Monograph.docx

Introduction Language instruction has five important components, students, a teacher, materials, teaching methods and evaluation. Most of the scientists and pedagogies emphasize that materials control learning and teaching and even they help learning and teaching to happen effectively. Material is anything which is used to help to teach learners. Materials can be a text book, a work book, a cassette, a CD- Rome, a video, a photocopied handout, a newspaper, a paragraph written on a white board, anything which present or informs about the language being learned. The role of teacher is to help learners to learn. Teachers have to follow the curriculum and provide, make or choose materials. They may adapt, supplement, and elaborate on those materials and also monitor the progress and needs of the students and finally evaluate students. Materials influence the content and procedures of learning. The choice of deductive vs. inductive learning, the role of memorization, the use of creatively and problem solving, production vs. reception, and the order in which materials are presented are all influenced by the materials. So this is very important to know how to select materials, how to use them and how to develop them for teaching writing, which is crucial need for help learning to happen effectively. As technology developed, it influenced to humans’ life, even to materials that teachers select for teaching writing. Computer programs which are especially designed for writing skills, computer games and videos are examples of these materials. The basic writing tool provided by the computer is a word processor, with most word processor including a spellchecker and many including a grammar checker as well. Many studies have shown that beyond their facilitating effects, word processors have student writers, attitudes, the characteristics of their texts, and their revising behavior. This is only a example of material that teacher can use that in teaching writing, thus the job of teacher is to seek useful and applicable material for his/her teaching.

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Why Do We Use Materials in Teaching Writing Language instruction has five important components, students, a teacher, materials, teaching methods and evaluation. Allwright (1990) argues that materials should teach students to learn, that they should be resource books for ideas and activities for instruction/learning, that they should give teachers rationales for that they do. From Allwright’s point of view, text books are too inflexible to be used directly as instructional material. O’Neill (1990), in contrast, argues that materials may be suitable for student’s needs, even if they are not designed specifically for them, that text books make it possible for students to review and prepare their lessons, that text books are efficient in terms of time and money, and that textbooks can and should allow for adaptation and improvisation. Allwright emphasizes that materials control learning and teaching. O’Neill emphasizes that they help learning and teaching. It is true that in many cases teachers and students rely heavily on text books, and textbooks determine the components and methods of learning, that is, they control the content, methods, and procedures of learning. Students learn what is presented in the text book, and the way the text book presents material is the way students learn it. The educational philosophy of the text book will influence the class and learning process. Therefore, in many cases, materials are the center of instruction and one of the most important influences on what goes on in the classroom. Theoretically, experienced teachers can teach English without a text book. However, it is not easy to do it all the time, though they may do it sometimes. Many teachers do not have enough time to make supplementary materials, so they just follow the text book. Text books therefore take on a very important role in language classes, and it is important to select a good text book.

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The Role of Materials in Relation to Other Elements Material is anything which is used to help to teach language learners. Materials can be in the form of a text book, a work book, a cassette, a C-D Rome, a video, a photocopied handout, a newspaper, a paragraph written on a white board, anything which presents or informs about the language being learned. Since the end of 1970s, there has been a movement to make learners rather than teachers the center of language learning. According to this approach to teaching, learners are more important than teachers, materials, curriculums, methods, or evaluation. As a matter of fact, curriculum, materials, teaching methods and evaluation should all be designed for learners and their needs. It is the teacher’s responsibility to check to see whether all of the learning processes are working well for learners and to adapt them if they are not. In other words, learners should be the center of instruction and learning. The curriculum is a statement of the goals of learning, the methods of learning, etc. The role of teachers is to help learners to learn. Teachers have to follow the curriculum and provide, make, or choose materials. They may adapt, supplement, and elaborate on those materials and also monitor the progress and needs of the students and finally evaluate students. Materials include text books, videos, and audio tapes, computer soft ware, and visual aids. They influence the content and procedures of learning. The choice of deductive vs. inductive learning, the role of memorization, the use of creatively and problem solving, production vs. reception, and the order in which materials are presented are all influenced by the materials. Technology, such as OHP, slides, video and audio tape recorders, video cameras, and computers, supports instruction/learning. Evaluations (tests, etc) can be used to assign grades, check learning, give feedback to students, and improve instruction by giving feedback to the teacher. Though students should be the center of instruction, in many cases, teachers and students rely on materials, and the materials become the center of instruction. Since many teachers are busy 3

and do not have the time or inclination to prepare extra materials, text books and other commercially produced materials are very important in language instruction. Therefore, it is important for teachers to know how to choose the best material for instruction, how to make supplementary materials for the class, and how to adapt materials.

What Are Characteristics of Materials? Littlejohn and Windeatt (1989) argue that materials have a hidden curriculum that includes attitudes toward knowledge, attitudes toward teaching and learning, attitudes toward the role and relationship of the teacher and student, and values and attitudes related to gender, society, etc. Materials have an underlying instructional philosophy, approach, method, and content, including both linguistic and cultural information. That is, choices made in writing textbooks are based on beliefs that the writers have about what language is and how it should be taught. Writers may use a certain approach, for example, the aural-oral approach, and they choose certain activities and select the linguistic and cultural information to be included. Clarke (1989) argues that communicative methodology is important and that communicative methodology is based on authenticity, realism, context, and a focus on the learner. However, he argues that what constitutes these characteristics is not clearly defined, and that there are many aspects to each. He questions the extent to which these are these reflected in text books that are intended to be communicative. In a study of English text books published in Japan in 1985, the text books were reviewed and problems were found with both language and content of many of the text books (Kitao et al, 1995). Vocabulary is limited, the vocabulary in text books should be controlled or the text books should provide information to help students understand vocabulary that they may not be familiar with. For lower-level students, grammar should also be controlled. Many text books use narratives and essays. It would be useful to have variety of literary forms (for example, newspaper articles, poetry, or letters), so that students can learn to deal with different forms. 4

The cultural information included in English text books should be correct and recent. It should not be biased and should reflect background cultures of English. It should include visual aids etc, to help students understand cultural information.

