Public Policy.docx

On the Challenge of Finding New Heights in Policy Change Theory I. SYNOPSIS New directions in public policy: theories of policy change and variation reconsidered by Peter John (2013) discusses much about the three distinct ages of theory building and testing but focuses on three synthetic approaches while also delving into the inclusion of comparative political economy into the fore of policy change and variation theory. The article narrates on the basics of the each distinct age while also attempting to visualize the future prospects of the said matter by highlighting the developments in the contemporary period, while also indicating that scholars must be alarmed of the risk of the study of policy change becoming moribund. The author argues this in lieu of the fact that there seems to have been a characteristic of stagnation looming the field. According to John (2013), the solution lies in reconstructing public policy studies in such a way that brings about concrete results in that it can clearly explain particular phenomena and not just describe such using metaphors. So far, two ages have passed in the field of public policy—the first being the classical period, and the second pertaining to that of the synthetic age. On the one hand, the former aimed to define the key terms, which are operationalized up to this time. Furthermore, it was also the time when the primary debates on decision-making were held. The latter, on the other, served to elaborate the concepts produced from earlier times and sought to clarify the complex processes embedded within the process of policy change. The synthetic age also took account of the different inputs that can trigger stability or fluctuations in policy change, like ideas and agenda-setting

processes, which produced three models—the policy advocacy coalition framework, the policy window model, and the punctuated equilibrium model. The policy advocacy coalition framework puts premium in the relationships that form in view of decision-making. John (2013, p.5) defines coalition as “an alliance of bodies” that espouses or holds similar ideas and interests, which are created in order to be able to pit these ideas against “other coalitions within the same policy sector”. Since this was created in the synthetic age, coalitions do not merely involve elites in the act of policy-making, but it also allows for the participation of a diverse set of actors, like academicians, journalists, interest-group representatives, to name a few. According to Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith (1993) the key aspect in this framework is the possession of a wide variety of knowledge of these coalitions on certain policy issues. This can hopefully make the policy-outcome possess a comprehensive set of considerations. Further, the model assumes that policy change must be subjected to observation over a period of time in order to be able to assess how the aforementioned change will take place. With this line of thought, it is also assumed that unless a crisis comes into the fore, the ideas and interests that are advocated by a specific policy should remain stable, with the presence of institutions and laws as stabilizing factors. That being said, it might be difficult for the framework to actually explain policy change, as it places excessive importance in the externalities that can affect the phenomenon. The Policy Streams and Windows model emphasizes continuous changes in policy. This means that inputs and ideas on policies come from various sources and thus they have a “come-and-go” characteristic (Kingdon, as cited in John, 2013). The author cites three processes involved in this model—problems, which are issues that

need to be resolved and may be viewed as important or unimportant; policies, which are the proposals derived through the work of specialists in order to bring about change; and lastly, political processes, which characterized by “public moods” (Kingdon, as cited in John, 2013, p. 11) that influence public perception on issues through media as well as the results of an election, of which the elected officials greatly determine how problems are given their respective solutions. These provide a sense of contingency on the matters listed in the agenda, and as such, Kingdon (as cited in John, 2013) aims to determine the combination that would be conducive to a robust policy outcome. This makes policy formation subject to luck and chance. Important issues, then, may only be forwarded when circumstances are favorable to the creation of a policy, thus the concept of a “policy window”. Kingdon (as cited in John, 2013) argues that the opening and closing of these windows are only limited in duration, so swift action must be taken for the proposal to make it to the list. In this regard, Kingdon utilizes the garbage can model to make sense of how decision-makers try to delegate problems to a particular organization as they move on to the next issue, which in turn can help in the determination of salient issues. This stresses the importance of institutions, organizations, and agencies because it is in these wherein various issues are filtered. What is missing in this model, however, is the process of which these ideas become transformed into implemented programs and make it back to the agenda through a feedback look. The Punctuated Equilibrium, lastly, seems to emphasize both stability and contingency in the policy-making process—with Baumgartner and Jones (1993) stating that this is an active process that demonstrates changes through intermittent periods of

stability that is constantly altered by issue-expansions which trigger change. In this light, the model prioritizes the identification of “shifts in the rate of policy change” and the reason behind their occurrence in a given period of time. Baumgartner and Jones, furthermore, do not believe that institutions merely function as stabilizers of policies— rather, they are able to gain ideas that can be transformed into policy change, despite being only incremental in quality. However, because the policy-makers and the media (which publicizes various issues) are contained in an endless cycle of reinforcement, issues become salient and stability becomes threatened by changes that can possibly take place. That being said, many elements, both internal and external, affect the policymaking process. However, this model is still limited to descriptions, places excessive importance on the power of media, and the composition of the agenda is too reliant on forthcoming political events. After Jones’s discussion on the synthesized models, he went on to give a brief visualization of the possible future of policy change theories. In this attempt, he argued that comparative political economy should be involved in the policy-making process in the sense that not only political events matter, but economic power holders also seem to greatly affect policy outcomes, especially when taking into consideration the effects of capital and labor. This sets it apart from the previous models that were mentioned herein. In the end, therefore, the article sees great potential in comparative political economy as a feat in policy-making, stressing the fear that a lack of effort to incorporate this sub-discipline in the realm of policy might render the discipline of public policy, as a whole, stagnant. II. COMMENTARY

