Nursing Research

NURSING RESEARCH • Systematic process of collecting and analyzing data to find an answer to a question or solution to a problem, or to validate or test an existing theory • Study of all aspects, components, activities and phenomena relating to health and of interest to nurses

FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH • • • • •

Answer questions, solve problems & make decisions Enables us to see and understand how and why a situation or a problem exists Helps us discover new things and ideas. Validate existing theories or generate new ones. Identify and understand the causes and effects of a situation or phenomenon.

Why is Research important in Nursing? • So that we could – Describe – Explain – Predict – Control

Reasons Why Nurses Do Research • Because nursing is a profession – To contribute to the generation of nursing knowledge

• Through research, nurses could evaluate and document their contributions to their client’s health and well-being and to the health care delivery system • It is one of the duties of the nurse

GENERAL TYPES OF RESEARCH •

Descriptive – finds answer to the questions who, what, when & where Ex. “The management styles of school administrators in Cebu City.” “Smoking habits of health service providers in government and private hospitals”

2. Explanatory/Correlation - attempts to explain the possible factors related to a problem which have been observed in a descriptive study • Answers the questions why & how Ex. “Relationship between Socioeconomic Factors and Absenteeism among High School Students in the City of Cebu” “Marketing strategies and Sales Performance of Garment Industries in the province of Antique”

3. Intervention/Experimental - evaluates the effect or outcome of a particular intervention or treatment • Cause & effect Ex. “The effect of Different Levels of Applied Nitrogen on the Growth and Yield of Rice” “ The effect of the ADB – Assisted Microfinance Projects on the Living Conditions of the Beneficiaries”

RESEARCH METHODS •

Experimental method – determines the “causes & effect” relationship of certain phenomena under controlled condition

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Survey/Descriptive method – obtains data determine specific characteristics of a group - aims to describe the relationship among variables rather than to infer cause & effect - serve as a starting point of theory dev. or hypothesis generation

RESEARCH METHODS • Historical Method – a systematic collection & critical evaluation of data relating to past occurrences - determine growth & development of a group, organization or institution - undertaken to answer questions concerning causes, effects or trends relating to past events that may shed light in present behavior or practices • Content Analysis – to ascertain the quality of message or information found in a document or in a mass media

ETHICS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH •

Principles – The subjects should be protected from harm and discomfort. – Participation in studies should be voluntary. – There is the right of individual participants – Study to protect their privacy » Anonymity - person/subject » Confidentiality – result/answer to the survey

THE RESEARCH PROCESS I.

Identification and Definition of a Research Problem  Criteria for the Selection of Problems » Novelty » Importance for the field represented and implication » Interest, intellectual curiosity and drive » Training and personal qualification » Availability of data and method » Special equipment and working condition

THE RESEARCH PROCESS  Criteria for the Selection of Problems » Sponsorship and administrative cooperation » Cost and return » Hazards, penalties and handicaps » Time frame » Ethical consideration

THE RESEARCH PROCESS  What is a Researchable Problem?  There is perceived discrepancy between what is and what should be.  There are two or more plausible reasons for the discrepancy

THE RESEARCH PROCESS  Characteristics of a Good Research Problem  Relevant – contribute to knowledge & dev’t  Feasible – worth the time, money & effort  Clear  Ethical – does not impose danger in the research subjects

THE RESEARCH PROCESS  Significance of the Study - Present the long range effects of the results of the study. - delimitation

 Scope and limitation of the Study - Present the firm boundaries and the study’s limitation or weakness.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS a. coverage or boundaries b. area or locality c. subject or population covered d. duration or period of the study e. research issues or concerns to which the investigation is focused Ex. The present study covers the women of reproductive ages in the district of Jaro, Iloilo City. To last for 7 months, the study is focused on the knowledge of, attitude towards, and practice of family planning techniques, natural and otherwise.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS • The study would be more comprehensive, meaningful and far-reaching if it covers more areas including rural communities, which will provide basis for comparison. This however, would mean more time, money, and manpower, which the researcher does not have.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS  Review of Related Literature – process of collecting, selecting and reading books, journals articles, reports, abstracts, and other reference materials.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Purposes of Review of Related Literature: • • • •

Helps researcher identify and define a research problem Helps justify the need for studying a problem Helps prevent unnecessary duplication of a study Can be a source of a theoretical basis for the study

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Purposes of Review of Related Literature: • Enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem and properly identify and operationally study variables • Provides a basis for identifying and using appropriate research design • Provides lessons for data analysis and interpretation.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS What to review & where to get materials? •

General References – indexes, reviews, abstracts

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Primary Sources – research journals

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Secondary Sources – books, yearbooks, encyclopedias

THE RESEARCH PROCESS  Theoretical/Conceptual Framework  

Theoretical Framework – consists of the theories seem to be interrelated Conceptual Framework – made up of concepts that are place within a sequential design.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS II. Research Objectives and Hypotheses Formulation  Research Objectives – statements of what researcher intends to do  Types of Objectives  Immediate/General objective - directly to the research problem and states clearly what the researcher will do & expects to find out  Specific Objectives – sub-objectives

THE RESEARCH PROCESS  Tips in Formulating Research Objectives – Use simple language – Focus attention on the specific actions that will be performed. – State exactly, what will be done and what variables will be measured. – Write objectives in behavioral terms, like “to determine…” “to describe…” to comfort…

THE RESEARCH PROCESS  Hypothesis / Hypotheses – State that an independent variable is associated with a dependent variable. – Specify that under certain conditions, one variable is associated with or can influence another variable. – State that a particular characteristic of a person or object varies accordingly to another variable.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES 1. Null Hypothesis

VS Alternative Hypothesis

negative statement

positive form

Example:

Example:

“There is no significant relationship….”

