect this can have on materials liberation. It is essential that any shredding and separation processes take this into account. In eddy current separation, the shape of conducting components, in addition to their particle sizes and conductivity/density ratios, has a significant effect on the generated repulsive forces that ultimately govern the separation efficiency. For instance, multiple induced current loops may be establishing in conductors with irregular shapes with the induced magnetic fields counteracting each other and reducing the net repulsive force. Liberation Size The degree of liberation of materials upon shredding (to cut or tear into small pieces) and comminuting (to pulverize) is crucial (trying) to the efficiency and effectiveness of any subsequent separation process in respect of yield, quality of recovered material and energy consumption of the process. This is especially critical in mechanical separation approaches. The comminuting of scrap PCBs has been shows to generate a high level of material liberation and levels as high as 96% to 99% have been report for metallic liberation after comminuting to sub 5mm particulates. It must noted, however, that a continual observation from recyclers is that liberation levels such as these are atypical (not typical) of actual yields and that a fundamental constraint on mechanical processing is the loss, particularly of precious metal content, that appears to be inherent due primarily to the nature of many plastic-metal interfaces. Chemical Reactivity Hydrometallurgical approaches depend on selective and non-selective dissolution to achieve a complete solublesation of all the contained metallic fractions within scrap PCBs. Although all hydrometallurgical approaches clearly benefit from prior comminution this is primarily undertaken to reduce bulk volume and to expose a greater surface area of contained metals to the etching (corrosive action of an acid instead of by a burin) chemistry. Selective dissolution approaches may utilise high capacity etching chemistries based on cupric chloride or ammonium sulphate for copper removal, nitric acid based chemistries for solder

49

E-waste recycling in India

dissolution and aqua regia for precious metals dissolution, where as non selective dissolution may be carried out with either aqua regia or chlorine based chemistry. Electropositivity Dissolved metals generated via chemical dissolution are present as ionised species within an aqueous media and may be recovered via high efficiency electrolytic recovery systems. In the instance of selective dissolution, a single metal is recovered as pure electrolytic grade material, usually in sheet form; from the spent etching solution with certain etching chemistries permitting regeneration of the liquors for reuse as etch chemistries. In the instance of selective dissolution, use may be made of the differing electro-positivity of the contained ionised metallic species to selective recovery metals at discrete levels of applied voltage.

Disassembly Disassembly in practice In the practice of recycling of waste electric and electronic equipment, selective disassembly (dismantling) is an indispensable process since: (1) The reuse of components has first priority, (2) Dismantling the hazardous components is essential, (3) It is also common to dismantle highly valuable components and high-grade materials such as printed circuit boards, cables, and engineering plastics in order to simplify the subsequent recovery of materials. Most of the recycle plants utilize manual dismantling. The main obstacles preventing automated disassembly from becoming a commercially successful activity are: (1) Too many different types of products, (2) the amount of products of the same type is small,

50

E-waste recycling in India

(3) General disassembly-unfriendly product design, (4) General problems in return logistics and (5) Variations in returned amounts of products to be disassembled. Fortunately, research in the field of product design for disassembly has gained momentum in the past decade. One good idea is self-disassembly, which is called active disassembly using smart materials (ADSM). Chiodo reported the application of shape memory polymer (SMP) technology to the active disassembly of modern mobile phones. The smart material SMP of polyurethane (PU) composition was employed in the experiments. This method provides a potential dismantling scenario for the removal of all components if this material was to be developed for surface mount components. Research into using ADSM in other small electronics also has been done to handle units such as telephones, cell phones, PCB/component assemblies, cameras, battery chargers, photocopier cartridges, CRTs, computer casings, mice, keyboards, game machines nd stereo equipment.

Mechanical/physical recycling process 1. Screening: Screening has not been only utilized to prepare a uniformly sized feed to certain mechanical process, but also to upgrade metals contents. Screening is necessary because the particle size and shape properties of metals are different from that of plastics and ceramics. The primary method of screening in metals recovery uses the rotating screen, or trammel, a unit, which is widely used in both automobile scrap and municipal solid waste processing. This unit has a high resistance to blinding, which is important with the diverse array of particle shapes and sizes encountered in waste. Vibratory screening is also commonly used, in particular at non-ferrous recovery sites, but wire blinding is a marked problem. 2. Shape separation:

51

E-waste recycling in India

Shape separation techniques have been mainly developed to control properties of particles in the powder industry. The separation methods were classified into four groups by Furuuchi. The principles underlying this process makes use of the difference: (1) The particle velocity on a tilted solid wall, (2) The time the particles take to pass through a mesh aperture, (3) The particle’s cohesive force to a solid wall, and (4) The particles settling velocity in a liquid. Shape separation by tilted plate and sieves is the most basic method that has been used in recycling industry. An inclined conveyor and inclined vibrating plate were used as a particle shape separator to recover copper from electric cable waste printed circuit board scrap and waste television and personal computers. 3. Magnetic separation: Magnetic separators, in particular, low-intensity drum separators are widely used for the recovery of ferromagnetic metals from non-ferrous metals and other non-magnetic wastes. Over the past decade, there have been many advances in the design and operation of high-intensity magnetic separators, mainly because of the introduction of rare earth alloy permanent magnets capable of providing very high field strengths and gradients. In Table 6, we can see that the use of high-intensity separators makes it possible to separate copper alloys from the waste matrix. An intense field magnetic separation is achievable at least for the following three alloy groups • Copper alloys with relatively high mass susceptibility (Al multi-compound bronze); • Copper alloys with medium mass susceptibility (Mn multi-compound bronze, special brass); • Copper alloys with low mass susceptibility and/or diamagnetic material behavior(Sn and Sn multi-compound bronze, Pb and Pb multi-compound bronze, brass with low Fe content). 4 Electric conductivity-based separation: Electric conductivity-based separation separates materials of different electric conductivity (or resistivity) (Tables 5). There are three typical electric conductivity-based separation techniques:

52

E-waste recycling in India

(1) Eddy current separation, (2) Corona electrostatic separation, and (3) Triboelectric (electricity generated by friction) separation. In the past decade, one of the most significant developments in the recycling industry was the introduction of Eddy current separators whose operability is base on the use of rare earth permanent magnets. The separator were initially developed to recover non-ferrous metals from shredded automobile scrap or for treatment of municipal solid waste, but is now widely used for other purposes including foundry casting sand, polyester polyethylene terephthalate (PET), electronic scrap, glass cullet, shredder fluff, and spent pot liner. Currently, Eddy current separators are almost exclusively used for waste reclamation where they are particularly suited to handling the relatively coarse sized feeds. The rotor-type electrostatic separator, using corona charging, is utilised to separate raw materials into conductive and nonconductive fractions. The extreme difference in the electric conductivity or specific electric resistance between metals and non-metals supplies an excellent condition for the successful implementation of a corona electrostatic separation in recycling of waste. To date, electrostatic separation has been mainly utilized for the recovery of copper or aluminum from chopped electric wires and cables, more specifically the recovery of copper and precious metals from printed circuit board scrap Triboelectric separation makes it is possible to sort plastics depending on the difference in their electric properties (Table 4). For the processing of plastics waste, research has shown many obvious advantages of triboelectric electrostatic separation, such as independence of particle shape, low energy consumption, and high throughput TABLE-4 Mechanical separation processes based on electric characteristics of Materials Processes

Separati

Principles of separation

on criteria

53

E-waste recycling in India

Sorting

Workabl

task

e particle

size ranges Eddy

Electric

Repulsive forces

Non-

current

conducti

exerted in the

ferrous

separation

vity

electrically conductive

metal/non

and

particles due to the

metal

density

interaction between

separatio

the alternative

n

>5mm

magnetic field and the Eddy currents induces by the magnetic field (Lorentz force) Corona

Electric

Corona charge and

Metal/non

0.1–

electrostat

conducti

differentiated

metal

5mm

ic

vity

discharge lead to

separatio

(10mm

different charges of

n

for

separation

particles and this to

laminar

action of different

particles

forces (particularly,

)

image forces) Triboelectr

Dielectri

Tribo-charge with

Separatio

<5 (10)

ic

c

different charges (+ or

n of

mm

separation

constant

−) of the components

Plastics

cause different force

(noncond

directions

uctors)

5 Density-based separations:

54

E-waste recycling in India

Several different methods are employed to separate heavier materials from lighter ones. The difference in density of the components is the basis of separation. Table 4 shows that density-based separation processes have found widespread application in non-metal/metal separation. Gravity concentration separates materials of different specific gravity by their relative movement in response to the force of gravity and one or more other forces, the latter often being the resistance to motion offered by a fluid, such as water or air. The motion of a particle in a fluid is dependent not only on the particle’s density, but also on its size and shape, large particles being affected more than smaller ones. In practice, close size control of feeds to gravity processes is required in order to reduce the size effect and make the relative motion of the particle specific gravity dependent.