From Learners’ Viewpoint Content English text books should be useful, meaningful and interesting for students. While no single subject will be of interest to all students, materials should be chosen based, in part, on what students, in general, are likely to find interesting and motivating. Difficulty, as a general rule, materials should be slightly in higher in their level of difficulty than the students’ current level of English proficiency. (Exception is usually made for extensive reading and extensive listening materials, which should be easy enough for students to process without much difficulty.) Materials at a slightly higher level of difficulty than the students’ current level of English proficiency allow them to learn new grammatical structures and vocabulary. Instructional issues: English textbooks should have clear instructional procedure and methods, that is, the teacher and students should be able to understand what is expected in each lesson and for each activity. Textbooks should have support for learning. This can take the form of vocabulary lists, exercises which cover or expand on the content, visual aids, etc. traditionally; language teaching materials in Japan are made up mostly of text, with few, if any, visual aids. However, with the development of technology, photos, visual materials and audio materials have become very important components of language teaching materials, and they are becoming easier to obtain. Teachers need to learn how to find them, and how to best exploit these characteristics. Materials are getting more complicated and instructional philosophy, approach, methods, and techniques are getting more important. Teachers need to be able to evaluate materials involving photos, videos, and computers now. 5

How Can We Learn About Materials? There are various ways to get information about text books and other teaching materials. Many materials are published by publishers and developed and distributed by commercial companies. Thus, publishers are useful (if not entirely unbiased) sources of information and advice about what materials are available and what materials are appropriate for various purposes. Many publishers provide sample copies on request. Bookstores that carry textbooks are another possible source of information. Clerks at such bookstores may help you find the materials you want. In addition, publishers’ displays at conferences are useful. They usually have the most recent materials, exhibitors are willing to help you and answer your questions, and in some cases, you will have opportunities to meet and talk with the authors, colleagues and friends who are teachers are also good sources of recommendations of textbooks and advice about how to best use them. Finally, there is information from computer mailing lists and web pages on the internet. List On language teaching often have discussions on materials, and you can ask questions and may get good feedback. Many publishers have www pages and e-mail addresses, so you can check with them and also ask questions about the materials.

How Do We Get Materials? In addition to publishers, there are many possible sources of materials. There is a lot of material available on the internet. You can search for materials when you have free time, and they can collect materials in English-speaking countries. TV and radio are good sources. They provide variety of materials. The information is current and the language is natural, but the content has to be chosen carefully. Newspapers, magazines, advertisements, and other types of printed materials are very useful. Teachers can take photos; make video tapes or record audio tapes. If they make plans before they go overseas, they may be able to make good video or audio programs. Even in your home country you can browse the World Wide Web and search for useful materials for classes. 6

The market of language teaching materials are fairly large and many companies are competing. They produce new materials and promote them with many advertisements and through their salespeople. You need to be careful about what they tell you. You always need to examine their materials carefully from the point of view of what is appropriate for your students and the classes you are teaching. Another concern about materials is the copyright issue. Many teachers violate the copyright laws every day. We cannot copy any copyright materials. Of course, we cannot copy them and distribute them to our students in the class. We need the permission from publisher to do so.

Effective Teaching Materials for Writing Materials obviously reflect the writers ‘views of language and learning, and teachers (and student) will respond according to how well these match their own beliefs and expectations. If materials are to be a helpful scaffold, these underlying principles need to be made explicit and an object of discussion for both students and teachers. The remainder of this paper looks at the assumptions about language and learning which the author believes should underpin materials used in language classrooms. Individual end- users will, of course, weigh these factors differently, and so need to adapt the materials to their own context and learners.

Ten Steps in Planning a Writing Course Ann Raimes (2002) commended that a few years ago; I gave papers called “The Neurosis of lesson planning” and “Anguish as a second language” in which I explored the fact that both learning and teaching a language promote anxiety. There is even more anxiety when writing is involved, especially when many teachers themselves do not feel entirely comfortable with writing in English, even if it is their native language. Today, with a burgeoning of conflicting theories, planning a writing course is like walking a minefield. It involves so many choices about where to go next, what is the best step to take, and what is the best route to the goal. Taking a wrong step in this context might not be as dire as stepping on a mine, but it can undermine our 7

confidence and detonate our students’ resistance. So I have come up with ten steps that I hope can lead us to safer ground both in planning writing courses and in helping teachers to plan writing courses. These steps are: Step 1: Ascertaining goals and instructional constraints Step 2: Deciding on theoretical principle Step 3: Planning content Step 4: Writing the elements Step 5: Drawing up a syllabus Step 6: Selecting materials Step 7: Preparing activities and roles Step 8: Choosing types and methods of feedback Step 9: Evaluating the course Step 10: Reflecting the teacher’s experience

Selecting Materials for Writing Increasingly, teachers of writing are beginning to view the main texts of a writing class as what the students write and what the teachers write a response. Certainly, students and teachers generate a lot of words on the page for analysis, discussion, and revision. But to open up the classroom to shared experiences- to topics to stimulate writing- teachers turn to other materials, such as videos, software, and books. Then the materials have to fit as far as possible with the goals, principles, content, and weighting that we have already decide on. It just won’t work, for example, to decide that a process approach to writing will help our students with fluency and discovery of ideas and language, and then to use a book full of sentence- level grammar exercises with a few controlled compositions thrown in. Before selection a book, either as an individual or as a committee, it is advisable to take a section or a task or two and work through it to see what is asked for and what assumptions the 8

author makes, because sometimes authors make claims on which they don’t follow through. If you decide to use an ESL writing text book and not books and articles written for authentic purposes, I would suggest looking for the following seven features: 1. Topics. Will they engage the students’ interest? What are they based on- experience, materials in the book such as reading and pictures, activities and inquires beyond the classroom, or out of the blue random topics? Culturally appropriate for your students? Is the content relevant and engaging? 2. Types of writing. Are the students writing essays, letters, or paragraph? Is that what they need to be writing? 3. Opportunities for and instruction in methods of generating ideas. Which of the following are included: brain storming, free writing, listing, mapping, outlining? Which are appropriate for your students? 4. Instruction on principles of rhetorical organization. What information is provided to help students organize various types of writing- letters, description, narration, exposition, and argument, for example- and which types do your students need to practice? 5. Opportunities for collaboration. Is group working a part of the activities? If so, how are collaborative activities viewed in your culture? 6. Opportunities for revision. Are students encouraged and directed to write drafts? Does the book provide instruction on what to do in various stages? Does your curriculum allow for revision of essays? 7. Instruction in editing and proofreading. What can students learn from the book about how to edit their own work? What instruction is provided in finding and editing grammatical errors?

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A Recommended Sequence for Preparing Materials for Teaching Writing 1. Determine the needs and preferences of the students and institution/ corporation through questionnaires and interviews. 2. Decide what sort of language contexts the course will focus on (e.g., lectures, business meetings). 3. Decide on the categories for presenting the language in the course (e.g. grammar, function, lexis, situation, topic, communicative skill). 4. Decide what language skills and sub-skills the course will focus on (e.g. listening, speaking, reading, writing), taking into account learners’ and company’s objectives. 5. Design the syllabus; will it be cumulative, or will each unit/lesson be independent? 6. Decide the types of activities that will be used in the course (e.g. individual, pair, group, whole class). 7. Decide on the page layout of worksheets; prepare templates. 8. Prepare the materials 9. Pilot the materials; collect and collate feedback through questionnaires and interviews. 10. Revise the materials. 11. Use the materials. 12. Get feedback from students, teacher and sponsors during and after the course through e.g. questionnaires, interviews, classroom observation by peer teachers and managers, videotaping of lesson, lesson comment sheets. 13. Revise the materials if necessary. 14. Periodically review the course. This sequence is an ideal, and very often a number of steps will be omitted; however, it does illustrate two important points: In the process of materials design, the role writers, learners, teachers and sponsors are inextricably interconnected; The process is essentially circular; there is no beginning or end- there is never a “finished product.

