Philosophy Reporting - Ethics

The Methodology of the Study of Philosophy & Ethics Chapter 4 Section I: The Language Point of View Gottleb Frege founder of modern logic, mathematical logic & analytical philosophy Mathematics not a mystical separate entity simply a projection of our ability to think clearly and a branch of logic Sense of a sentence is just a proposition Ludwig Wittgenstein wrote Tractatus Logico Philosophicus (claimed to solve all the problems of philosophy) dreamed to create a perfect logical language able to state everything with the utmost precision everything that could be thought could also be said philosophy can be reduced to what one might call syntax Erkenntnis published journal of the Vienna Circle introduced the Verification Principle Verification Principle developed by Karl Popper into a Falsification Thesis Falsification Thesis  “the meaning of a proposition is the method of its verification.”

Section II: Method of Analysis 1. Philosophic Dialogue A. internal – dialogue with one’s self B. interactive – dialogue between self and others 2. Classical Method of Analysis Known as Aristotelian or classical logic Includes deductive & inductive reasoning Used to clarify the relationship of ideas 3. Modern Critical Analysis Criticize – krinein (Greek word) which means “to place under judgment” Section III: Methods of Dialectics A. Dialectical Idealism Formulated by Friedrich Hegel According to him, thought process moves in a three-beat rhythm called dialectic Aufheben (German word) which means to annul or cancel out, to preserve & to elevate

God is the Absolute Mind B. Dialectical Materialism Founded by Karl Marx from Hegel’s dialectical idealism About the nature of reality Section IV: Method of Science “Learning is not the accumulation of scraps of knowledge. It is a growth, where every act of knowledge develops the learner…” Observation Done through senses Experimentation Done when simple observation can’t bring out facts Description Facts are recorded simply which is based on the immediate facts at hand Explanation Based on the immediate relations of the factors in situation being observed Section IV: Method of Science Pragmatic Method Charles Sanders Peirce Pragmatism – pragma (Greek word), means “a thing done” or “a business” Can make ideas more clear Analysis of concepts in relation to one’s own experience Employed in the evaluation of theories Section V: The Act of Philosophizing Philosophize a set of activities of elucidation, argument, critique, clarification, analysis, synthesis and so forth arrived at reflecting on how we think about the world and our actions in it Methods or processes according to David & Morgan: A. Looking for inconsistencies B. Seeking to make what appears irrational & unacceptable C. Conducting a continuing dialogue between self and others who may hold differing views D. Examining and revising the meaning of key E. Justify positions by arguments Section VI: Ethical Decision-making It is the act of drawing sufficient conclusions from insufficient premises Ethical Methodology Reasoning procedures one goes through to arrive at a decision based on the weighing of different values The Concept of Value

Ethical Methodology is the procedure of evaluating discordant values to arrive at the best course of action in the face of conflicting choices Characteristics of Values: 1. Indicate what is judged to be “the good” 2. Imply preference 3. Supported by rational justification 4. Countenance strong feelings or intense attitudes 5. Specify a course of action Changing the Ethical Behavior in Public Life Chapter 5 Section I: The Meaning of Ethics A. Etymological Meaning “ethicos” (Greek word) pertains to Ethos – a characteristic way of doing things or a body of customs study of human customs or ways of doing things Investigation into how we ought to live successfully with other people Ethics as Moral Philosophy Defined as moral values, rules or standards governing the conduct of a particular group, profession or culture Ethics is concerned not only with what is right & what is wrong but also with what is good & what is bad -McElreath Ethics as Normative Science Systematic body of knowledge of norms & standards meant to guide men/women in their pursuit of the good & happy life Ethics as a Practical Science Teaches man how to live B. The Essential Elements/Structure of Ethics Human Acts Acts that are done with full knowledge & full willingness or deliberation 1. It must be knowing (knowledge) 2. It must be free (freedom) 3. It must be voluntary (voluntariness) Acts of man Animal acts of sensation Section II: Difference between Ethics and Morality Morality What must I do? Ethics What do I ought to do?

Section III: Ethical Theories Function of ethical theories: 1. identify & justify moral guidelines to use in solving ethical problems 2. to help us to live together successfully with others 3 General Subject Areas of Ethical Theories Metaethics Normative Ethics Applied Ethics A. Metaethics “meta” – after / beyond Concerned with epistemological or semantic or logical matters that are related to right conduct Metaphysical Components of Metaethics Metaphysics Study of the kinds of things that exist in the universe which are made of physical stuffs & non-physical in nature Metaphysical Components of Metaethics 1. Objectivism Moral values are objective in the sense that they exist in a sprint-like realm beyond subjective human conventions Proponents William of Oakham, Middle Eastern Religions of Judaism, Christianity & Islam 2. Ethical Relativism Denies the objective status of moral values not the values per se but only rejects the assertion that values exist as absolute or as divine commands in the mind of God Two distinct forms of Relativism Individual Relativism – holds that the individual people create their own moral standards and assume moral infallibility Cultural Relativism – maintains that morality is grounded in the approval of one’s society and not simply in the preferences of individual people Proponents Sextus Empiricus, Michael Montaigue and William Graham Summer 3. Moral Psychology Involves psychological basis of our moral judgments & conduct, particularly what motivates us to be moral. “Why be moral or ethical?” 3.1 Egoism, Hedonism and Altruism One of important areas of moral psychology concerns the inherent selfishness of humans. Proponents Thomas Hobbes and Joseph Butler 3.2 Emotion & Reason