“There is a significant relationship…”

2. Directional

VS

Non - directional

Specifies the direction of the relationship between the variables being studied

Predicts only that there is a relationship between variables, being studied but does not specify what is it

Example: “People who smoke are more prone to lung cancer than those who do not smoke”

Example: “There is a difference in the level of anxiety of pre-surgical patients who receive pre-op instruction than those who do not receive such instructions

THE RESEARCH PROCESS How to Write Hypotheses •

Written in simple understandable language

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Focus on the variables

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Must keep in mind the distinction between independent and dependent variables.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS I.

Selecting a Research Design o

Research Design – “blueprint” of the study  Plan/course of action

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Types of Research Design 1. Non/Pre – Experimental Designs – good for descriptive research Examples: – Profile studies – Exploratory studies – Case studies – Historical studies

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Non/Pre – Experimental Designs A. Post – Test Only Design or After only survey – one “shot survey”  No baseline data  “How do 4 diff. methods of securing endotracheal tubes in orally intubated patients compare in terms of tube sterility? Manipulated Variable: Lillihie, Harness, Comfit dale, Secure Easy Subject: 120 ICU patients (30 each method)

THE RESEARCH PROCESS B. Pre – Test – Post – Test Design or Before – after Survey – the study wants to know the change in the characteristics of study population  “Is a special educational program for nurses concerning causes of noise effective in decreasing noise levels in an ICU for infants?” Manipulated Variable: Nurses’ participation in the program Subject: 52 nurses

THE RESEARCH PROCESS A. Static Group Comparison – composed of two groups Example: a. health teaching = effect b. without health teaching = effect

THE RESEARCH PROCESS 2. True Experimental Designs – subjects are randomly selected to the experimental group and the control group to achieve pre-intervention equality of groups A. Pre – Test – Post – Test Control Group Design – same with static but randomly selected B. Post – Test Only Control Group Design –still with 2 groups, without survey, randomly selected

THE RESEARCH PROCESS 3. Quasi – Experimental Design – almost the same with True Experimental Designs except that it does not have any restrictions of random assignment A. Non – Equivalent Control Group Design – training programs  “Does participation in the Cardiovascular Health Education Program improve adolescents’ cardiovascular health knowledge?” Manipulated Variable: Participation vs. non participation Subject: 22 adolescents in CHEP; 12 in control group

THE RESEARCH PROCESS B. Time Series Design  “What is the effect of 12 weeks of low impact aerobic exercise program on fatigue, aerobic fitness and disease activity measures in people with rheumatoid arthritis? Manipulated Variable: Participation in the exercise program Subject: 32 people with rheumatoid arthritis

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Considerations in Selecting a Study Design • Ethical Issues • Practical and administrative Issues • Technical Issues

THE RESEARCH PROCESS I.

Selecting a Sample Sampling – is the process of choosing a representative portion of a population that will represent the entire population

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Terms To Remember • Population – refers to the total number of elements to be studied • Target population – population for which representative information is desired • Sampling population – population from which a sample is drawn

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Basic Types of Sampling 3) Non – Probability Sampling – arbitrary and is generally subjective  there is no way of ensuring that each member of the population could be selected  risk of bias is greater

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Accidental Sampling/Convenient – entails the use of the most conveniently available people or objects as subjects in the study e.g. A faculty member who distributes questionnaires to the nursing students in a class

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Purposive Sampling/Judgmental – based on the researcher’s knowledge about the population can be used to hand pick the cases to be included in a sample - often used when the researcher wants a sample of experts

THE RESEARCH PROCESS 2) Probability Sampling – uses random procedures for the selection of the sample  every member of the population has an equal probability of being included in the sample a) Simple Random – process of selecting sample cases from a population, giving all sampling units equal chances of being included in a sample b) Stratified Random Sampling – taking certain areas of the population dividing the areas into sections and then taking random sample from each section

THE RESEARCH PROCESS c) Systematic Sampling within a Random Start – involves the selection of every kth case from some list or group K = N/n K – sampling interval N – size of the population n – desired sample size d) Cluster Sampling – selecting a sample of groups or cluster of elements

THE RESEARCH PROCESS I.

Data Collection Types of Research Data

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Quantitative can be counted

VS

Qualitative descriptive information

THE RESEARCH PROCESS 2. Primary directly from the subjects

VS

Secondary from other available sources

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Techniques Collecting Quantitative Data 1. Structural interview 2. Self – Administered Questionnaires 3. Mailed Questionnaires 4. Service Statistic

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Techniques in Collecting Qualitative Data 1. In – depth interview 2. Focus group interview 3. Direct observation 4. Content analysis

THE RESEARCH PROCESS I.

Data Processing

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

: : : :

Steps in Data Processing Editing Coding Encoding and Creating Data Fill Tabulation : Generating Data Summaries

Steps in the Research Process 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Identify the problem Conduct literature review Identify theoretical/conceptual framework Formulate hypotheses Operationalize variables Select research design Ascertain and select sample

Steps in the Research Process 8. Conduct a pilot study. 9. Collect data. 10. Analyze data. 11. Interpret results. 12. Disseminate information.