Nursing Research

Nursing Research Board Review

Research defined • A systematic search for understanding, an attempt to gain solutions, discover and develop an organized body of knowledge

Nursing Research • Concerned with the systematic study and assessment of nursing problems or phenomena, finding ways to improve nursing practice and patient care through creative studies, initiating change and taking action to make new knowledge useful to nursing

Foundation of nursing knowledge • Customs and traditions • Authority • Staff development and experience

General types of research • Basic Research – Search for new knowledge

• Applied Research – Application of knowledge to solve problems

• Action Research – Study of certain problem where conclusions are drawn

Characteristics of research 1. Involves gathering of new data from new sources 2. Directed towards the solution of problem 3. Analytical and empirical 4. Requires expertise 5. Logical, honest and innovative 6. Can be replicated 7. Carefully recorded

Purposes of NURSING research 1. Provide scientific basis for nursing practice 2. Develop new techniques, tools. New knowledge 3. Provide solutions to problems concerning health 4. Help determine the areas of need in nursing 5. Prepare oneself to be a diligent researcher. It is on duty of a NURSE.

NP and NS • Nursing process is similar to research process • both consist of a number of closely related activities that overlap • Both involve problem solving and the use of logical systems of inductive and deductive reasoning

Overview of the step in NR • There are variety of steps in conducting research • Most authors differ slightly but they have common sequence

Steps in nursing research 1. Identify problem 2. Conduct literature review 3. Identify theoretical concept 4. Formulate hypothesis 5. Operationalize variables 6. Select research design 7. Ascertain and select sample 8. Conduct a pilot study 9. Collect data 10. analyze data 11.Interpret results 12.Disseminate information

steps 1. Formulate the Problem • • • • • • • • •

Define the problem Define purpose of research Review related literature Formulate theoretical framework Define the population State the SPECIFIC research problem State the assumptions State the scope and limitation Define the research terms

steps 2. Formulate the hypothesis 3. Determine research design and methodology 4. Select and develop tools for data collection 5. Develop analysis of data plan

steps 6. Collect the data 7. Organize and process the data 8. Analyze and interpret the data 9. Formulate conclusions 10. Write the research reports

Formulate the problem • Curiosity or burning interest form the researcher may lead to the formulation of a problem • The problem must be: – – – – –

Feasible Important Clearly defined Observable Satisfies the interests of the QUALIFIED researcher

Review of related literature 1. To define research questions, models and tools that may be useful in problem identification 2. To provide comparative data that are available for analysis 3. To compare one’s findings with other theoretical an conceptual frameworks 4. To identify studies that may be replicated

Formulate theoretical framework • Useful guides are the data from literature • Previous theories

Delineate the population • The POPULATION refers to the largest body of the individuals being research • SAMPLING is the process of selecting a PORTION of the POPULATION to represent the whole

Delineate the population • Factors that can influence sample size include: 1. Accessibility 2. Cost 3. Amount of time available

Delineate the population TYPES OF SAMPLING 1. Probability sampling

• Individuals are given chance to be selected

1. Non probability sampling

• Selection is based upon the criteria of researcher, persons are NOT given equal chance

Delineate the population PROBABILITY SAMPLING • Simple random= selection is done by chance, usually lottery or table of random numbers • Stratified random sampling= population is divided into LEVELS or strata and selection is done per level

Delineate the population PROBABILITY SAMPLING 3. Systematic Random sampling= this consist of establishing a pattern like: every 5th person, every 8th household 4. Cluster sampling= involves selection of sample form various section of the population

Delineate the population NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING • CONVENIENCE sampling/accidental sampling= data are collected from anyone available • Snowball or network sampling= data are collected from those referred by another person

Delineate the population NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING 3. Purposive sampling= selection of subjects based on certain characteristics 4. Cross cultural= variety of culture 5. Cross sectional= one point only

Scope and limitations • Scope is the extent to which the study will be made • Limitations are perceived weaknesses • Delimitations are restrictions that the researches places on the study

STEP 2 Formulate Hypothesis Hypothesis is a scientific guess. It is only tested not proved 1. Simple hypothesis 2. Complex hypothesis 3. Null hypothesis= assumption that there is NO difference

Step 2 Variable • A quality, property or characteristic of a person or thing to be studied that can be quantitatively measured • It is a factor that varies

Step 2 Variable 1. INDEPENDENT Variable= the presumed CAUSE. The one MANIPULATED by the researcher 2. DEPENDENT VARIABLE= the presumed EFFECT or the response. It is otherwise called CRITERION VARIBALE