TABLE-5 Density separation processes utilized for non-metal/metal separation Utilized for following sorting tasks Density

Workabl

Plastic

Aluminu

Lead

Cable

Electro

Light

separation

e

s

m

batter

scrap

nic

steel

Process

piece

waste

scrap

y

scrap

scrap

Sizes

scrap

(mm) Sink-float separation In liquids

*

*

*

*

In heavy media Gravity

5–150

*

*

*

separator Hydro cyclone

+ <50

*

In aero suspensions In aero chutes

0.7–3

In fluidized bed

0.7–5

Trough separators Sorting by jigging

55

E-waste recycling in India

*

*

Hydraulic jigs

2–20

Pneumatic jigs

<3

* *

Sorting in chutes and on tables Aero-chutes

0.6–2

*

Aero-tables

<4

*

Up-stream separation Up-stream

5–150

*

*

*

hydraulic Separation Up-stream

<300

*

pneumatic Separation

Mechanical Approaches of recycling electronic scrap As may be anticipated, all of the work undertaken on mechanical systems has been with the primary objective of enhancing separation yield of the various fractions, particularly the precious metal bearing ones. The basic mechanical techniques deployed in the treatment of scrap PCBs and electronic assemblies have been adapted or adopted from the raw materials processing sector and refinement has sought to address both yield constraints and ultimately cost effectiveness either of the approaches, used singly or in an integrated manner. The problems associated with yield were apparent from early attempts to produce a model methodology for handling all types of electronic scrap as instanced by the US Bureau of Mines (USBM) approach in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The separation route, developed up to a 250 kg per hour pilot plant, comprised shredding, air separation, and magnetic, eddy current and electrostatic separation to generate aluminum rich, copper rich (including major precious metal fraction), light air classified and ferrous fractions.

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E-waste recycling in India

The yield, however, was such that no commercial uptake of this approach has been instanced. The relatively poor yields or levels of separation obtained from this approach, were undoubtedly a result of the use of a standard hammer mill having no provision, or levels of refinement, to cope with clear comminution (pulverize) of aluminium, the use of a ramp type eddy currentseparator of low capacity and selectivity and the use of a high tension separator for metals/non metals, which has been since demonstrated as having low capacity and high susceptibility to humidity. There was little further meaningful development work on the implementation of mechanical treatment approaches until the early 1990s when Scandinavian Recycling AB in Sweden implemented their mechanical concept for electronic scrap handling which did not specifically address the treatment of scrap PCBs but rather removed PCBs for specialist treatment as part of the pre sorting stage. Subsequent to this development, work in both Germany and Switzerland has seen the implementation of mechanically based approaches for the handling and separation of electronic scrap with the work at FUBA dedicated to scrap PCBs being a notable example of this activity. In 1996, Noell Abfall and Energietechnik GmbH in Germany implemented a 21,000 tonnes per annum plant with the capability of handling a wide variety of electronics scrap but specifically intended for redundant telecommunications scrap. The system again involves PCB scrap and the inherent precious metal content being subject to prior manual disassembly. The overall methodology deploys a three stage liberation and sequential separation route with ferromagnetic removal via overhead permanent magnets and eddy current techniques because of their ability to optimise the handling of fractions in the 5 to 200 mm particle size range. Air table techniques were utilised for the separation of particulate fractions in the 5 to 10 mm, 2 to 5 mm and less than 2 mm ranges respectively. Mechanical and physic mechanical approaches to the treatment of scrap PCBs may be deployed as standalone treatment stages, (i.e. pulverisation, magnetic separation, or integrated into a complete treatment system with the output being metallic and non-metallic fractions). The metallic output would be destined for hydrometallurgical refinement via smelting where as the nonmetallic output would find applications in the secondary plastics marketplace or be utilised within dedicated developed applications.

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E-waste recycling in India

As reported, FUBA has developed its total mechanical treatment system, albeit only currently utilised for nonpopulated board scrap or ancillary laminate waste through this latter route. There are commercially available turnkey mechanical systems for the treatment of a wide range of electronic scrap materials including populated and non-populated PCBs. One such is that developed by hamos GmbH in Germany, which is an automated integrated mechanical system, comprising the following stages: • Primary coarse size reduction, accomplished with a shredder having multi-use rotational knives; • Coarse ferrous metal separation, accomplished with rare earth magnets sited above an oscillating conveyor belt feed to allow high efficiency ferrous separation across a range of particle sizes; • Pulverisation in which circuit board assemblies are pulverised within a hammer mill utilising high abrasion resistance hammers and liners and proprietary grates with the action of the mill inducing a 'spherising' effect on the metallic articulates; • Classification, utilising self-cleaning sieves; • Electrostatic separation, allowing virtually complete separation of metallic fractions with recirculation of mid-range particulate fractions • Further size reduction, cosisting of secondary pulverisation to effect size reduction on oversized particulates. The hamos system can additionally incorporate density separation for aluminium extraction and dust generation treatment of any such outfall from the hammer mills via secondary electrostatic separators. The complete conveyor based systems are operated at negative pressures to eliminate any airborne pollution and are currently available with treatment capabilities up to 4 tonnes per hour of input feed. All products from the system viz mixed plastic, metallic and extracted ferrous and aluminium is bagged automatically for onward shipment. Considerable work has been undertaken on enhancing the effectiveness of mechanical treatment systems. For example, the development of newer pulverizing process technology via the application of multiple pulverising rotors and ceramiccoated systems has enabled the generation of sub-millimetre particulate comminution. This in turn has

58

E-waste recycling in India

enabled the efficiency of subsequent centrifugal separation techniques to realize 97% copper recovery yields. The effectiveness of the pulverising process has been improved by the adoption of dual pulverising stages: a crushing process and a fine pulverising process. The crushing process combines cutting and shearing forces and the fine pulverising process combines shearing and impact forces. With such effective particulate comminution both screen separation and gravity separation have been investigated and conclusions drawn that the most effective approach was by gravity using a centrifugal classifier with a high air vortex system. Researchers at Daimler-Benz in Ulm, Germany, have developed a mechanical treatment approach that has the capability to increase metal separation efficiencies, even from fine dust residues generated after particulate comminution in the treatment of scrap PCB assemblies. They considered a purely mechanical approach to be the most cost effective methodology and a major objective of their work was to increase the degree of purity of the recovered metals such that minimal pollutant emissions would be encountered during subsequent smelting. Their process comprises the initial coarse size reduction to ~2 cm x 2 cm dimensioned fractions followed by magnetic separation for ferrous elements. A low temperature grinding stage then follows this. The embrittlement of polymeric components at temperatures less than 70°C was found to enable enhanced separation from non-ferrous metallic components when subjected to grinding within a hammer mill. In operation the hammer mill was fed with liquid nitrogen at minus 196°C, which served to both impart brittleness to the plastic feedstock constituent and to effect process cooling. Additionally, the grinding of material within such an inert atmosphere eliminated any 17 likelihood of oxidative by product formation from the plastics, such as dioxins and furans. Subsequent to this enhanced grinding stage the metallic and non metallic fractions were separated via sieving (an instrument with a meshed or perforated bottom, used for separating course from fine parts of loose matter, for straining liquids) and electrostatic stages. Cost analyses undertaken by Daimler-Benz engineers have indicated that such a process may be economically viable even when dealing with relatively low-grade PCB scrap having little precious metal content.

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E-waste recycling in India

Ongoing activities are concerned with development of the treatment of separated polymeric fractions in conjunction with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries that have set up a gasification and methanol (a colorless, volatile, water-soluble, poisonous liquid, CH4O, obtained by the destructive distillation of wood or the incomplete oxidation of natural gas, or produced synthetically from carbon monoxide and hydrogen, used chiefly as a solvent, a fuel, and an automobile antifreeze and in the synthesis of formaldehyde) sis plant to such effect. Air table separation systems have been researched with a view to effecting separation of metallic and plastic components from an input feed of screened 7 mm shredded particulate scrap PCBs post ferromagnetic separation. Recovery rates for copper, gold and silver of 76%, 83% and 91% respectively were considered to validate the approach, but only for lowgrade PCB scrap or general electronic scrap.

Hydrometallurgical Approaches A number of hydrometallurgical (the technique or process of extracting metals at ordinary temperatures by leaching ore with liquid solvents)approaches have been developed through to pilot plant stage with preliminary cost studies indicating the potential recovery of all materials, with the exception of discrete components, at an operational profit. In the USA, a methodology based on solvolysis has been developed to enable both the more efficient recovery of metals and the recovery of plastic materials such as epoxides at high quality and with the additional benefit of having the capability to extract both halogens and brominated hydrocarbon derivatives. On a relatively small scale there have been a number of hydrometallurgical approaches traditionally pursued in the recovery specifically of gold from pins and edge connectors. Such methodologies have usually been deployed on discrete edge connectors and gold-coated assemblies that have been manually separated from the scrap board via the use of air knives etc. The approaches have either liberated gold as metal flake via acidic dissolution of the copper substrates or dissolution of the gold in cyanide or thiourea based lea chants followed by electro winning or chemical displacement or precipitation with powdered zinc. The use of non-selective leachants to dissolve the non precious metal content of scrap PCBs has also received attention. Various studies have been undertaken into the viability of utilising dilute mineral

60

E-waste recycling in India

acids in conjunction with subsequent metal recovery techniques based on concentration and separation such as solvent extraction, ion exchange, adsorption and cementation. In the UK, there have been two potentially significant development projects undertaken on hydrometallurgical approaches to the recycling of scrap PCBs with both having demonstrated viability to a pre pilot plant stage. The first of these approaches is from a Cambridge University led consortium, which deploys a selective dissolution electrolytic recovery route for discrete metal constituents. The solder recovery stage employs a solder selective (non copper etching) regenerable leachant based on fluoroboric acid. This may or may not be deployed prior to mechanical pre treatment, from which the dissolved solder can be electrolytically recovered in pure metallic form. Subsequent selective leaching of copper and PMG metals is then carried out. The ability to remove selectively solder prior to mechanical comminution has specific advantages in enabling disassembly and component integrity and recovery. Mechanical pre treatment methodologies followed by the Cambridge group have included shredding, magnetic separation, eddy current separation and classification. The second development is that of the Imperial College, London (ICL) consortium which has taken shredded and classified sub 4mm PCB populated PCB scrap through a single leachate route comprising electro-generated chlorine in an acidic aqueous solution of high chloride ion activity. This has produced a multi metal leach electrolyte containing all of the available metal content at generally mass transport controlled rates with respect to dissolved chlorine. The viability of subsequent metal recovery via electrolytic membrane cells with discrete metal separation has also been demonstrated. To summarize the above discussions: • Hydrometallurgical approaches offer a viable methodology in maximising the recovery of intrinsic metal value, particularly precious metals, and should be further developed through pilot plant stages to commercialisation. • No single treatment approach will be appropriate for the handling of all scrap PCBs because of their diversity and varying intrinsic worth. Rather, an integrated hierarchy of approaches that encompasses disassembly and mechanical and hydrometallurgical methodologies will be needed to generate either materials or components for direct reuse or downstream application or a non-toxic feedstock for pyrolytic refining.