Moral assessment could be related to attitudes and emotional responses and not our reason. If someone has positive attitude or emotional response to something, it is good. If someone has negative attitude or emotional response to something, it is bad. Proponents David Hume, Thomas Hobbes, A.J. Ayer, I. Kant and Kurt Baier 3.3 Male & Female Morality Grounded in the psychological difference between men and women Proponents Feminist philosophers, Nel Nodding, Carl Gilligan B. Normative Ethics Deals with developing sets of principles that tell us what acts are right or wrong, good or bad, obligatory, permissible or forbidden Guides or standards for directing correct or ought behavior Strategies 1. Virtue Theories Importance of developing good habits of character Proponents Plato, Aristotle, Christian & other oriental religion leaders 2. Duty Theories Also, deontological “deon” (Greek word) – “of the obligatory” or “which is binding duty” 2.1 Duties to God, Oneself and Others Concerning our duty to God: 1. Theoretical duty to know the existence and nature of God 2. Practical duty to both inwardly and outwardly worship God Concerning our duty towards oneself: 1. Duties of the soul which involve developing one’s skill and talents 2. Duties of the body which involve not harming our bodies Concerning our duties towards others: 1. Absolute which are universally binding on the people in three ways a. Avoid wronging others b. Treat people as equals c. Promote the good of others 2. Conditional duties which are the result of contracts between people which involve various types of agreements, the principal one is the duty to keep one’s promises Proponents Samuel Pufendorf 2.1 The Right’s Theory 4 Traditional Features of Moral Rights

1. National 2. Universal 3. Equal 4. Inalienable Proponents John Locke, Thomas Jefferson, UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights 2.3 The Single Principle of Duty Proponents Immanuel Kant in his Categorical Imperative 2.4 Prima Facie or Principles of Human 1. Fidelity The duty to keep promises, not lying and being faithful 2. Gratitude The duty to thank those who help us; acknowledging services rendered, returning a favor, reciprocity 3. Justice The duty to recognize merit; being fair, being equitable, being impartial 4. Beneficence The duty to improve the conditions of others; sharing good fortune, helping others to achieve happiness 5. Self-improvement The duty to improve our virtue and intelligence; knowing and improving yourself 6. Non-injury or nonmaleficence The duty not to injure or harm others 7. Reparation The duty to compensate others when we harm them Proponents W.D. Ross 3. Consequentialist Theories Also: utilitarian, naturalist or Teleological Ethics (teleos is a Greek word for “brought to its end”) The end result of the action is the sole factor of its morality 3 Subdivisions 1. Ethical Egoism Favorable to agent performing the action 2. Ethical Altruism Favorable to everyone except the agent 3. Utilitarianism Favorable to everyone A. Variation of the Theory of Utilitarianism

Act-utilitariansim Tally the consequences of each action we perform and determine on a case basis whether an action is morally right or wrong Hedomistic utilitarianism Tally the pleasure and pain which result from our actions Ideal and preference utilitarianism Tallies any consequence that is intuitively recognized as good or bad B. Social Contract Theory A type of rule-ethical-egoism According to this theory, for purely selfish reasons the agent is better off living in a world with moral rules than one without moral rules. Proponents Jeremy Bentham, G.E. Moore, R.M. Hare, John Stewart Mill and Thomas Hobbes C. Applied Ethics Consist of analysis of specific, controversial moral issues such as abortion, animal rights or euthanasia 2 General Features 1. The issue needs to be controversial in the sense that there are significant groups of people both for and against the issue at hand 2. The issue needs to be distinctly moral issue & moral relevant Principles Personal Benefit Acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for the individual in question Social Benefit Acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for society Principle of Benevolence Help those in need Principle of Paternalism Assist others in pursuing their best interests when they cannot do so themselves Principle of Harm Do not harm others I. Professional Ethics Applied ethics designed to bring about the ethical conduct of the profession 1. Characteristics of a Professional A. With special competence B. Has theoretic insight C. Has certification D. Is engaged in an occupation as a vocation E. His observance of Code of Ethics 2. Foundations of Professional Ethics