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Tools for Teaching Writing: Text Books, Computer Program and Videos Many materials suggested up to this point- television programs on video, newspapers and lyrics to popular songs, maps, pictures, photographs, and others- are not especially intended for use in language teaching. However, commercial products specially designed for second language, foreign language, or bilingual teaching can be invaluable if they are chosen carefully. Such materials can provide challenging content, aid organization, give guidance when needed, complement and constitute lessons, and introduce and reinforce concepts. Moreover, they can serve as important resources in emergent participatory classrooms and allow for self- access learning.

Text Books Some teachers and many publishers long for the days when one set of materials (complete with student texts, work books, teacher manuals, and audio/ visual components) were considered the answer to language teaching needs. Today most of us realize that much more is needed to build a program. Perhaps with the shift in emphasis to interactive/ participatory practices and academic content, publishers feel even greater pressure to provide materials that are communicative and logically motivated and that lead students to further inquiry. This is as true of large programs with multiple levels as it is of supplemental programs or materials that teachers themselves have developed. Moreover, many educators are already insisting that materials require teachers and students to be more active and creative and that they focus on relevant, meaningful content. Some teachers even turning entrepreneur and publishing their own materials in an attempt to fill the gap. Cleghorn and Rollnick (2002) argued that a problem with many texts is that they are often written as though the readers already speak the target language and know the culture. In addition, the proficiency levels for which the materials are written are often uneven and inconsistent. For 11

example, directions may be written for high proficiency levels whereas the lesson content itself may be at a much lower level for which the book was intended.

Computer Programs Hanson- Smith and Riling (2006) commended that computers have brought about great changes in the way people communicate and learn, not only in western cultures but in many countries around the world. In addition to assisting and facilitating the language learning. Process and exposing students to intercultural communication, they have created a language of their own. This language includes mixtures of languages, symbols in the form of icons and graphic displays, and sounds (speech, music, and so on). One important question is: To what extent is computer use beneficial to language learners? Zhao (2003) argued that few conclusions can be reached in answering this question. So much depends on how the technology is used in addition to the fact that there are many other variables related to who the learners are and the environment in which the technology is used. Each use of the computer needs to be evaluated on its own merits and possibilities in relation to each student. Traditionally software use in computer-assisted language learning (call) programs has been of the “drill-and-test” type-the computer plays “teacher” and imparts information; the students apply the information and then are tested. Those who give wrong answers on the test are cycled back for further instruction and practice. Some programs allow teachers to use an authoring system to set up similar lessons by using already established content, or by selecting items from a series of possible choices, or by creating new content for the program. Authoring programs are available that do not require the teacher to know advanced techniques or complex computer language. in addition, some web sites (e.g., blackboard) allow teachers to display notes, exercises, and tests that students can access (Lismore, 2007). Drill-and-test discrete point materials are still plentiful and can be appropriate in the right situations. Hoffman (1995/1996) reminded us early on that such programs can be beneficial to 12

the curriculum, if used appropriately. She argued that computers can effectively reinforce structural knowledge of a language and recommended that students be given an index of such programs, arranged from easy to difficult. Students can then choose programs in the areas in which each needs work, eliminating those in areas already mastered. Self-study activity can probably best be accomplished in a laboratory where students can work at their own pace. Although it may be used effectively for individual study, discrete-point software can often lead to boring repetition and reduced motivation. It is important generally to use classroom computer programs that have a highly integrative rather than a discrete-point focus (McLaughlin & Oliver, 2005). Using computers as communicative tools not only teaches computer language and skills but also help students reach other language, academic, and socio cultural objectives. Many excellent communicative programs are available today that are constructivist in nature. These include: 

Simulation programs in which students can take fantasy trips and choose from among many options: where to go, what to eat, and so forth

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Interfacing programs in which students can hear prerecorded messages and interact with the computer by pressing particular keys or touching certain areas of the screen

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Expository writing programs in which students are asked questions to clarify their thinking about compositions that are in the planning stages

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Creative writing programs in which students can create and illustrate stories with graphics or create poems, sometimes with line-by-line assistance for special patterns (rhymes, limericks, haiku, and so on)

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Problem- solving programs in which students are immersed in a wide variety of problemsolving strategies, some of which even have features that allow the student to “teach the computer” to complete a task

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Computer Games Although not usually meant for language teaching, computer games can provide language learners with challenges in the target language. They can present simulations that call for students to make decisions, and they can require interaction with others involved in the game. Computer games are currently available in many content areas. For example, one such program introduces children to concepts involved with graph plotting; students are asked to plot their own designs. Another program takes younger learners on a simulated safari journey through a grid-like environment where they decipher clues in order to find the hiding place of a “mystery” animal. In the process, they get practice in making inferences, creating tactics, and collecting and organizing clues. Other computer games can be useful in language learning (primarily for older learners). These include chess, word games, memory games, teasers with missing numbers, and many more. When choosing a software program, bishop (2001) suggested that we consider the following: 

Educational soundness

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Ease of use by students and teachers

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Age appropriateness

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Cultural sensitivity

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Visual appeal

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Cost effectiveness

Canale and Barker (1986) suggested that computers could make available integrative programs that serve many of the same purposes for which language itself is used. Such programs could be used as tools for thought, tools for social interaction, and tools for play and artistic endeavors in which the emphasis is on self- expression. Canale and Barker were convinced that the activities should be intrinsically motivating, provide for independence on the part of the 14

language student, and involve problem solving in many different situations. Testing by computer, programs for analyzing pronunciation and more interactive uses of the computer such as video conferencing and tele collaborative projects are among the many possibilities for computer use. Many of these uses involve multimedia. Today we have sophisticated multimedia programs utilizing computers, printers, CDs, DVDs, players, monitors, scanners, digital cameras, and other electronic devices, some of which have recording capabilities. Amanti (2001) suggested, among other thing, that students use multimedia tools to author original programs. She offered one idea in which students of various proficiency levels collaborate to make a multimedia presentation of a field trip, including photos that can be scanned into a computer file and for which captions can be written, retelling the event. Student can then narrate a slide show presentation by reading the text on each slide, using a computer microphone. Amanti suggested that activities such as these give shy students a chance to produce the language in a nonthreatening environment. Text and graphics (e.g., tables, charts, graphs, and animation) can be used with sound to create programs of many kinds. However, Amanti emphasized the need for setting up guidelines, evaluation criteria, and organization plans before students embark on projects of this nature. Involving students in special media projects can be effective, but Kessler and Plankans (2001) recommended going a step further by having students actually create instructional materials. They argued that learners understand what is helpful to them in the learning process and what is not. Because the learners are stakeholders, individuals with different learning styles, often computer- literate already, and affected by the environment in which they will be using computers, they should be part of the program development process whenever possible. Whether or not teachers and their students actually create instruction programs, one should be mindful of the kind of programs on the market that can serve as practical tools for student learning. Some of the best programs available today involve word processors and the internet. 15