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E-waste recycling in India

PWB Waste

Crushing process

Pulverising process

Fine pulverising

Gravity Separation

Copper Rich Powder

Glass Fiber & Resin

Recycling of copper

filler in construction materials

Fig-5 97% recovery of Copper from PWBs

Extraction of IC/ other components from PCB

62

E-waste recycling in India

IC/other components from PCBs are manually extracted as shown in figure This process is common for PC, TV and cell-phone. The E-waste stream from cell-phone joins the E-waste stream of PC and TV.

Fig-6 Extraction of IC/ other components from PCB Recovery of Gold Gold recovery techniques and hazards Three processes to recover gold from e-waste are described. The main materials used are determined and partly quantified. From this information, the major hazard-“hot spots” to health and environment are identified. Methodology The system is described using the material flow analysis (MFA). “Material flow analysis (MFA) is a systematic assessment of the flows and stocks of materials within a system defined in space and time.” (Brunner and Rechenberger, 2004). The goal of an MFA is to determine the in- and outputs of a process and to understand the flows within a system. The analysis of material fluxes is an essential approach to gain a system comprehension and an understanding of the processes occurring within the anthrop sphere (Binder et al., 2001). “Because of the law of the conservation of matter, the results of an MFA can be controlled by a simple material balance comparing all inputs, stocks, and outputs of a process. It is this distinct characteristic of MFA that makes the method attractive as a decision-support tool in resource management, waste management, and environmental management” (Brunner and Rechberger, 2004). In this analysis the used terminology has been developed according to the terminology defined in the Practical Handbook of Material and Flow Analysis (Brunner and Rechenberger, 2004). Subsequent the mainly used terms in this thesis are defined:

63

E-waste recycling in India

A substance is any (chemical) element or compound composed of uniform units. All substances are characterised by a unique and identical constitution and are thus homogenous. The term material is use for a solid matter composed of heterogeneous units. A solution is the product of mixed substances and materials and is a heterogeneous liquid. A mixture is the product of mixed substances and is a homogeneous liquid. Process is a term used for the transformation and transport of materials and substances. A technique is defined to be a sequence of processes. A process step is an activity within a process (sub-process). The system is defined by a group of processes, the interaction between these processes and the system boundaries. The conducted material flow analysis comprises four steps: System description: The system is characterised determining the system border and the single process steps referring to the processes of each technique. Using information from literature and various experts the processes and process steps of the system are described. Quantification: The in- and outputs of the system are measured and calculated/estimated applying the principle of mass conservation. Interpretation: The environmental hazard hot spots are detected with the beforehand evaluations and are discussed. Discussion: An overview of each evaluated system is given. In addition, some features determined in the description and in the quantification of each process are discussed.

System Description

System definition The investigated system is part of the e-waste management system is illustrated in Figure. It consists of the gold recovery technique of pre-processed (dismantled) printed wiring boards (PWBs).

64

E-waste recycling in India

The system consists of a gold recovery technique divided in several processes that are required in order to recover gold from the input material. The technique is divided into three processes: Leaching, Separation and Purification. In the context of gold extraction, leaching is the dissolution of a metal or mineral in a liquid (Marsden and House, 1992). During the separation, the gold is

65

E-waste recycling in India

extracted out of a solution or separated from a material. Purification is the procedure of rendering something pure, i.e. cleaning it from impurities. The description of the techniques is based on different data sources: Observations, photographs, documentation, literature research and interviews. techniques are used to recover gold is based on gold mines from the ore as they are used to recover gold from pre-processed PWBs. Currently about 20 informal facilities in and around Bangalore are involved in the recovery of precious metals from e-waste (Rodriguez, 2005). All of them presumably use the same technique to recover gold. Consultants of GTZ and EMPA are closely working together with an informal association of recyclers called Eco BIRD. With the help of GTZ and EMPA, it was possible to use these contacts and to work together with a gold recovery unit of Eco BIRD. The following paragraph gives a short description of Eco BIRD and the investigated unit. Eco BIRD

Fig-8 Eco BIRD (Rizwan’s) facility In the informal sector in Bangalore, a recently founded association consisting of 11 recycling units called Eco BIRD exists. The word “Eco” stands for “Eco-friendly” and BIRD is an acronym for Bifurcation, Identification, Recycling and Disposal. The 11 recycling units either deal with scrap, dismantle the equipment or recover precious metals. The examined facility belongs to Rizwan Khan (president of Eco Bird) and is situated on a roof (approx. 46m2) in Gowripalya, Padarayanapura, a suburb of Bangalore. There is a room (approx. 16 m2) on top of the roof, where the furnace is situated and the materials and substances are stored in. The containers with acidic liquids are placed

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outside. Rizwan employs three workers between the age 10 and 20. Several other people are also using his facility. The material that is treated by Rizwan per year is estimated to be 1800 kg with a gold production of 7200g (Bineesha, 2006). To recover gold from e-waste two different techniques are conducted according to the quality of the input material. If the gold concentration in the input material is low (lowgrade material), “cyanide leaching” is used. If the input material is high-grade material, they conduct “mercury amalgamation”. Both of the processes are described in the following :Formal sector In the formal sector, only one company, Surface Chem Finishers, is known conducting a gold recovery process. It was possible to collaborate with this company and investigate the exercised process. In the following paragraph a short description and scope of the company is given Surface Chem Finishers

Fig-9 E-Parisaraa Pvt. Ltd. “Surface Chem Finishers” is an ISO 9001 – 2000 certified gold plating unit in Peenya Industrial Estate, Bangalore. It is a sister company of “E-Parisaraa Pvt. Ltd.” Which recycles and dismantles ewaste. The vision of the director of the two companies is to be eco-friendly and low cost. “EParisaraa” is located on the outskirt of Bangalore. About 5 % of the gold used for the gold plating in “Surface Chem Finishers” is recovered from ewaste pre-processed at “E-Parisaraa”. Thus, gold recovery is only a side task of Surface Chem Finishers. Today there are 45 people working in the two companies. Three persons are involved in the gold recovery process. At present, E Parisaraa is handling about one ton of e-waste per day. According to Prakashchandra (Engineer of Surface Chem Finishers, E-Parisaraa Pvt. Ltd.), approximately 920 kg of material is processed per year to recover gold. Thereof 440 g of gold is recovered per year.

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E-waste recycling in India

Cyanide leaching at Eco BIRD Cyanide has been used in the mining industry for more than 100 years to recover gold. It is universally used because of its relatively low cost and great effectiveness of gold dissolution. The reaction takes place in an alkaline environment, which is important for economic and safety reasons. It has been shown that the maximum dissolution of gold, silver, platinum and palladium in cyanide solution is at pH 10-10.5. The observed cyanide leaching technique was conducted at around pH 12. This is almost ideal for the leaching process as the loss of cyanide is very low at pH 11.5 because the loss due to hydrogen cyanide (HCN) formation is very low. The main chemical reaction consists of four starting materials and substances: water, oxygen, gold and cyanide. Cyanide is acting as the complexing agent in the process and oxygen as an oxidiser. However, other elements contained in the electronic devices disturb this chemical reaction. For example, the present copper will form cyanide complexes and cause an increased use of cyanide. These copper-cyanide complexes will tend to inhibit the dissolution of gold. Detailed description of the technique

During a participating observation, this process had been investigated. The input material is provided to the informal facility with this material, the process is conducted as it would be conducted with purchased material and it is therefore an acceptable representative for the “usual” process. In the following description the denominations (L1… P6) refer to the detailed and quantified flowchart in

Leaching L 1: Lixiviation The connectors are put into a plastic container and are doused with hot water. The gold leaching is initiated by adding substance 1 (most probably potassium or sodium cyanide).Under mildly

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oxidising conditions, the gold is dissolved. Adding cyanide results in a strong complex between cyanide and gold. The reaction known as Elsner's Equation is: 4 Au(s) + 8 CN-(aq) + O2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

4 Au(CN)2-(aq) + 4 OH-(aq)

Because cyanide is one of the strongest ligands several other complexes are formed (ex.: [Ag(CN)2]-, [Cu(CN)2] -, [Ni(CN)4]-2).

Fig-10 Lixiviation with cyanide L 2: Sieving / Washing The components are removed from the pregnant (gold-bearing) solution and are washed with water. This is important in order to deplete the waste components as good as possible of their gold. These components are sometimes kept to recover copper in a separate process.