A. The security & integrity of the profession itself B. The ideal of disinterested service 3. Ethical Decision Guided by specific professional code of ethics such as the code of ethics for social scientist, etc… II. Bioethics Systematic study of human conduct in areas of the life sciences & health care Principles of Biomedical Ethics A. Autonomy Principle Form of personal liberty Individual is free to choose & implement one’s own decisions, free from deceit, duress, constraints or coercion B. Veracity Principle Veracity binds both the health practitioner & the patient in an association of truth C. Beneficence Principle Suggests acts of mercy & charity D. Nonmaleficence Principle Practitioner works to maximize the good for the patient & to minimize harm E. Confidentiality Principle Valuing individual’s right to privacy in health care F. Justice Principle “Equals must be treated equally & unequal must be treated unequally” -Aristotle G. Rule Fidelity Principle Ethics of health care requires that the practitioner practice faithfully within the constraints of the role III. Environmental Ethics Environmental ethics took its root from Ecology Ernst Hocked – coined ECOLOGY from two words – oikos meaning “household” or “home” and logos meaning “study of” ECOLOGY – science that studies living organisms in their environment Environmental ethics refers to the examination of the moral basis of the environmental responsibility. It focuses on the moral foundation of environmental responsibility and how far this responsibility extends There are three distinct theories of moral responsibility to the environment. A. Anthropocentrism philosophy asserting that the ethical principles apply to humans only and that human interests and needs are of highest value and importance. Can be traced back to Mesopotamian era and its roots to Western Society

B. Biocentrism Philosophy that humans are not the only species on the planet that deserve the right to live and thrive to the best of their ability. This involves conservation and preservation for all species Centers around four central beliefs Four central beliefs: 1. Humans are members of the earth’s community of life in the same sense and term as all other living things. 2. All species including humans are part of the inter-dependence 3. All living things pursue their own good in their own ways 4. Humans are not inherently superior to any other living things C. Ecocentrism Philosophical premise that the world has inherent or intrinsic value. Ethical behavior should be extended beyond members of human community to include “soil, water, plants and animals” Two Types of Ecocentrism: 1. Land ethics implies human responsibility for natural world By Aldo Leopold in the late 1940’s 2. Deep ecology Involves intensive questioning of the values and lifestyles that originally led to serious environmental problems Coined in 1974 by Arne Naess, a Norwegian philosopher who contrasted it with shallow ecology which includes short-term reforms to solve environmental problems NOTE: ”Anthropocentrism” is human centered approach “Biocentrism” is life-centered approach Both biocentrism and ecocentrism are non-anthropocentric in approach Ethical Decision A. Anthropocentrism Advocates are Descartes, Aquinas, Kant, Guthrie, W.J. McGee, Goved and W.N. Murdy Human survival is the key component for maintaining an ecological support system in a healthy, useful condition Acknowledges destructive potential of humans Proposes that humans ought to treat nature as they would want to be treated by nature B. Biocentrism Early version is Albert Schweitzer’s “reverence for life” Paul Taylor’s book Respect for Nature (1986) is one of the most fully developed contemporary defense of biocentric ethics Four general duties that follow from the attitude of respect for nature:

Duty of nonmaleficence – requires that we do no harm to any organism (negative duty); most fundamental duty to nature Rule of noninterference – requires not to interfere with the freedom of individual organisms with ecosystems (negative role) Rule of fidelity – respect for nature requires that up do not deceive or betray wild animals Duty of restitutive justice – demands that when a moral subject has been harmed that agent responsible for that harm must make reparations for the harm Formal Priority Rules for Solving Conflicts Between The Ethical Claims of humans and other living things: A. Self-defense justifies favoring human interests over those of nonhuman organisms in times of conflict or threat to human life B. Proportionality If nonbasic human interest is incompatible with basic interest of nonhumans, the principle of proportionality prohibits humans from satisfying the human interest C. Minimum wrong When nonbasic human interest of nonhuman, even though they threaten or endanger nonhumans, this principle sets the condition on satisfying human interests D. Distributive justice Sets condition for resolving conflicts between basic interests of humans and nonhumans E. Restitutive justice demands that restitution be made any time a resolution of conflict fats to meet the conditions established by the principle of minimum wrong or distributive justice C. Ecocentrism Land Ethics Aldo Leopold articulated “a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise” Ecological conscience Humans are “biotic citizens” rather than “conquerors” of nature Deep Ecology Naess and Sessions developed the deep ecology platform as a statement of common principles A. The flourishing of human and nonhuman life on earth has intrinsic value B. Richness and diversity of life forms are values in themselves and contribute to the flourishing of all forms of life on earth

C. Humans has no right to reduce this diversity except to satisfy vital needs. D. Present human interference with non-human world is excessive and the situation is rapidly worsening E. Flourishing of human life is compatible with substantial decrease of the human population F. Significant change of life condition for the better requires changes in polices G. Ideological change is mainly that of appreciating life quality H. Those who subscribe to foregoing points have an obligation in attempt to implement necessary changes The Two Norms: A. Self-realization understand ourselves interconnectedly with the rest of nature B. Biocentric equality All organisms are equal members of an interrelated whole, equal intrinsic worth Ethical Care Relationship in which the person meets another morally identifies three important element as follows: A. Requires one who cares for the other must try to meet and accept the other’s reality. B. Engrossment The one caring is concerned with the other and must be present in his or her acts of caring and involved with the other C. Motivational Displacement The one caring is motivated by the good of the other Section III: Ethical Theories – The Ethics of Care The ethics of care is centered around the ideal picture of the individual as a caring person. Quoting from Moises Cabrera: “Care is the heart of practical morality. One cannot be consistently ethical as a human person unless he/she cares about what is good, not only for him/herself but also for others and the world around.”