It is to be surmised that policy-making is not simply a topic taken up in public administration classes. At the heart of political science is the need for its actualization, which then lies in the creation of good policy outcomes. For this to be the result of the effort of a diverse set of actors, there needs to be a clear and optimized process that should guide their plan of action. This is the importance of rediscovering and revisiting the past ages that brought to the fore various theories that establish concepts, explain complexities that arise out of the phenomena taking place within society, and from there, create policy innovations. In this commentary, the student is inclined to argue that scholars of policy change should increase their sense of urgency if indeed comparative political economy is the only addition to the models discussed above as of late. However, this is not for the reason that the student believes that policy studies is becoming moribund. Rather, it is because the state of many countries, in the contemporary period, is in need of better and more inclusive policies. The fact that the repertoire of experience a particular population goes through is ever changing, the student refuses to believe that policy-making can ever be considered to be dead, or even nearing its demise. It continues to be relevant and will continue to be significant in the future generations to come. An example of a problem that needs more innovative policies is traffic congestion. This has become an inevitable feature of a person’s daily life, whether he or she would be driving a private-owned vehicle or commuting to his or her place of destination. In this sense, a great mass of people remains frustrated about the fact that policymakers find it difficult to provide a solution to extirpate road congestion. Truly enough, to remedy this issue remains a struggle due to a large number of factors and

variations that needs to be considered. Primarily, traffic does not simply mean an excess in vehicles, it cannot simply be caused by small and narrow roads or a poorly planned road transportation system—it is a combination of these factors that make it arduous for policymakers to pinpoint a specific constraint and then create a cure to this problem. There could be a high vehicle density with narrow roads, or a low vehicle density with sufficient road space but poorly planned road transportation system. More than being excessively tired from travelling an ideally 30-minute ride turned 2 hours, it also has adverse economic effects. First, whether the car is moving or not, as long as the engine on, fuel is consumed. This is frustrating for the private-vehicle owner driving to work, but moreso with the PUV driver who is trying to make a living. Other than that, delivery trucks that have a strict schedule are also burdened by this problem, and lack of punctuality in delivery is bad for business. Indeed, as Chua (2015) argued, traffic congestion has adverse effects on a wide scale. Aside from the situations presented, there are many more complications brought about by traffic congestion. Hence, there is an elephant in the room that asks why there are no policy options available to solve such a predicament. Downs (2004) maintains that there are simply some things that cannot be avoided without a massive restructuring scheme. Most of the ideas proposed were “prohibitively expensive”, like expanding the roads so that all vehicles would fit. However, this line of thinking cannot be pursued, because in the Philippines, buildings and establishments that surround the main roads would need to be sacrificed just to make way for wider roads. Even if this was possible, Downs further argues that as much as this would surely be beneficial during rush hours, it would be extremely underutilized during non-peak hours. This is an

example of a complex issue that must be continually on the agenda for study by policymakers. If the roads cannot be changed, then perhaps other projects can be made as substitute. A novel approach in policy change theory that can include the study of political, economic, social and geographic correlations might be beneficial in this regard. In further reflection, the student maintains that there should be media outlets that are effective in relaying the political, economic, and social realities of the Philippines to the public eye, which means that they communicate relevant news that would not only be of interest to the people, but would equip them with the knowledge they need in crafting their own agendas in a way that would make them informed and productive citizens. The media outlets that the Filipinos subscribe to are claimed by many to be deceiving (Guiguio, 2015; Luna, 2016; de Jesus, 2016), and for those who are not trained to interpret the news in a manner that would be conducive to the betterment of the Philippines, news programs, newspapers, and other paraphernalia only serve as means to divide the country. The third synthesized model, the Punctuated Equilibrium model, speaks about the importance of media in shaping policies and also policy outputs—the former pertaining to their contribution to policy-making via the determination of their perception on what they need to receive as ‘customers’ of the government that they elected, and the latter referring to how they receive the services brought about by the policies, and whether or not they comply with its implementation. This would allow great correspondence between the people and the government, given that the delivered goods and services are in line with their preferences.

REFERENCES Baumgartner, F. R., & Jones, B. D. (1993). Agendas in instability in American politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Chua, G. S. (2015, March 12). Economic effects of traffic in Metro Manila. Retrieved 19 2017, April, from Business Mirror: http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/economiceffects-of-traffic-in-metro-manila/ de Jesus, M. (2016, August). Philippines: How media corruption nourishes old systems of bias and control. Retrieved April 19, 2017, from Ethical Journalism Network: Untold Stories: http://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/resources/publications/untoldstories/philippines Downs, A. (2004, January 1). Traffic: Why It’s Getting Worse, What Government Can Do. Retrieved April 19, 2017, from Brookings: Policy Brief Series: https://www.brookings.edu/research/traffic-why-its-getting-worse-whatgovernment-can-do/ Guioguio, R. (2015, March 22). An Overview of the Mass Media Situation in the Philippines. Retrieved April 19, 2017, from LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/overview-mass-media-situation-philippines-reneguioguio John, P. (2013, June 24). New directions in public policy: theories of policy change and variation reconsidered. London, United Kingdom: International Conference on Public Policy. Kingdon, J. W. (1984). Agendas, alternatives, and public policies. Boston: Little Brown. Luna, A. F. (2016, September 17). Biased media and biased reporting. Retrieved April 19, 2017, from Inquirer: Opinion: http://opinion.inquirer.net/97390/biased-mediaand-biased-reporting Sabatier, P. A., & Jenkins-Smith, H. C. (1993). Policy change and learning: an advocacy coalition approach. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press.