Fig-11 Sieving of components The pregnant solution has a brownish colour.

Fig-12 Pregnant solution Preparation of silver-salt The silver-salt is prepared separately, conducting following process steps: PS 1: Heating

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E-waste recycling in India

A silver ingot, nitric acid and hot water are mixed together and heated for approx. 5 minutes to dissolve the silver. The remaining silver biscuit is then taken out, the solution is poured into a plastic bucket, and the tin container is washed with water. Ag + 2 HNO3 -> AgNO3+ NO2 + H2O

Fig-13 Silver nitrate PS 2: Precipitation Sodium chloride and water are added to the silver solution. The silver-salt precipitates as silver chloride, which is a white precipitation. Sodium nitrate has a high solubility in water and is dissolved in the solution. AgNO3 + NaCl -> AgCl + NaNO3 PS 3: Decantation The liquid part of the reaction mixture is poured into another container. Silver chloride remains on the bottom of the bucket. Hot water is used to clean the remaining slag from the nitric acid by decantation.

Fig-14 Silver chloride

PS 4: Mixing

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Water, an unknown salt and caustic soda are mixed with the white precipitation. The reason for adding caustic soda (NaOH) is to keep an alkaline environment. After a further decantation, the silver-salt enters the main process. Separation S 1: Gold formation The separation is performed using the principles of the Merril-Crowe process3 (cementation with zinc). Aluminium-foils and the silver-salt are added to the gold bearing solution. Aluminium precipitates the gold and some silver because Al has the higher affinity to the cyanide ion than gold and silver. The silver reacts with the free cyanide to prevent that the gold is dissolved again. 3 [Au(CN)2]- + 2 Al -> 2 Al3+ + 6 CN- + 3 Au(s) 4 Ag(s) + 8 CN-(aq) + O2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

4 Ag(CN)2-(aq) + 4 OH-(aq)

Fig -15 Adding aluminium S 2: Decantation / Filtering The grey sludge is separated from the solution by pouring the solution from one container to the other and keeping the precipitation in the container. After doing so, the remaining slag is filtered through a cloth.

Fig-16 Decantation

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E-waste recycling in India

Fig-17 Filtering the mixture 3 The Merril-Crowe process is a separation technique for removing gold from cyanide solution, usually using zinc. Purification P 1: Melting The cloth with its content is put into a crucible and is melted. During the melting process lime (CaCO3) and two unknown substances are added. These substances are flux materials that help to purify the gold. The purpose of substance 2 is to liberate the aluminium. Lime is then used to remove the substance 2. Lime precipitates base metals such as aluminium as gelatinous hydroxides. Substance 3 is added because the quality of the aluminium had been low grade. During the melting process flux, slag is taken out for grinding.

Fig-19 Melting

Fig-20 Flux slag

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E-waste recycling in India

P 2: Pouring The rest of the melted slag is poured into water.

Fig-21 Pouring P 3 Grinding The process flux is grinded with an iron ball. P 4: Boiling

Fig-22 Grinding The solid (gold) pieces from the “Pouring” and the grinded flux are mixed and boiled to remove the residual water. P 5: Partition Nitric acid is added to separate the silver from gold. Silver nitrate is soluble in water and a gold material precipitates. Ag + 2HNO3 -> AgNO3+ NO2 + H2O

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Fig-23 Partition of gold and silver

P 6: Melting The gold material is placed in a crucible and melted. Substance 3 is added to absorb impurities. The flux slag that hardens is removed mechanically. The remaining material in the crucible is pure, liquified gold. It is poured out and a button is formed with a hammer ike instrument.

Fig-24 Crucible containing gold after melting

Fig-25 Recovered gold button The following flowchart illustrates the above-described technique.

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Input material

Water

Leaching

Water vapour

Substances1

From "silversaltpreparation" Preparations

Silver-salt

Body components

Separation

Waste solution

Aluminum foils Water Cloth Purification

Lime Ag

Silver solution2 -

recovery Unknown substance

Water vapour Nitrogen dioxide

Water Nitric acid

organic waste

Gold

Fig-26 Simplified flowchart of the „cyanide leaching“.

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E-waste recycling in India

Mercury amalgamation at Eco BIRD The gold recovery with mercury goes back to the 11th century. In the Middle Ages alchemists tried to produce gold with base metals (which did not work). The mercury amalgamation is based on the fact that mercury forms an amalgam4 with gold. With this procedure, the gold can be separated from the other metals present and from impurities. The attraction of mercury is based on the fact that it is readily available, cheap and efficient in recovering fine-grained gold (Commission of the European Communities, 2000). It is a quite simple process using only three substances (mercury, nitric acid and sodium bicarbonate) to recover the gold. However, it is an old technique and no longer used in modern gold plants because of the known health and environmental problems arising. Detailed description of the technique Leaching The input material is filled in plastic containers (V=approx. 100l). At first water is poured into the container, than the nitric acid (62%) is added. Throughout this process, the metals (e.g. Cu) which are contained in the input material, except gold, are dissolved in the solution. Thus, the attaching parts of the gold pins to the mold are dissolved and the gold pins and flakes are released. The dissolving takes about 3 hours. During this time, it is stirred from time to time and nitric acid and some water are added. 2 NO3- + 4 H+ + Cu -> 2 NO2 ↑+ H2O + Cu++ With a sieve (mesh aperture approx. 4 cm x 4 cm) the remaining components are taken out, washed with water and kept to process them again in the cyanide leaching process. In the bluish solution, gold flakes remain and copper is dissolved. The solution is filtered through a cloth to abstract the gold pins. The remaining solution is then put into a big container to recover the copper by adding an iron to the liquid. The iron is left in the container for several weeks. At the end, the copper sticks to the iron and can be removed manually.

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E-waste recycling in India

Fig-27 Lixiviation

Fig-28 Filtering 4 Amalgam is any mixture or blending of mercury with another metal. Separation (Amalgamation) The gold residues are put into a pan, inclusive the cloth used for filtration. Mercury and some drops of nitric acid are added and mixed in the pan. The resulting alloy of gold and mercury is called amalgam. The cloth is washed with water and remaining non-gold-components are removed from the mixture. Sodium Bicarbonate is added to the mixture and the mixture is decanted. The decanted slag is squeezed through the cloth the excess mercury is recovered. The residue in the cloth is a hard lump of amalgam with a high concentration of gold. A small amount of mercury and water is added to the amalgam lump to make it softer. Then the lump is scrunched with a hammer-like instrument.

Fig-29 Goldmercury- amalgam Purification Nitric acid is added to the amalgam and the resulting mixture is decanted. Nitric acid dissolves part of the mercury, which is recovered in a separate process. The decanted mixture is boiled in a

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furnace. Because mercury and nitric acid vaporise at a much lower temperature than gold, these two substances can be removed by heat leaving the gold behind (Beard, 1987). The residual product in the pan is a yellow gold powder. In a last step, magnetic impurities are sorted out with a magnet.

Fig-30 Nitrogen dioxide during silver dissolving

Fig-31 Recovered gold powder The following flowchart illustrates the above-described technique.

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Connectors

Nitric acid

Leaching

Water

Gas / Fumes Body components Copper Solution

Copper

recovery Separation Mercury

Waste solution

Nitric acid Waste components

Water Sodium bicarbonate

Mercury Purification

Nitric acid

Gas / Fumes

Water

Mercury solution

Mercury

recovery Gold

Fig-32 Simplified flowchart “ of the mercury amalgamation”. Gold stripping at Surface Chem Finishers The director of Surface Chem Finishers developed a gold stripping substance with the goal to conduct a more environmentally sound process than by using cyanide or mercury. The concept is to dissolve the gold with the solution and collect it with electrolysis.

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Detailed description of the technique Leaching The input material is put over night into a substance (gold stripper). During this time, the gold is eached out of the components. The components are removed from the solution and are washed with hot water in order to deplete the waste components as good as possible of their gold.

Fig-33 Lixiviation with “gold stripper“ Separation and Purification The solution is filtered through a “Whatman Filter” and poured into a bucket. The anode and cathode (titanium) are then put into this bucket. They are connected to a small motor working with 5 V and 0,5 A. Over night, the electrolysis is conducted and the gold is collected at the cathode.

Fig-34 Filtering The cathode is removed from the solution and dried for 10 min at 178°C.

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Fig-35 Electrolysis The solid gold on the cathode is dissolved with aqua regia (HCl : HNO3= 3 : 1). This step is done under an exhaust to protect the worker from inhalation of the toxic fumes. Au + 4 HCl + HNO3 = HAuCl3 + 2 H2O + NO

Fig-36 Dissolving gold in aqua regia This solution is filtered again through a “Whatman Filter”. Ferrous sulphate is added in order to precipitate the gold. Fe+ + Au2+ -> Fe3+ + Au (s) To accelerate the process the solution is heated. Purple colloids precipitate.

Fig-37 Heating the sulphate solution The precipitation is then separated by decanting. The remaining material is washed with water filtered through a “Borosil Glass”. The Glass is put into a heater to dry the material. The result is a yellow gold powder.

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Fig-38 Gold powder after drying The following flowchart illustrates the above-described technique.