Videos Videos are another potentially valuable tool for language learning. Gersten and trusty (1998) explored whether video exchanges between peers (grades 8-12) learning EFL in different countries would have a positive effect on their students’ performance and participation. Their study looked at a cultural video exchange project between volunteer students from Prague and their counterparts in Regensburg, Germany. Members of the two groups communicated through letters written in English and then met to exchange the videos each had made. The students did the research, wrote the scripts, made revisions, rehearsed and acted out various scenes, interviewed people, and produced and evaluated their videos. The Czech students focused their video on the city of Prague. They included information about history of the city; its historical monuments; famous artists, politicians, musicians, and writers; architecture; and food. Shooting locations included a school, Saint Vitus Cathedral, the national theatre, Prague Castle, and local restaurants. The video also featured excerpts from a well- known Czech play and interviews with a range of people including English- speaking tourists and the director of the National Theatre. Finally, the students performed historical reenactments and told stories. Interviews with students afterwards revealed that they found the experience helpful in developing English proficiency and in using English to communicate in an international setting. The authors noted that the success they discovered seemed to be due to the students’ motivation to communicate in English for authentic purposes, the pride they took in sharing aspects of their culture with a real audience, and their treatment of video as an effective tool for communication and self- evaluation. Such videos can be transferred to a computer with a video capture card and then clipped to Web page to become part of a Web site by using a hypertext transfer protocol. Commercially produced videos can also be used in variety of ways as the focus of classroom lessons. Lessons can be built around all kinds of available videos including music videos, documentaries, sports highlights, television talk shows commercial, soap operas, and situation 16

comedies. In addition, they can allow students to experience various countries from around the world and explore global issues. Kip Cates (2007) stated,” Video provides an exciting way to have students travel the world, learn about its cultures, engage in global issues and practice language skills- all while seated in the classroom.” Simple question and answer sessions, discussions, or writing assignments based on what students have seen can compromise the follow up. Tracy Cramer (2008) developed a year long, learner centered unit for young adults learning English at Kansia Gaidia University in Osaka, Japan, based on the documentary series”Families of the world”. The child narrators in the thirty minute videos to take viewers on a journey through a typical day in the lives of two families (one Urban and other rural) in several countries around the world including Brazil, Canada, China, Egypt, France, India, Thailand, Ghana, and many more. The narrators talk about home, school, and community life; religious traditions; agriculture; and so forth. Students are asked to research the countries and share what they learn. They may research such topics as the form of government, politics, economics, and preservation of traditions, roles of men and women, and so on. The teacher presents brief lectures on various topics and uses handouts, pictures, maps music, and other realia to help the students understand and appreciate the various cultures. Students are involved in group discussions as well as activities to further their development of basic skills and vocabulary. Tracy calls the materials “a work in progress” and modifiers them frequently using student feedback. Interactive video, which combines the benefits of both video and computer, can also serve as an excellent tool for developing communicative skills in a language. Requirements for using interactive video include a DVD player and a computer with monitor and key board. The benefits of interactive video can be great. Chief among these is the ability to show real people in compelling scenarios that allow students to contribute input. For example, a video may show a mom and dad arguing about whether their teenage daughter should be allowed to take a weekend trip with several friends, including her boy friend. 17

After we hear the parents’ opinion, the characters turn to the camera and ask for help in resolving their dispute. Several piece of advice flash on the monitor, and students are asked to read these and then press buttons representing their choices. After one character comments on the advice that has been given, the scenario continues. In some interactive videos, the continuation is based on student input. Finally, the video characters seek help from an “expert” who is part of the computer program. Similar current programs can be found by using a search engine to look for topics such as “interactive video for language teaching” or similar terms. Interactive video can also be used to teach the listening skills necessary for academic success. For example, while watching a lecture on some topic of interest, students may be asked to press keys whenever they hear main idea. At the end of the lecture, all the main ideas may appear on the monitor, and students are asked to type questions referring to these ideas. After each question is formed, the speaker on the video answers it. An inherent problem with this kind of program is, of course, that students may ask questions for which the speaker has no answers. Interactive video dictionaries are also available. A student types a word; the computer provides a definition and checks for spelling. If it finds an error, it presents the student with the correct spelling. A speaker on the screen then pronounces the word and demonstrates its use in context. The word may also appear on the screen in a sample sentence. Many publishers produce videos to accompany their classroom materials. These ranges from videos keyed directly to multilevel programs to videos licensed from network television. As with software, video materials should be evaluated before classroom use. Do they serve a useful pedagogical purpose for the intended audience? Hollywood-type films recorded on DVDs can also be used in the classroom. Carefully selected films can form the center of lessons for language learners, providing experience with authentic listening and practice in speaking and writing. Films based on classic literature can provide connections between the printed word and the 18

screen. For example, Herman Melville’s Billy Budd, Jane Austen’s sense and sensibility, pearl buck’s the good earth, William Golding’s lord of the flies, Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Catol, and E.M. Forster’s Room with a view are a few from British and American literature that are available. Instructors teaching in other cultures may be able to find other films reflecting the culture of the learners. Sometimes the book may be available in a language translation and the film may be dubbed in that language. Hess and Jasper (1995) described a particularly interesting approach of using scenes from great expectations to complement reading assignments from the novel. The process included these steps: 

Students viewed the film segments with the sound off.

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In small groups, they wrote what they thought was being said.

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Students were assigned a character and asked to write down that character’s words as they watched the same scenes again, this time with the sound on. The scenes were played repeatedly, so students could check for accuracy.

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Students regrouped and recreated the dialogue, using their transcriptions.

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Students approximated the dialogue without their transcriptions.

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Finally, students watched the scenes once more and then moved on to the next reading assignment.

Interspersed with reading, viewing, and recreating dialogue were discussions about cultural and personal issues, including the students’ reactions to the film segments and how they might relate to their own lives. A culminating activity was to compare the book and the film after viewing the film in its entirety.