Step 2 Variable 3. EXTRANEOUS or UNCONTROLLED or CONFOUNDING variable= variable that may affect the dependent variable

Step 2 Variable Dichotomous variable= sex Polychotomous variable= many categories

Step 3 Research Design 1. EXPERIMENTAL research • Conducted in a specialized setting

1. NON experimental research • Conducted in a natural setting such as hospital, clinic

Step 3 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH approach • Describes and interprets what IS and reveals conditions and relationships that EXIST or DO NOT exist • Survey, Case analysis, comparative studies, relationship studies

Step 3 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH approach Survey • Data are gathered from a relatively LARGE number of cases at a particular time 1. Normative survey= norms or typical condition 2. Social survey= current social problem 3. Community survey 4. School survey

Non-experimental ADVANTAGES Less expensive

DISADVANTAGES

CANNOT establish causal relationships Completed in SHORT timeNOT used for diagnosis and explanation Cooperation of subjects NOT always useful for easily obtained theory development Translation of findings is Difficult to get financial more acceptable to aid consumers of research Use for PREDICTIVE CANNOT be applied to test purpose a program or procedure

Step 4 Select data collection method 1. Reliability= ACCURACY or precision of the tool. The measurements are the same if REPEATED

Step 4 Select data collection method 2. VALIDITY= relevancy of measurements. It measures what it is supposed to measure

Step 4 Select data collection method 3. SENSITIVITY= measures the fine differences among the subjects

Step 5 Develop the data analysis plan consider how the data should be analyze

Step 6 COLLECTION OF DATA 1. Use of existing records 2. Observation 3. Questionnaire 4. interview

Data Nominal data

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio

Data that can be organized into CATEGORIES of a defined property but cannot be compared Used when data can be assigned categories that can be ranked Have equal numerical distance between intervals. NO ZERO SCALE Highest form of measure, similar to interval BUT with ZERO POINT

Step 6 Questionnaire • The most common • Written in a form that is distributed • Questions constructed and pre-tested carefully 1. FREE response/ unstructured= respondents can write 2. Close-ended/Structured= respondents just check the prepared response

Step 6 Questionnaire Advantages Simple method

Disadvantages Responses may lack depth Less time consumed Omission of items Data gathered can be Responses may not widely scattered be the actual responses Researcher does not Printing, distribution need to see respondents and collection are personally expensive and maybe difficult

Step 6 INTERVIEW • Second most common • Relevant ideas and depth van be explored 1. Structured interview= read to the respondents 2. Unstructured interview= guide questions only

Step 6 Interview

Advantages

disadvantages

Complete answers possible

Requires more time

Misunderstanding minimized

Topics can be pursued No items omitted Subjects does not have to be literate

Interpersonal relationship between subject and researcher may not be the same Cost, time, effort are even greater than interview

Step 6 Observation • Most directive means • Common in nursing care research 1. Participant observation= investigator blends with subject 2. Non-participant= use of weighing scale, BP to monitor quantitative changes

Step 6: Observation Advantages

Disadvantages

Valuable in studying nursing practice Inexpensive. Can be continued anytime

Observed clients are subject to bias Events may occur rapidly and impossible to record

Subjects are available

Extensive training necessary Time needed to wait for the occurrence Difficult to be always PRESENT to view

Simple to develop Allows view of situation

Step 6 HAWTHORNE effect • People may INTENTIONALY change their behavior because they know that they are being studied

Step 6 HALO effect • Observer may have the TENDENCY to rate certain subjects as either LOW or HIGH depending on the impression the subject gives to the observer

Step 7 ORGANIZE AND PROCESS DATA • Editing • Coding • Scoring • Sealing summarizing • Use of tables and computer to calculate the data

Step 7 ORGANIZE AND PROCESS DATA For QUALITATIVE DATA • Rate and percentages For QUANTITATIVE DATA • Measures of central tendency and measures of variation

Step 8 ANALYZE the DATA • Draw meaning from the finding • The researcher should be able to say if the NULL hypothesis is accepted or rejected

Step 9 FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS and Recommendations These are judgment about the data collected and the suggestions of possible application of the research

Step 10 WRITE THE RESEARCH REPORT • Report may be prepared for publication • The MAIN purpose is to disseminate the findings of the study for others to utilize

Ethical Issues in Research 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Confidentiality Autonomy Beneficence Non-maleficence Justice