Connectors Leaching Gold Stripper

Vapour

Water

Body components (BC) Separation

Aqua regia

Waste solution 1

Water Purification Ferrous sulphate

Waste solution2

Water Gold

Fig-39 Simplified flowchart of the “gold stripping”. Quantification

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Data collection During the observations made for the description of the three gold recovery techniques measurements were conducted to quantify the in- and outputs of the processes. The in- and outputs were weighed with an electronic scale, measured with a measuring cup or calculated by multiplying the volume with the density (assumed to be 1000 g / l). To find out the volume, the diameter of the cylindrical containers and the height of the contained liquid were measured. According to the received figures the mass flow could be completed applying the law of conservation of mass (Input = Output), making feasible assumptions and considering the chemical equations. In a further step the amounts of in and outputs were converted according to the functional unit “one gram recovered gold”. The cyanide leaching and the gold stripping are quantified using provided material.The mercury amalgamation is only partly quantified during an investigation of the informal facility doing usual business. Cyanide leaching at Eco BIRD The measurements for the different used and produced materials, substances, solutions, mixtures and vapours are made according to following descriptions: • All the inputs of this process were measured except the cloth. • All the liquid outputs and the silver salt (which was also a mixture) were calculated (volume * density). • The wet output components were weighed. The estimation was made that the weight of the dry output components correspond approximately with the weight of the input components (the amount of leached metals was neglected). • The amount of “water vapour 1” results from subtracting the weight of the input components from the wet weight of the output components. • The estimations for the produced nitrogen dioxide were made according to the chemical equation of the silver dissolution with nitric acid. • The deficiency of the mass in the flowchart was identified that it is most probably the water, which had vaporised (especially during heating). This is proved plausible considering that the evaporation enthalpy of water is 2257 kJ / kg, charcoal produces 25 MJ / kg and

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assuming a 30 % efficiency factor. Following for 4,91 kg (4880 g + 30 g) water vapour approximately 1,3 kg charcoal is used. The quantified mass flows are shown in the subsequent flowcharts.

Input material 1

Energy (coal)

L 1: Lixiviation

water vapour

L 2: Sieving/Washing

body components

Hot water Substance 1

Water

water vapour From “silver-saltPreparation”

silver-salt

S 1 : Gold formation

aluminum foils Water Cloth

S 2: decantation/ Filtering

Lime

P 1: Melting

waste solution

Energy (coal) Substance 2 Substance 3

Water

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P 2: Pouring

Process flux

P 3: Grinding

silver solution 2

AgRecovery

Solid(gold) Pieces

Water

P 4: Boiling

Water vapour

P 5: Partition

silver solution 2

Nitric acid

AgRecovery

nitrogen dioxide

Substance 3

P 6: Melting

organic waste

Gold

Fig-40 Quantified flowchart of the cyanide leaching (main process); unit of numbers is gram. Chapter 2 Gold recovery techniques and hazards

Energy (coal) Silver

PS 1: Heating

Nitric acid

Nitrogen dioxide Silver

Water Sodium chloride

PS 2: Precipitation

Water Hot water

PS 3: Decantation

Water

PS 4: Mixing

Unknown salt

Silver-salt silver solution 1

Ag-recovery

Caustic soda

Fig-41 Preparation of silver-salt used in the main process of the cyanide leaching; unit of numbers is gram.

The following tables (Table 6and Table 7) give an overview of all the in- and outputs and are quantified according to the functional unit (“one gram recovered gold”). In addition, the further destinations of the outputs are noted. Table 6: Input materials of the cyanide leaching per gram recovered gold Input

g / g gold

Input material

2,07E+04

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E-waste recycling in India

Water

5,36E+04

Substance 1 (containing cyanide)

1,85E+02

Aluminium

4,67E+01

Nitric acid

6,77E+02

Lime

4,67E+01

Silver

1,17E+02

Sodium chloride

3,93E+02

Caustic soda

2,45E+02

Unknown salt

1,35E+02

Unknown substances (2, 3)

2,00E+01

Table 7: Output materials of the cyanide leaching per gram recovered gold Output

g / g gold

Destination

Body components

2,07E+04

Solid waste stream

Water vapour

8,41E+03

Air

Waste solution

3,02E+04

Drain

Silver solutions

1,68E+04

Recovery

Fumes (Nitrogen dioxide)

8,00E+01

Air

Silver

6,67E+00

Process cycle

Gold

1,00E+00

Sale

The silver solutions are further treated with a silver recovery technique. This technique is not included in the system boundary. However, a short description of the process is given in the subsequent paragraph. Silver Recovery The silver from the silver solutions (output) is recovered using sodium chloride, which reacts with silver producing silver chloride. In a further step iron is added which precipitates the silver, acting as a reducing agent. The precipitation is then melted and solid silver is recovered. Using this procedure

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in the above process 50 grams of silver, were recovered. Thus per gram of produced gold 83 grams of silver are recovered. This means that during the cyanide leaching 27 grams of silver are lost per gram recovered gold. Mercury amalgamation at Eco BIRD This technique was investigated during a visit of the informal facility doing usual business. The inand outputs were only partly measured. The input material of the observed process was connectors assumingly from PWBs of telephones. From 14,3 kilograms of connectors 54 grams of gold was recovered. During this technique, more than 130 g of mercury was used. The other used materials have not been measured. The in- and outputs and their further destinations are listed below. Table 8: Input materials of the mercury amalgamation per gram recovered gold Input

g / g gold

Input material (connectors)

2,64E+02

Mercury

3,59E+00 Sodium bicarbonate

Water

Table 9: Output materials of the mercury amalgamation per gram recovered gold Output

g/g gold

Destination

Body components

Solid waste stream

Gas / Fumes (i.e. water vapour, nitrogen dioxide)

Air

Copper solution

Recovery

Waste solution

Drain

Mercury solution

Recovery

Mercury

0,07E+0 Process cycle 0

Gold

1,00E+0 Sale 0

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E-waste recycling in India

Gold stripping at Surface Chem Finishers The measurements for the different in- and outputs are made according to following descriptions: • All the inputs of this process were measured except the water used for the purification. • The wet output components were weighed. The estimation was made that the weight of the dry output components correspond approximately with the weight of the input components (the amount of leached metals was neglected). • The amount of the vapour results from subtracting the weight of the input components from the wet weight of the output components. • The waste solution 1 was measured using a measuring cup. • The waste solution 2 was not measured. The processes and the quantified in- and outputs of gold stripping, showing the mass flow as it was determined during the on site observation. A flowchart illustrating the different process steps

Connectors

Gold stripper

Leaching

Water

aqua regia

vapour body components

separation

waste solution

water

ferrous sulphate water

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purification gold E-waste recycling in India

waste solution

Fig-42 Simplified and quantified flowchart of the “gold stripping”; unit of numbers is gram. The following tables (Table 10 and Table 11) give an overview of all the in- and outputs of the process and their further destinations are noted. Table 10: Input materials of the “gold stripping” per gram recovered gold Input (g)

Per g gold

Input material

6,48E+03

Water

>2,75E+04

Gold Stripper

1,23E+03

Hydrochloric acid

5,93E+02

Nitric acid

2,16E+02

Ferrous sulphate

4,07E+02

Table 11: Output materials of the “gold stripping” per gram recovered gold Output (g)

Per g gold

Destination

Body components

6,48E+03

Solid waste stream

Vapour

3,09E+02

Air

Waste solution

1 1,48E+04

Treatment plant

Waste solution

2 >1,48E+04

Treatment plant

Gold

1,00E+00

Gold plating

Interpretation Based on the system descriptions and quantifications the critical outputs, concerning the environment and human health, of the three gold recovery processes were identified. These hazard-“hot spots” are listed and described for each process. From some of these critical outputs samples were taken and tested for a range of metals that are known to have a high potential to bioaccumulate in the environment. Additional on site observations during the conducted processes are qualitatively discussed.

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Cyanide leaching at Eco BIRD Major hazard-“hot spots” 1. Fumes: The most obvious contamination during the observation was the nitrogen dioxide, a redbrown fume that was generated during the dissolution of silver, which irritated the eyes and provoked dizziness. The corresponding chemical equation is: Ag + 2 HNO3 -> AgNO3 + NO2 ↑+ H2O. 2. Waste solution: The waste solution is poured untreated into the drain. Since there is no canalisation system, which ends up in a wastewater treatment plant the waste solution ends up directly into the environment (water, soil and air) and can pollute the adjacent communities and waters. 3. Body components: The body components probably end up in the solid waste stream. This means that they are piled up on the streets for some time and in the best-case end up in the landfill. In both cases over a certain amount of time, the contents in the body components will be released to the environment. A study from Jang and Townsend (2003) showed that lead will leach out from PWB when landfilled. Samples of the waste solution and the body components were collected and tested for the concentration of a range of metals. The most relevant metals to the environment according to Smidt (2006) and their concentration in the body components, respectively in the waste solution are presented in Table 13 and Table 12. In addition, aluminium is also listed in Table 2.7 because of its elevated concentration in the wastewater. Table 12: Metal concentrations in the waste solution of the “cyanide leaching”

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Element

Concentration (ppm)

Stdev [ppm]

Aluminium (Al)

1315

55

Arsenic (As)

<0.5

Cadmium (Cd)

<1

Copper (Cu)

185

Mercury (Hg)

<0.5

Nickel (Ni)

9

Lead (Pb)

4

E-waste recycling in India

6

Zinc (Zn)

17

1

Table 13: Metal concentration in the body components of the “cyanide leaching” Element

Concentration (ppm)

Stdev (ppm)

229250

2333

Nickel (Ni)

3200

141

Lead (Pb)

22650

1626

5100

283

23950

4596

Copper (Cu)

Tin (Sb) Zinc (Zn)

Additional on site observations The handling of the materials, which contain cyanide salts and nitric acid, is very frivolous and no personal protection like gloves, goggles or masks are used. All of the workers have small burns in the skin of the palms and a yellowish discoloration of skin and nails which are most probably symptoms of the contact with nitric acid. Beverages and food are consumed while handling the different and often hazardous substances. Thus, the substances can enter the body through absorption or ingestion. Comparison to the Swiss legislation To give a quantitative statement to the possible hazards the results of the sampling are put into relation with the allowed concentrations to discharge industry effluents into water in Switzerland, according to Annex 3, GschV (Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, 1998). The Swiss “regulation of water pollution control” limits the effluent concentration from industry, amongst others, of the pH, eight metals and the free cyanide ion. These metals (plus mercury, molybdenum and thallium) are the most relevant heavy metals to the environment. In the following table, the requirements of the Swiss regulation are compared with the concentration of the wastewater of the “cyanide leaching” at Eco BIRD. The ratio indicates the deviation of the values of the waste effluent from the cyanide leaching conducted at Eco BIRD, in Bangalore, to the Swiss thresholds.