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A Genre- Based Approach to Developing Materials for Writing Linguistic Contrasts between Speaking and Writing Whether the level of the students we are working with, there are some fundamental language facts that teachers have to take into account when preparing materials to support EFL writing development. The most important of these is the difference between spoken and written language. Over time, these two modes have changed as a response to their contrasting social purposes. The writing system has become our preferred medium for recording permanent accounts of what people own, what is legal, what is held to be scientifically true. Speaking, in contrast, has been at the heart of our human relationships, our need to persuade, to move, to entertain. Because of these differing social purposes, writing and speaking display different characteristics: Talking and writing, then, are different ways of saying. They are different modes for expressing linguistic meanings. Speech and writing are in practice used in different context, for different purposes- through obviously with a certain amount of overlap (Halliday, 1989). Because of the role of written texts in the efficient recording or reporting of facts, writers in English have tended to concentrate information into noun phrases, and to put important information at the beginnings of clauses and sentences. In written communication, the noun phrase, therefore, tends to be where the action takes place in text development, and this grammatical unit has become the most highly elaborated aspect of written texts. Halliday refers to this phenomenon when he discusses the lexical density of written communication. In contrast, because spoken communication is primarily urinated toward establishing and maintaining relationships, speakers make extensive use of the verb system in order to establish how “I” and “you” relate to one another. This results in the syntactic intricacy and relative lexical sparseness of spoken communication (Halliday, 1989). Kress (1993) said that the textual structuring of speech and that of writing proceed from two 20

distinctly different starting points. The structure of speech starts from the question: “What can I assume as common and shared knowledge for my addressee and myself?” this question, and its answer, are at the basis of the structure of speech. Writing starts with the question: “What is most important, topically, to me, in this sentence which I am about to write?” this question and its answer, are the basis of the structure of writing. Learning how to achieve this shift in emphasis can be a major challenge for learnersespecially for those whose main reason for engaging in language learning has been spoken fluency. For their part, teachers need both to be aware of these contrasts and also to be able to integrate this understanding into materials that they prepare. In this way, they can help learners extend their capacity to write effectively for relevant audiences.

The Role of Written Language in Society We have already noted some of the ways in which written languages has a developed special characteristic as a result of uses to which it is put. We also need to be aware that learning to write in the first or additional language has an impact on the writers themselves. Kress observes: Command of writing gives access to certain cognitive, conceptual, social and political arenas. The person who commands both the forms of writing and speech is therefore constructed in an entirely different way from the person who commands the forms of speech alone. Kress draws attention to the personal and social construction that is implicit in the acquisition of literacy. Stubbs, makes the point even more forcibly: Written language makes a radical difference to the complexity of organization that humans can manage, since it changes the relation between memory and classification, and it allows many forms of referencing, cataloguing, indexing, recording and transmitting information… The mere fact that something is written conveys its own message, for example 21

of performance and authority. Certain people write, and certain kinds of things get written. (Stubbs, 1987). As a teacher of writing, we need to be aware of what exactly we are asking of our students. We may asking learners to take on role that they do not normally have access to in their first language (this can be particularly the case in courses where English is being taught as an additional language); or asking learners to engage with literacy practices that they consider to be largely superfluous to their primary need to engage with the target language as a medium for spoken interaction. In English for Academic Purpose programs, writing is, of necessity, a central plank in the curriculum. In general EFL programs, getting learners to engage with the roles that are implicit in extending literacy in the target language can be a significant problem.

The Challenge of Teaching Writing in EFL A second challenge for the writing teacher is that of balancing learners’ expectations of their real world literacy needs with the literacy practices that are required of them in the educational settings of the language classroom or the examination. Tribble (1996) has discussed the contrast between learning to write and writing to learn. In the former, an apprentice writer is learning how to extend his or her textual knowledge, cognitive capacities, and rhetorical skills in order to take on social roles, which require the production of certain kinds of text. In the latter, language learners are using the writing to demonstrate this knowledge in the context of assessment. One of the problems facing the writing instructor is the fact that all too often, learners’ main experience of EFL writing has been in writing to learn, and that they have had few opportunities to extend their literacy in the target language and that they feel little or no motivation to climb this particular learning curve. An additional problem is that literacy skills established in their first language may clash 22

with or otherwise impede their development of writing skills in the target language. Hyland comments: L2 writers are unique because of their bilingual, bicultural, and bi literate experiences and these can facilitate or impede writing in various ways. L2 learners’ cultural schemata can impact on the ways they write and the writing they produce. Effective L2 writing instruction can make schemata differences explicit to students, encouraging consideration of audience and providing patterns of unfamiliar rhetorical forms. (Hyland, 2003) This last point- the need to make “schemata differences explicit to students”- will be stressed in the practical section of this chapter. Learning to write is not a single stage process. Students may be able to write a perfectly adequate summary of a text, but can still have no idea of how to go about writing argumentatively. They may be able to describe a personal experience in a conversational style, but have no idea of how to write report that summarizes the results of a survey. This goes back to my earlier comment on the socially constructed nature of language. My position here is that when we teach writing in EFL, we are not simply giving students access to the mechanics of writing in English. To help learners develop as writers, we also have to help them understand that in the world outside the classroom, each text has a job to do, and that each job requires the effective exploitation of different linguistic resources. We are not only helping students to write in the foreign language, we are helping them to engage with new roles and purposes. Further, there is the implication that an ability to write an excellent essay on the causes of the Second World War does not establish that one produces a passable report on a case in a court of law. This is not because one piece of writing is inherently more difficult or demanding than the other, but because one may have more experience of that particular 23

genre. (Halliday and Hasan, 1985) The challenge that we face as a teacher is, then, to help our students gain experience of genres that are relevant to their needs, and to ensure that they are able to draw on the linguistic and cognitive resources that are relevant to the task they need to complete. We also have to be able to recognize where learners have already established the knowledge and skills that will support them in fulfilling a task, where there may be clashes between established ways of working and requirements of new kinds of writing, and how to help learners- should they have the need- to make the transition from writing “an excellent essay on the causes of the second world war” to writing a business report, an academic assignment, or a lowlier, but nevertheless important, examination essay.

Developing Materials for Writing Instruction The Needs of Learners As writing teachers, we should have a clear understanding of our students’ needs and be able to develop programs that will enhance their capacity to write the texts which matter to them. We also have to recognize the limits to what we can provide. Content knowledge can present the greatest difficulty to many writing teachers- especially in content- based learning programs in secondary education, or in courses for adults focusing on business or academic writing. A commonly adopted response to this problem is to work cooperatively with experts from within a particular industry or academic discipline and to develop programs that are co-taught, with writing teachers supporting learning development alongside the specialist program taught by subject specialists. (This is especially the case in courses designed to help learners gain access to higher education courses.) Context, language system, and writing process knowledge fall more obviously into the remit of the writing teacher.

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The Needs of Teachers Alongside the complex and sophisticated personal resources that teachers and learners bring to the writing classroom, other materials are needed to stimulate writing and to enable learners to develop contextual, language system, and writing process knowledge. At a general level, these resources “can be classified into texts, libraries / media, realia, student generated resources, activities, and discussions” (Grabe & Kaplan 1996: 256). Drawing on earlier work by Hutchinson and waters (1987), Hyland summarizes the resources that a teacher needs to bring to the classroom as input, content focus, language focus, and task focus. In a writing class, input is typically a text, although it may be a dialogue, video, picture, or other realia. This provides: 

A stimulus for new thought, discussion, and writing.



Opportunities for information processing.

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Opportunities for learners to use and build on prior knowledge.

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New language items or the re-presentation of earlier items.

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A context and a purpose for writing.