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Table 14: Comparing the thresholds of the Swiss legislation of industrial waste water with the found concentration in the waste solution of the “cyanide leaching” Parameter

Request GschV

Ratio

Waste water Eco BIRD

pH-value

6.5 to 9.0

Arsenic (As)

0.1 mg / l

<5

<0.5 mg / l

Lead (Pb)

0.5 mg / l

8

4 mg / l

Cadmium (Cd)

0.1 mg / l

< 10

<1 mg / l

Chromium (Cr)

2 mg / l

n.a.

Cobalt (Co)

0.5 mg / l

n.a.

Copper (Cu)

0.5 mg / l

370

185 mg / l

Nickel (Ni)

2 mg / l

4.5

9 mg / l

Zinc (Zn)

2 mg / l

8.5

17 mg / l

12

The concentration of copper in Eco BIRD’s effluent exceeds Swiss industrial wastewater thresholds 370 times. In addition, the concentrations of all the other heavy metals are above the Swiss thresholds. These high concentrations of metals in the effluent are because the cyanide salt, which is used to dissolve the gold, also dissolves all other metals. Another concern is the high pH of the tested effluent, which makes the water environmentally hazardous. Mercury amalgamation at Eco BIRD Major hazard-“hot spots” 1. Fumes: The most obvious exposure to a hazard has been observed during the first step in the mercury amalgamation process when almost the whole workplace had been covered with a redish fume. Nitrogen dioxide is produced, corresponding to the chemical equation: 2 NO3- + 4 H+ + Cu -> 2 NO2 + H2O + Cu++. It was observed that the mercury is heated and vaporises during the purification. Thus, it ends up in the air. The production of gold using mercury amalgamation is stated tobe an important source of anthropogenic releases of mercury (UNEP, 2002). It is known that during this process extensive amounts of mercury end up in the atmosphere and biosphere. For example: The mean value of mercury loss in mines of the Madeira Rivers, Brazil is 1,32 kg mercury per 1 kg gold (Stüben, 2004).

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In the Mindao Region, Philippines there is a mean value of mercury loss of 5 kg Hg/kg Au. The exposition to mercury during gold recovery in the Philippines has been studied by Maydl (2004). The practice is discouraged, because “…poor management of both liquid mercury and the vapour arising from volatilising mercury contributes to serious health problems…” (Logsdon et al., 1999). 2. Waste solution: It is known that from the waste solution copper is recovered in a further process. Therefore, the copper concentration is probably lower than it is measured in the waste solution of the “cyanide leaching”. However, after the copper recovery the solution is also poured into the drain. An important difference between this solution and the before described solution is the acidity. Using such a high amount of nitric acid will lead to a low pH. The acidification of the water and sediments make toxic metals more mobile and therefore more likely to have toxic effects on aquatic life (Brigden et al., 2005). 3. Body components: The body components of the “mercury amalgamation” are sometimes again processed with the “cyanide leaching”. Afterwards they are also dumped in the streets and the metals that are still contained in the components will leach out sooner or later. Additional on site observations See additional on site information for cyanide leaching in the above subchapter. Gold stripping at Surface Chem Finishers Major hazard-“hot spots” 1. Waste solution: The waste solution is given to an effluent treatment plant (PAI & PAI Chemicals (India) Pvt. Ltd.), thus it will be treated and the hazardous substances within should be eliminated. 2. Body components: The body components also land in the solid waste stream. As mentioned before several (heavy) metals are still present within the remaining components and leach out eventually. A sample from the body components could be taken and was tested for the concentration of a range of metals. Table 15: Metal concentration in the body components of the “gold stripping”

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E-waste recycling in India

Element Copper (Cu)

Concentration (ppm) 223000

Nickel (Ni)

5000

Lead (Pb)

2000

Tin (Sb)

11000

Zinc (Zn)

33000

Additional on site observations During the on site observations no obvious hazards could be observed. The handling of the substances has been very careful and both an exhaust system and personal protection equipment has been used. Discussion Suitability of the method The method is based on the scientific concept of the mass flow analysis and was adjusted according to the encountered situations and the available resources. It has been a suitable tool to make a quantitative evaluation of the processes. The method helps increase the knowledge of the conducted processes and the gained data are transparent and objective. “One of the major problems in using this method (MFA) in regions in developing countries is the availability of reliable data” (Binder et al., 2001). Addressing this problem experimental data is collected in addition to literature research and interviews. Within the time limits of this thesis and having a certain amount of provided material, only two of the three encountered gold recovery techniques could be fully quantified. Furthermore, a repetition and improvement of the measurements was not possible. Thus, it is a momentary recording of the process using the provided material. This leads to the fact that statistical procedures cannot be applied to give the data more weight. Nevertheless, it was possible to describe all investigated gold recovery processes qualitatively in detail and to quantify two of the processes. Evaluation of the systems In the following subchapters, an overview of the conducted techniques is presented. Further it is discussed whether the characterisation of the different techniques presented in this thesis can be regarded as representative in general for these techniques in Bangalore. This is a very important issue as the investigation is based only on a few measurements. Consequently, this might not be

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sufficient to use the data for the definition of standard processes. Despite of the restrictions in sampling and measuring the identification of the ‘hot spots’ was possible.

INPUT MATERIAL

Water Cyanide

Fumes (NO2)

Nitric acid Aluminum environment

Cyanide leaching

Waste solution

Silver Other

Body components

Substances

Gold

Fig-43 Major flows of the “cyanide leaching”. Discussion In the investigated experimental technique the same processes, containers, etc. are used as in a usual cyanide leaching technique. The quantity of the provided input material was below the usual quantity. Nevertheless, the investigation gives adequate indications of the used amount of materials in a usual technique conducted in this facility. To recover one gram of gold in the investigated technique approximately 200 grams of a substance containing cyanide was used. In another observed cyanide leaching technique, conducted at the same unit doing usual business, they used 10 grams of the cyanide containing substance to recover one gram of gold. With the chemical equation 4 Au(s) + 8 CN-(aq) + O2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

4 Au(CN)2-(aq) + 4 OH-(aq),

it can be calculated that approximately 0,66 g of potassium cyanide, respectively 0,5 g of sodium cyanide would be needed to leach out one g of gold. Explanations of the much higher amount of cyanide used in the processes could be:

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• The concentration of cyanide salt in the substance is low. • The input material contains many other metals, which leads to a high cyanide use. Gold has a high standard reduction potential and is therefore the last metal to be dissolved. Thus, to calculate the exact needed amount of cyanide the exact composition of the input material would have to be known. Hence, the amount of needed cyanide increases with each present metal. This could explain the conducted segregation for apparent gold before the material enters the gold leaching process. It also leads to the assumption that rather more cyanide is used as required to make sure all the gold is dissolved. In the investigated process, 21 kg of input material to recover one gram of recovered gold is needed. In another observed process, 3 kg of input material per one gram of recovered gold is used and from the estimated figures, the average recovery rate would be one g gold per 250 g of input material. This wide-ranging amount of input material used to recover one gram of gold might be because of the different gold content in the input material and because of different people conducting the process. A piece in the process, which is surprising, is the preparation of silver-salt (see PS 1 – PS 3). Theoretically, silver-salt is not needed to precipitate/form the gold (see S 1 (ETH) and literature resources, gold can be precipitated using only zinc or aluminium. Due to the addition of silver-salt 27 grams of silver are lost per gram recovered gold, which is a lot considering that it is a precious metal and thus valuable. Possible explanations could be: • In the first process, excess cyanide is added to be sure all possible gold is dissolved. The silver salt is used to bind the excess cyanide in the “Gold formation” process step (S 1). Maybe it is cheaper to add the silver that can be recovered and used again than to add more aluminium or zinc to precipitate the gold (Schönberg, 2006) • The used silver is not pure enough to be sold and is therefore a waste product that has no better use than to decrease the amount of aluminium needed in the separation process. • “The purpose of adding silver is to obtain a more impure gold alloy. If there is more silver than gold present in the alloy, it is easier to separate them” (Parthasarathy, 2006). Regarding the purification process (see P 1 to P 6), the question is raised why it is composed of so many steps. The essential steps are the melting (P 6) and the partition (P 5), where the gold is

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separated from silver and other impurities. Theoretically, the process could be simplified concentrating on the essential steps. However, the experience of the workers goes back several generations and the made assumptions would have to be discussed with them and evaluated. Mercury amalgamation at Eco BIRD Overview Input material Water

Fumes (NO2, mercury vapour)

Mercury Environment

mercury

waste

amalgamation

solution

Sodium bicarbonate

Body components Gold

Fig-44 Major flows of the “mercury amalgamation”. Discussion During the mercury amalgamation in the worst case 3,5 grams of mercury is lost per gram recovered gold. This is a very dangerous loss to health and environment. Some of this mercury is recovered in a subsequent mercury recovery technique, which has not been further investigated. However, the loss due to vaporisation could be easily decreased by collecting and condensing the mercury vapour as it is done in several gold mines using this process.

Gold stripping at Surface Chem Finishers Overview Input material

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E-waste recycling in India

Water Waste solution

Gold Stripper

cyanide Leaching

environment

Aqua regia Body components

Ferrous sulphate Gold

Fig-45 Major flows of the “gold stripping”. Discussion The conducted experimental technique was a miniaturised example of the usual technique. Usually around 100 kg of input material is treated together. Because of the small amount of material, some adaptations had to be made: no additional oxygen was pumped into the solution, which is left over night; the cathode was titanium instead of stainless steel; the cathode was put directly into aqua regia (usually the gold is scraped off before). According to the director of the facility, the experiment is nevertheless comparable with his usual technique. Taking the figures given from the Engineer of E-Parisaraa 2 kg input material are needed to recover one g gold. In the experiment 6,5 kg of input material would be needed to recover one gram gold. This is an indication that the input material of the experiment is a little less concentrated on gold or the gold is easier to leach out when the quantity of used material and substance is higher. In order to take the right amount and not waste anything the different auxiliary substances are always measured carefully. Thus, it seems that this process is standardised and it is known that qualitative checks are regularly executed by the director of the facility.

Monitors Monitors are much sought after by scrap dealers as they contain good quantity of copper yoke, besides circuit board and picture tube. The different recovery processes observed in MMR are given below. Dissembling of CRT and Extraction of Components The first step in monitor recycling

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involves physical removal of plastic casing, picture tube (cathode ray tube), copper yoke and plates. The intact and functional CRT is used for the manufacture of colour and black & white televisions for local brands. Re-gunning is possible only for those monitors whose terminal pin (diode pin) of electron gun has not broken in the process of removing yoke from gun. Recovery of Glass from CRT Defective CRT is broken down to recover iron frames from the glass funnel as shown in Figure 46,47. The iron frames are found only in color CRTs and not in black & white monitors. The glasses and iron frames from picture tubes are given to waste traders. Yoke Core, Yoke Core, Metallic Core and Copper from Transformers The copper and yoke core recovered from yoke coils found around the picture tube end is sold to copper smelters and re-winders as shown in Figure 48 and Figure49. Apart from the yoke, copper and metallic core is also recovered from transformers mounted on the circuit board of the computer. The circuit tray also contains a number of condensers of different sizes. Depending upon their condition and demand they again enter into the secondary market for reuse. If they are defective, they are sold along with the motherboard. Rare Earth Core of Transformer and Copper These small transistors and rare earth transformers are boiled in water with small amount of caustic soda, which results in loosing of joint between the core resulting in core and copper extraction as shown in Figure 11. Copper Extraction from Wires Two kinds of processes are being followed under this category as listed below: 1. Manual drawing of wires for copper 2. Extraction of copper by burning the wire Plastic casing of ether ABS or high Separated for sale

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Opening the plastic case

CRT with PWB and other

casing

CRT of breakage

separation of PWB York and CRT

York for core and copper extraction

separated PWB

Fig-46 Dissembling of CRT and Extraction of Components

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Fig-47.a Glass Recovery by CRT Breaking

York with component

York core

cutting of copper form core is shown

Copper

Fig-47.b Extraction of Yoke Core and Copper

Metallic transformer hammer

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cutting of cooper with nail and

Metallic core

copper

Fig-48 Extraction of Metallic Core of Transformer and Copper

Rear earth transformer earth core

boiling of transformer

rear

Copper

Fig-49 Extraction of Rare Earth Core of Transformer and Copper

Manual drawing of Wires for Copper Under this process with the use of knife the edge of wire is cut and then with the help of pliers the copper is extracted from PVC as shown in Figure 50. The process is as shown below copper goes for sale to copper smelters and PVC is used for plastic graining.

copper

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Computer wire

cutting the wire edge and pull the copper

PVC

Fig-50 Computer Cable Plastic Shredding and Graining The plastic casings of monitors are made either of PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or ABS (acrylonitrilebutadiene styrene). PVC was used more commonly in the early models of computers. Now computer-manufacturing companies have shifted to ABS plastic in the production of monitors. Though both types of plastics are currently being recycled as shown in Figure 51, the PVC one cannot be recycled. This is due to the high percentage of silicate being added for making it fire retardant. The silicate plastic often ends up at kilns as an alternate source of energy. The plastic casing is recycled into EBS or High Impact Plastic. These kinds of plastics are frequently used in manufacturing toys. Dismantling of compressor & segregation of compressor & cooling box Refrigerator is dismantled for metal recovery, plastic recovery, insulating material and compressor as shown in Figure 51.

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In 02: manual labor

In 01 end life of refrigerator

Ou 01: separated cooling box

P 01: manual breaking using hammer and punches

Ou 02: segregation of insulating material

Ou 03: separated compressor

Fig-51 Dismantling of Refrigerator and Segregation of Compressor and Cooling Box

Disposal It has been observed in many parts of the world that the most common practice of disposing e-waste is simply throwing it away with domestic waste, which eventually ends up in landfills or gets incinerated. However, this may result in several environmental hazards and hence, the waste must be disposed off in a proper manner.

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Fig-52 Plastic Shredding

Advantages of Recycling e-waste: · It will give way to Perfect Management of E-Waste. · As there will be virtually no landfilling or incineration, the hazards to the environment will be avoided. · Waste disposal costs will be reduced for organizations handling their own EWaste. · It will generate good quantity of raw materials for various other industries. Moreover, the cost of this raw material will be much less than that obtained from its original source. · Widely used metals like copper, platinum have to be dug out from their ores. Acquiring them this way will not only be a cheaper, less time consuming mean, but will also result in reduction of waste, and its hazards by reuse. · Plastics can be reused relatively many times. So recycling them from E-Waste makes use of this advantage of plastics. · It will have better and safer working conditions relative to backyard stripping corporations. This means protected means of dismantling and recycling of EWaste. · It will generate many employment opportunities for people from many disciplines.

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10. Responsibilities of government, industries, and citizen. Considering the severity of the problem, it is imperative that certain management options be adopted to handle the bulk e-wastes. Following are some of the management options suggested for the government, industries and the public.

Responsibilities of the Government (i) Governments should set up regulatory agencies in each district, which are vested with the responsibility of co-coordinating and consolidating the regulatory functions of the various government authorities regarding hazardous substances. (ii) Governments should be responsible for providing an adequate system of laws, controls and administrative procedures for hazardous waste management (Third World Network. 1991). Existing laws concerning e-waste disposal be reviewed and revamped. A comprehensive law that provides ewaste regulation and management and proper disposal of hazardous wastes is required. Such a law should empower the agency to control, supervise and regulate the relevant activities of government departments. Under this law, the agency concerned should Collect basic information on the materials from manufacturers, processors and importers and to maintain an inventory of these materials. The information should include toxicity and potential harmful effects. Identify potentially harmful substances and require the industry to test them for adverse health and environmental effects. Control risks from manufacture, processing, distribution, use and disposal of electronic wastes. Encourage beneficial reuse of "e-waste" and encouraging business activities that use waste". Set up programs so as to promote recycling among citizens and businesses. Educate e-waste generators on reuse/recycling options (iii) Governments must encourage research into the development and standard of hazardous waste management, environmental monitoring and the regulation of hazardous waste-disposal.

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(iv) Governments should enforce strict regulations against dumping e-waste in the country by outsiders. Where the laws are flouted, stringent penalties must be imposed. In particular, custodial sentences should be preferred to paltry fines, which these outsiders / foreign nationals can pay. (v) Governments should enforce strict regulations and heavy fines levied on industries, which do not practice waste prevention and recovery in the production facilities. (vi) Polluter pays principle and extended producer responsibility should be adopted. (vii) Governments should encourage and support NGOs and other organizations to involve actively in solving the nation's e-waste problems. (viii) Uncontrolled dumping is an unsatisfactory method for disposal of hazardous waste and should be phased out. (viii) Governments should explore opportunities to partner with manufacturers and retailers to provide recycling services.

Responsibility and Role of industries 1. Generators of wastes should take responsibility to determine the output characteristics of wastes and if hazardous, should provide management options. 2. All personnel involved in handling e-waste in industries including those at the policy, management, control and operational levels, should be properly qualified and trained. Companies can adopt their own policies while handling e-wastes. Some are given below:  Use label materials to assist in recycling (particularly plastics).  Standardize components for easy disassembly. 

Re-evaluate 'cheap products' use, make product cycle 'cheap' and so that it has no inherent value that would encourage a recycling infrastructure.

 Create computer components and peripherals of biodegradable materials.  Utilize technology sharing particularly for manufacturing and de manufacturing.  Encourage / promote / require green procurement for corporate buyers.  Look at green packaging options.