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Genre models and exemplar texts.



Reasons to using (and to develop) writing process skills such as prewriting, drafting, editing.

The content focus of the class will include specifications of topics, situations, information, and other resources, which can lead to communication between students; the language focus will create opportunities for students to analyze texts and to draw on new knowledge as they develop a writing task; and the task focus should establish the grounds for communicative activities that will enable learners to use the content and language of the unit, and ultimately write an assignment. Clearly, these materials can be realized as learning resources in many different ways, but the one that we will draw on in this chapter is the teaching-learning cycle proposed by feez (1998)-a 25

cycle that draws on well-established, genre-informed approaches to writing instruction (cope & Kalantzis 1993; Grabe & Kaplan 1996; Tribble 1996). Feez’s cycle consists of five stages, namely: (1) building the context; (2) modeling and deconstructing the text; (3) joint construction of the text; (4) independent construction of the text; and (5) linking related texts. This teaching-learning cycle provides a coherent framework in which materials can be developed, and will be the basis for the demonstration of approaches to materials development that I will present in the remaining sections of this chapter.

The Needs of the Learner The guidance notes for the teacher stress that candidates need to be able to: 

Express opinions and suggestions on the subject.



Agree or disagree with the statement in the task, or discuss both sides.



Write in a formal or natural register.



Ensure that the flow of ideas in the writing is logical and easy for the reader to follow.



Not write simple sentences throughout, but to use more complex language.



Use a variety o f linking words. The challenges we face as a teachers lie in finding out how to engage learners in the process of developing these competences and skills. The first issue we have to bear in mind is that four of six areas summarized above focus on the demonstration of language knowledge- the writing teacher has to remain a language teacher. The second is that we remain educators helping students to pass an examination is only part of our task. We should also enable them to deal with new kinds of writing once they have finished addressing the immediate needs of examination.

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Developing Materials for Writing Instruction The five stages of the teaching- learning writing cycle can be described as:  Building the context  Modeling and reconstructing the text  Join construction of the text  Linking related texts Each stage requires a range of distinct resources.

The Impact of the Computer in Second- Language Writing The computer in its many guises as writing tool and communications medium is changing the way we interact with information and with each other. Whether in the form of a word processor installed on a personal computer, a group of PCs inked in a computer lab or university network, other the Internet connecting people and electronic information sources around the globe, the computer is having a profound effect on literacy practices in the present age. It is, at the same time, contributing to an ongoing expansion of information and communication resources that has put English in the hands of more and more people around the globe. These trends have created a great demand for literacy in English as a second language as well as for literacy in computer writing tools, issues that are sometimes hard to separate. Many of our literacy practices in education, work, and social life have moved off the page and onto the screen. More and more people are doing the majority of their writing and reading on computer and transmitting messages electronically rather than on paper (Warschauer, 1999). As the communicator of the present day and especially of the future is inevitably linked to electronic media, those charged with instructing ESL students in writing cannot afford to remain outside these developments, teaching without regard to the communication technologies that are increasingly at the center of their students’ world; teachers should be prepared to bring computers into the center of their own pedagogical practice. The modern ESL writing teacher 27

needs to understand the nature of electronic writing media, the kinds of impacts these media have on students’ writing, and the ways they can best be employed in the teaching of writing.

Word Processing The basic writing tool provided by the computer is a word processor, with most word processors including a spellchecker and many including a grammar checker as well. Most people agree that word processors are useful for writing because they facilitate the mechanical processes of putting words on paper; revising text by substitutions, deletions, additions, and block moves; and producing attractive and readable finished copy. The word processor is not only a convenient tool combining an automated typewriter, editor, and printer; it is also a composing medium that with time and practice can significantly change the writers’ process and product. Many studies have shown that beyond their facilitating effects, word processers have an impact on student writers’ attitudes, the characteristics of their texts, their revising behavior and the attention they pay to form and mechanics, and the order and the type of writing activities in which they engage.

Student Attitudes Most students have a good initial reaction to the computer and feel that it can help them in their work, though some users, especially older students, may be uncomfortable with the technology or may even be “computer- phobic”. Another minority of users may have their enthusiasm dampened if they experience technical problems early on, have difficulty typing or mastering computer commands, or have limited access to computers and experienced users who can offer assistance when things go wrong. As a result, a few who try word processing will give up in frustration. Typically, however, after a period of weeks or months spent improving their keyboarding skills, most students persist and become regular computer users. The mechanical capabilities of a word processor are especially valuable in a second language context, where the physical processes of putting words on paper and revising text to a finished product, and the cognitive processes underlying these, are more effortful and less automat zed 28

than when writing in the first language. Not only the actual capabilities of the machine but also the students’ view of these as helpful for their writing are significant for L2 writers, who may, even more than inexperienced L1 writers, lack confidence in their writing ability (Betancourt and Phiney, 1988). Word processors can relieve the anxiety some L2 writers feel about the L2 script, about producing academic work in their L2, and about writing in general (Pennington,1999). Many studies conducted with L2 writers report positive attitudes associated with word processing. For example, in their comparison of word processing and pen- and- paper composing in English by Turkish university students, Akyel and Kamisli(1999) report that the use of the use of the computer improved student attitudes toward writing and built up their confidence. In a longitudinal of a group of mature ESL writers in Hong Kong who were able to use the computer as much or as little as they wished in their written work for a course (Rusmin, 1999), the majority of the students were positive toward the computer and adopted it for their writing from the beginning of the term or increasingly as the course progressed. On the basis of the different patterns of attitudes and computer use, Rusmin(1999) classified the 27 students in the class into six categories, which she labeled “devotees”,”enthusiasts”, “rededicates”, “positives”, “converts”, and “skeptics” categories that may be applicable to a host of students in a wide variety of locales.

Textual Properties Also related to attitude is self- consciousness. The student writer in a computer medium is led to write in a less self- conscious way and with greater engagement, thus writing with a freer mind and less “rewriting anxiety”. As a result, the student’s greater involvement may lead him or her to write for longer periods of time and produce longer texts. Several studies with L2 writers document that longer texts are a general effect of word processing. In addition to the production of longer texts, the physical easing of the writing process that 29

results in a less constrained, more relaxed writing process may produce texts that are in a sense also “more relaxed”. Written products generated on a word processor “are often unconstrained and experimental, being more likely to be in a non- generic form that sometimes amounts to what has been called “train of thought” or “spaghetti writing”- long strings of loosely connected strands of ideas” (Pennington, 2000). In some cases, computer- produced text represents an unfinished, intermediate work that given sufficient time for continued development will result in a high- quality product. In other cases, it may represent a new type of work, as when writing in hypertext- for example, for a Web page or in an e-mail context.

Revision Strategies and Accuracy Concerns Surface- level editing for spelling and mechanics is encouraged in a word processing environment, where the small size of text visible on one screen may engender an especially focused type of revision at word, phrase, and sentence level (Pennington, 1996). At the same time, the ease with which individual words can be searched and whole sections of text deleted, added, or moved suggests that word processing may have value as a macro- level revision tool. Rather than being a separate activity following the generation of a draft, revision in a computer context is closely linked to text generation. Pedagogical intervention aimed at increasing students’ awareness of and ability to apply revision strategies in their own writing has demonstrated the value of the computer medium for helping learners increase the type and depth of their revisions. In other research, L2 writers have been found to revise more when writing with a computer than when writing by traditional means; to revise more dynamically and continuously; and to spend more time revising in a computer context, where they may “continue revising after planned changes have been made”. Writers also make more revisions beyond the surface level. There is some evidence that word processing is more effective in stimulating meaning- level revision when aligned to a process approach to writing than when used without process support 30

or with other computer writing aids such as grammar checkers (Broke and Pennington, 1999). The research thus supports an approach that teachers the writing process in the context of learning to write and revise using a word processor.

Implications for Planning In pen and paper composing, writers often spend a lot of time in intensive planning before writing to avoid making mistakes or changing their minds about what they want to say and then having to undertake the tedious chore of rewriting or recopying text already written down. Under such conditions, pen and paper writers may habitually write a paper without any revision or with only a minimum amount of revision to avoid producing more than one draft. In sharp contrast to this paper- based mode of composing, the automated text- generation and revision tools provided on computer, coupled with the malleability of text on screen or disk, encourage a very different computer- based writing mode. In contrasting “computer writing style”, the writer generally begins writing immediately, soon after a topic is decided- or even before it is decided. Instead of writing to fit a plan, computer writers plan as they are writing (Hass, 1989), an effect also documented for L2 writers (Akyel and Kamisili, 1999). Planning thus becomes more of a middle stage than a beginning stage activity, and the time and intensive cognitive activity that would have been involved in pre-planning is instead involved in writing itself. The sharp division of composing into the three stages of planning, writing, and revising breaks down in a computer context, in which planning as well as revision occurs as part of the writing process. In the computer engendered approach to writing, cognitive effort is distributed throughout the writing process and writing is developed more on the basis of concrete text already generated than on an abstract plan; this procedure would seem to be especially valuable for L2 writers, who have less cognitive capacity available for writing than do L1 writers.

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Expanding Peer Response Communication in networking environment can change some of the dynamics of peer feedback sessions as found in traditional classrooms (discussed by Ferris, 2003). Sullivan and Pratt (1996) discovered that the communication that occurred as peer feedback over the computer network was of a type that might have been especially valuable for students in improving their writing. Moreover, the networked feedback from more than one student tended to reinforce the same points and the same suggestions for revision, thereby perhaps focusing the writer’s attention on certain points for revision. However, in a study carried out with EFL writing Hong Kong, Braine (2001) reports that the feedback given in a networked environment did not result in better written texts. He found that final draft essays written by students who engaged in traditional face to face classroom peer interaction received higher holistic scores and showed greater gains than final drafts written by students who carried out peer discussions via a LAN (Braine, 2001). Thus, networking student writers electronically does not guarantee better writing.

Enhancing Writing through Electronic Media Contemporary writing theory continues to recognize the value of thinking of writing as a process of constructing meaning. There are a number of recursive phases in this process: 

Modeling the genre



Demonstrating the process



Brainstorming and researching



Drafting



Conferencing and revising



Editing and publishing

A well-designed writing program will lead the writer through all phases of the writing process, providing as much support as needed along the way.

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Modeling the Genre When writing a text, the writer needs to consider the purpose. Depending on the purpose for writing, the text will be structured in a particular way and will have characteristic language features. Electronic media can be used to introduce L2 writers to the genres of the target culture and language. The Tele Next project, for example, provides a bank of texts covering a range of genres (stories, procedures, recounts, explanations and so on) for teachers of primary L2 learners, each analyzed in terms of generic structure and grammatical features. The purpose of recounts, for example, is “to tell what happened”. The organization of the text, therefore, will be based on a chronological sequence, with an orientation stage and then a recounting of a series of events, with a possible reorientation at the end. This is illustrated by the use of rollovers- when the cursor rolls over each stage of the text it is highlighted in color and a window appears providing information about the function of that stage. Subsequent files deal systematically with the grammatical features of the genre. One file, for example, might demonstrate how pronouns are used in a recount. By rolling over a list of pronoun types, these features are highlighted in the text. In this way the learners are receiving input on the nature of the type of text they are being asked to write before they have a go at writing one themselves. They can see how such a text is structured and they can be reminded of key grammatical resources in context. If they want to know more about any particular grammatical feature, they can follow a link to another area of the database that provides them with information on that feature, examples of its use and interactive exercises to practice it.

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Demonstrating the Process Before writing a text, it is useful for students to see how such a text is created. This could be done on the computer through an animated tutorial. However, it is preferable that the students participate in the writing experience in collaboration with co-learners and a teacher. In this case, the teacher can profitably use a computer with a projection facility to construct a text jointly with the students. As drawing on the students’ input, the teacher can then demonstrate how these ideas can be shaped into a written text, drawing students’ attention to the structure of the text, its grammatical features and the strategies used by proficient writers such as drafting, revising and consulting.

Brainstorming and Researching Before writing, the writer needs to have something to write about. These ideas can come from brainstorming, drawing on previous experience or from researching. The process of researching is made much simpler by the accessibility of information on the internet. Finding websites appropriate to the language level and age of the students is not straightforward, however. Electronic materials designed to teach writing should include information on how to find, select and evaluate information sites. For novice learners, the developer should already have identified a number of sites relevant to a particular task and provided activities for the students to do before they enter the site, while they are there and after they leave. These activities might include the development of research strategies and critical thinking skills. Once the students are taking notes, for example, they can use of ‘mind-map’ program such as Idea Fisher or start organizing their ideas coherently. Carlson and Larralde (1995), for example, advocate the use of ‘visual thinking tools’ to facilitate the active visual construction of ideas. Some of these programs encourage students to organize their notes according to the demands of the genre (e.g., compare/ contrast; problem/ solution; whole/ part; class/ subclass; point/ elaboration). 34

If done in pairs or a group, brainstorming and researching around the computer has been shown to foster purposeful oral interaction, though with L2 students the value of this interaction will depend on their level of proficiency in the target language (Meskill, 1996).

Drafting Once the student starts to draft a text, the computer becomes a powerful resource. The advent of word processing has revolutionized the writing of text. And yet it is still surprisingly underexploited in the L2 classroom. The ability to jot down embryonic ideas, to change your mind, to make mistakes, to take risks, to cut and paste contributes greatly to the learning of the target language. It is in the process of developing, manipulating, refining and synthesizing information in a written text that learners deepen their knowledge of the language. Using a word processor, students are more motivated to write and tend to produce longer texts. The availability of aids such as an on-line thesaurus and dictionary also contribute to the success of the draft and extend the language of the student. The Longman multimedia dictionary, for example, provides graphics, sound and video clips to help learners hear a word and see it used in context. For novice learners, the materials developer can include greater guidance in the drafting process by, for example, providing templates or sample texts that they can use as models or to innovate on. Students writing a recipe for making pizza, for example, might draw on a similar recipe for making toasted cheese.