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E-waste recycling in India

3. Companies can and should adopt waste minimization techniques, which will make a significant reduction in the quantity of e-waste generated and thereby lessening the impact on the environment. It is a "reverse production" system that designs infrastructure to recover and reuse every material contained within e-wastes metals such as lead, copper, aluminum and gold, and various plastics, glass and wire. Such a "closed loop" manufacturing and recovery system offers a win-win situation for everyone, less of the Earth will be mined for raw materials, and groundwater will be protected, researchers explain. 4. Manufacturers, distributors, and retailers should undertake the responsibility of recycling/disposal of their own products. 5. Manufacturers of computer monitors, television sets and other electronic devices containing hazardous materials must be responsible for educating consumers and the general public regarding the potential threat to public health and the environment posed by their products. At minimum, all computer monitors, television sets and other electronic devices containing hazardous materials must be clearly labeled to identify environmental hazards and proper materials management.

Responsibilities of the Citizen Waste prevention is perhaps more preferred to any other waste management option including recycling. Donating electronics for reuse extends the lives of valuable products and keeps them out of the waste management system for a longer time. But care should be taken while donating such items i.e. the items should be in working condition. Reuse, in addition to being an environmentally preferable alternative, also benefits society. By donating used electronics, schools, non-profit organizations, and lower-income families can afford to use equipment that they otherwise could not afford. E-wastes should never be disposed with garbage and other household wastes. This should be segregated at the site and sold or donated to various organizations. While buying electronic products opt for those that: ○ are made with fewer toxic constituents ○ use recycled content ○ are energy efficient

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○ are designed for easy upgrading or disassembly ○ utilize minimal packaging ○ offer leasing or take back options have been certified by regulatory authorities. Customers should

○

opt for upgrading their computers or other electronic items to the latest versions rather than buying new equipments. NGOs should adopt a participatory approach in management of e-wastes.

9. E-Waste Policy for India Under the aegis of ASSOCHAM Expert Committee on Environment a Seminar on “E-Waste Policy for India” was held in New Delhi on May 26, 2006. Designed with the aim of spreading awareness on the hazards of E-waste in the country, discussing E-waste management & disposal options and inviting inputs for framing an E-Waste policy for the country, this well-attended Seminar had discussants

representing

industry,

research

and

development

institutions,

environmental

organizations and consultants, legal practitioners, and E-waste recyclers. The Keynote Speaker in the Seminar was Dr. R.S. Mahawar, Additional Director Central Pollution Control Board.

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E-waste recycling in India

Eminent speakers, such as Mr. P. Ravindranath, Director, Government and Public Affairs, HewlettPackard India, Mr. Amit Jain, Management Director – India Operations, IRG SSA, Dr. T.K. Joshi, Director, Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, Government of NCT of Delhi, Mr. Gaurang Baxi, Manager, Corporate HSE, Kodak India, Mr. Rahul Sharma, Director, TRI International Limited, Dr. S.K. Pachauri, Former Director General, National Productivity Council and Ex-Secretary to the Government of India, Mr. M.S. Nagar, Ex CMD, Indian Rare Earths Ltd. and former Consultant, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, Dr. Usha Dar, President, Council of Industrial Environmental Relations in Delhi, shared their views and experiences in this Seminar. In the backdrop of resurgent growth of the Indian economy and greater reliance on electronic hardware for household, industrial and office automation, commitment to eco-responsibility was seen as a sine qua non for the society, economy and the environment. There was unanimity that electronic waste containing substances like lead, cadmium, mercury, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has immense potential to cause enormous harm to human health and environment, if not disposed properly since the extant prescriptions for its disposal and safeguard were inadequate. Thus, the imperative need for early formulation of a holistic E-waste legislation which will eventually lead to enabling policy. It was consensually agreed that such a policy must appropriately reflect the concerns of various stakeholders besides views of practitioners in the field, both in the organized and the unorganized sector. The deliberations in the Seminar highlighted the likely enormity in the magnitude of E-waste to be generated every year (approx 1,50,000 tonnes). Issues relating to poor sensitisation about this sector, low organized recycling, cross-border flow of waste equipment into India, limited reach out and awareness regarding disposal, after determining end of useful life, and lack of coordination between various authorities responsible for E-waste management and disposal including the non-involvement of municipalities in E-waste management were discussed threadbare. The emerging global trend of producer responsibility for disposal after useful life becoming the governing principle globally by

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E-waste recycling in India

the year 2008 and lack of steps in India in this regard were cited prominently during the deliberations. Conscious of the prevalent uncertainties regarding “when, where, and how” to dispose hazardous, harmful E-waste, the role of informal sector in the process and the necessity of introducing a comprehensive framework early, ASSOCHAM affirms its commitment to assist the Government in carving out an inclusive E-waste management policy, as for meeting the need for finding an “India Unique Solution”, that strikes a visionary balance between precepts and praxis for sustainable management of E-waste, such a policy alone can bring the desired paradigm shift. ASSOCHAM, in recognition of this urgent necessity of proper management of

E-waste in the

country therefore recommends for consideration of the Government the following : 1.

Promulgate an all-embracing national E-waste Management law, and an all-encompassing policy thereunder, for substituting the existing Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2003, as the latter are not comprehensive enough to attain the aforesaid objectives.

2.

Initiate the process for complete national level assessment, covering all the cities and all the sectors.

Such base line study must envelope inventories, existing technical and policy

measures required for emergence of national E-waste policy/strategy and action plan for ecofriendly, economic E-waste management. The study should also culminate in identifying potentially harmful substances and testing them for adverse health and environmental effects for suggesting precautionary measures. 3.

Create a public-private participatory forum of decision making, problem resolution in Ewaste management.

This could be a Working Group comprising Regulatory Agencies,

NGOs, Industry Associations, experts etc. to keep pace with the temporal and spatial changes in structure and content of E-waste. This Working Group can be the feedback providing mechanism to the National Nodal Authority in the Government that will periodically review the existing rules, plans and strategies for E-waste management.

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4.

ASSOCHAM as a Knowledge Chamber advocates creation of knowledge data base on end of useful life determination, anticipating the risks, ways of preventing and protecting from likely damage and safe and timely disposal of E-waste. It accordingly urges the Government to promote Information, Education and Communication (IEC) activities in schools, colleges, industry etc. to enhance the knowledge base on E-waste management using the PPP mode.

5.

Creation of data base on best global practices and failure analyses for development and deployment of efficacious E-waste management and disposal practices within the country.

6.

Device ways and means to encourage beneficial reuse/recycling of E-waste, catalyzing business activities that use E-waste.

7.

Formulate and regulate occupational health safety norms for the E-waste recycling, now mainly confined to the informal sector.

8.

Review the trade policy and exim classification codes to plug the loopholes often being misused for cross-border dumping of E-waste into India.

9.

Insist on stringent enforcement against wanton infringement of Basel convention and E-waste dumping by preferring incarceration over monetary penalties for demonstrating deterrent impact.

10.

Foster partnership with manufacturers and retailers for recycling services by creating an enabling environment so as dispose E-waste scientifically at economic costs.

11.

Mandate sustained capacity building for industrial E-waste handling for policy makers, managers, controllers and operators. Enhance consumer awareness regarding the potential threat to public health and environment by electronic products, if not disposed properly.

12.

Enforce labeling of all computer monitors, television sets and other household/industrial electronic devices for declaration of hazardous material contents with a view to identifying environmental hazards and ensuring proper material management and E-waste disposal.

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E-waste recycling in India

13.

Announce incentives for growth of E-waste disposal agencies so that remediation of environmental damage, threats of irreversible loss and lack of scientific knowledge do not anymore pose hazards to human health and environment. Simultaneously, as a proactive step, municipal bodies must be involved in the disposal of e-waste lest it becomes too late for their intervention, should large handling volumes necessitate it.

14.

Consider gradual introduction of enhanced producer responsibility into Indian process, practices and procedures so that preventive accountability gains preponderance over polluter immunity.

15.

CONCLUSION

The requirement and usage of electronic equipments is increasing day by day, as new, cheaper and better technologies replace the old ones. This renders the old equipments useless, and leaving huge amounts of electronic waste behind. However, this waste still has valuable metals and substances that can be used. Consequently, the dismantling and reuse of E-waste components has become quite a lucrative industry. But a only a fraction of the total amount of E-Waste is found to be recycled, and the rest discarded along with domestic waste. By discarding the rest of the waste, not only is the environment being contaminated with hazardous substances, but also many reusable valuable materials get are wasted. The materials recovered from E-Waste are often in richer quantity than their original sources. In addition to that, their recovery is much cheaper as well. Hence E-Waste can be considered to be a rich yet cheap source of many valuable substances like plastics, gold, copper etc. This implies that with better collection and processing techniques, an E-Waste recycling industry, set up with

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contributions from the government and the consumers, can generate remarkable revenue, at the same time providing a sustainable E-Waste management technique

16.

REFERENCES

HTTP://WWW.IIMM.ORG/NATIONAL_EXECUTIVE.HTM HTTP://WWW.GOOGLE.CO.IN HTTP://WWW.PDFCOKE.COM HTTP://WGBIS.CES.IISC.ERNET.IN/ENERGY/PAPER/RESEARCHPAPER.HTML HTTP://EWASTEGUIDE.INFO/SYSTEM/FILES/KELLER_2006_ETH-EMPA.PDF HTTP://WWW.NRCAN.GC.CA/MMS-SMM/BUSI-INDU/RAD-RAD/PDF/ELEC-SFR-ENG.PDF

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