Conferencing and Revising An important element of the writing process is receiving feedback from others during the drafting stage. It is difficult, however, for a teacher, especially with a large class, to have on the spot, individual consultations with students. This is where the computer comes into its own as a medium for communication. Writers are able to seek help from their teacher, their classroom peers, from students in other classes and in other locations and from unknown 35

others. By using the “comment” facility in the word- processing program, students can be provided with feedback at specific points in their text from any number of people, each identified by a code letter. In some programs it is possible for the student then to click on a comment, e.g.” use present perfect here”, which links to an interactive, multimedia lesson on the present perfect tense and when to use it. Connected to this might be a grammar chat room with students and tutors who discuss and answer questions about grammar (Tanguay, 1997). Some sites in interpersonal feedback facilities as a major feature. The journal of interactive media in education, for example, is an electronic journal where contributors can post their draft articles. Alongside the draft, in another frame, reviewers and other readers give feedback about particular sections of the article. There is often interaction between reviewers and between the author and the reviewers. The articles are available on the site in various stages of publication, with visitors to the site able to observe the process involved in the drafting, reviewing and revision of journal articles. It is not only in the receiving of feedback that the learner benefits from such interaction, it is also the participation in the interaction itself. The type of communicative writing that surrounds the completion of a task in highly conductive to learning. It is generally spontaneous, fluent and unselfconscious, with the learner more concerned about the task itself than about the accuracy of the language. Lamy and Goodfellow (1999) argue that there is a place for conscious reflection on language during asynchronous computer- mediated exchanges. Such interaction and reflection is an important factor in second language acquisition, providing opportunities for students to produce “comprehensible output”, to be helped to notice their errors and to take steps to correct their linguistic output (Chapelle, 1998).

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Editing Tools such as spell-checkers, syntax alerts and auto formatting assist at the editing stage. Feedback from grammar checkers is usually in the form of an underlining of an error. More helpful, however, are the programs that give rich feedback on the nature of the error (e.g., correct grammar, right writer, Grammatik, CorrecText, reader, power edit). The Grammatik parsing engine, for example, was designed to detect and provide feedback on 45 error types in the writing of EFL writing students. The teacher is able to track class or individual student progress. Even more helpful is the ability to modify such programs to respond to the common errors of a particular group (e.g., Cantonese speakers) (Brock, 1990). Using QBL tools, Chen(1997) found that supplying students with detailed, customized computer-generated error feedback resulted in lower error rates for the test groups, more editing activity, time savings for the teachers and detailed data on the types of errors made by students. For more advanced learners a concordance tool can be useful at this stage. A concordance can be requested to supply examples of specified vocabulary items, phrases or grammatical structures from a corpus of native speaker text. The concordance providers data showing how a particular vocabulary item is used in context, or the linguistic environment in which the item generally occurs or regular collocations of that item with other items. In this way, students can check their language usage with that of native speakers.

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Discussion

Scientists emphasize that materials should teach students to learn, that they should be resource books for ideas and activities for learning. According them text books are too inflexible to be used directly as instructional material. We must know that materials may be suitable for students’ needs, even if they are not designed specifically for them. Theoretically, experienced teachers can teachers can teach English without a text book. However it is not easy to do it all the time, though they may do it sometimes. Many teachers don’t have enough time to make supplementary materials, so they just follow the text book. Text books therefore take on a very important role in language classes, and it is important to select a good text book. Material is anything which is used to help to teach language learners. Though students should be the center of instruction, in many cases, teachers and students rely on materials, and the materials become the center of instruction. Since many teachers are busy and also don’t have the time to prepare extra materials, text books and other commercially produced materials are very important in language instruction. Therefore, it is important for teachers to know how to choose the best materials for instruction, how to make supplementary materials for the class, and how to adapt materials. Content English books should be useful, meaningful and interesting for students.

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Conclusion According to this monograph whatever that I got that writing is a part of our daily life that we use it for communication. It is the job of the teacher to teach students’ writing in a way which they can learn better and never forget, so it is applicable if the teacher use materials in his/ her teaching, In order to make the lesson interesting and evoke the students’ attention toward the lesson. So, for an English writing teacher, it is very important to know the materials’ characteristics and how to get materials, which kind of material is effective and applicable and how to develop materials for teaching writing. As technology developed, it influenced to humans’ life, even to materials that teachers select for teaching. Computer is a tool which is very effective for teaching writing. Computer programs which are especially designed for writing skill, computer games and videos are examples of these materials. The basic writing tool provided by the computer is a word processor, with most word processor including a spellchecker and many including a grammar checker as well. Many studies have shown that beyond their facilitating effects, word processors have an impact on student writers, attitudes, and the characteristics of their texts, their revising behavior and the attention they pay to form and mechanics, and the order and type of writing activities in which they engage. So for every professional teacher, it is very important to have effective teaching material for teaching writing and use them correctly.

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Suggestion In preparing of this monograph, I faced with some problems and that was lack and small amount of sources for finding information about the topic. As this topic is a little specific and narrow, so finding information for that was difficult. But fortunately, by guiding of teachers and seeking many times, I could reach to those sources and I could to get enough information, in order to prepare this booklet. Another problem which I faced with was the lack of electricity. If I hadn’t that problem, I am sure that I could finish and present this monograph very fast than now. As this booklet is about the need of material for teaching English writing, so I hope that by using it, the second language teachers will know why do we use materials in teaching writing, how should we use these materials in our teaching, how can we get materials for teaching English writing, and the most important point is that, how we can develop materials for teaching writing. Teachers should select effective teaching materials and they must be able to solve some problems that they may face with during applying these kinds of materials in their classes.

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Reference

Barkley,E. (2005). Collaborative Learning Techniques. San Francisco,:Market Street. Bowers, R. (1990). Writing For Study Purposes. New York: Combridge University. Dubin, F. & Olishtain,E. (1984). Developing programs and materials for language learning. New York: Cambridge University press. Harwood, N. (2010). English Language Teaching Material. USA: Cambridge University Press. Matsuda, B. (2009). Second-Language Writing in the Composition Classroom. United States of America: Boston. Particia, A. & Amato,R. (2010). Making it happen. United States of America. Carlisle Publishing Services. Richards, J. & Renandya,W. (2002). Methodology in Language Teaching,. New York: Combridge University Press. Smith, M. & Greenberg,W. (2000). Every day Creative Writing. United States of America: Contemporary Publishing Group. Tomlinson, B. (2003). Developing Materials for Language Teaching. London: York Road. Tomlinson, B. (2011). Materials Development in Language Teaching. USA: Combridge Language Teaching Library.

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