Middle East

CONTEXT + BACKGROUND BRITISH PALESTINE 1919-47

•

After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), Palestine was placed under a League of Nations (now UN) mandate

•

It was then placed under a British mandate to become a caretaker administration until they could goven themselves

The problems started at the dawn of the 20th Century. The Jewish people were described as a 'Diaspora' which means a people who were forced out of their homeland and spread all over the world. More and more Jews wanted their own homeland in which to live. They believed that their homeland should be in Palestine which was their 'Promised Land'. People who believed in this were called Zionists However, the land was and had been inhabited by Palestinian Arabs for centuries and they believed that the Jews were taking over their land. This led to riots and eventually led to Sectarian Violence, rather like what happened in India. In response to this, the Jewish people set up the Haganah (MUST REMEMBER THIS) who were the Jewish Defense Force. This is important as it later became the Israeli army. After World War 2, the Jewish people and the Zionists gained a lot of sympathy from the West and support grew for the idea of a Jewish homeland. As violence escalated due to clashes between Jews and Arabs and because of the Jewish guerilla groups Stern and Irgun (again, important, they helped form Israeli army), the British pulled out and gave their mandate back to the UN. The UN tried to partition Palestine but was rejected by the Arabs. When the British pulled their troops out on May 14th, 1948, David Ben Gurion announced the state of Israel. On May 15th, 1948, the Arab neighbours attacked. WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1948-49 Causes/Aims Israeli Aims - Survival (Self-explanatory I hope) Arab Aims - Destroy Israel (Again, self-explanatory) Course of the war Israel - Won the War due to a number of reasons:

•

Army was based on the experience of Haganah, Stern and Irgun and was well trained

•

Equipped with modern weapons by the US

•

Commitment - Nowhere to go, desperate, had a deep passion

Arab Nations - Lost the war due to:

•

Army was poorly motivated

•

Army had old, out-dated weapons

•

Divided command, troops spread out while Israeli troops concentrated

The reasons for Israel's success and the Arab's defeats set a trend. Effects of the War Israel - They gained more land, the so-called "Occupied Territories". More land led to the Law of Return (1950), allowing any Jew to live in Israel. This led to an increase in population which in turn led to a bigger army. Permanent state of war for next 25 years, no treaty. Led to Defense Budget of 20% of government revenue -> Conscription -> Shows commitment. Arab Countries - Had to host Palestinian refugees -> humanitarian issue -> economic issue -> political issue. Led to FEDAYEEN e.g Al Fatah. Launched attacks on Israel. Embarassed by defeat -> Military coup in Egypt -> Nasser Superpowers - USA supported Israel. Nasser looked to USSR for support. Led to theatre of Cold War. 3 Issues resulted - SECURITY, LAND, REFUGEES. Always present. Israel wanted Security, Arabs wanted Land and to deal with Refugees. Key issues in conflict for Middle East. The Suez War 1956 Context of Suez War The Suez Canal is a vital passage way connecting Europe and the Mediteranean Sea to the Red Sea which then leads on to the Indian Ocean. It is one of Britain's biggest trade routes and most of the oil from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the other oil producing countries travels to Europe via the Suez Canal. Not the best thing for a Arab Nationalist who is pro-Soviet and anti-Western to control to put it mildly. Nasser became president of Egypt (mind the spelling) after the coup and he harboured the Fedayeen who then went on to raid Israel. In addition, he started buying Russian weapons from Czechoslovakia which was a Warsaw Pact country (AKA Soviet). He also nationalised the Suez Canal which basically meant he took it over and therefore had control of what goes through it. Nasser also blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba which was a major economic blockade as Israel used it as a trading port or in other words, Israel lost a lot of money. Causes/Aims Israeli aims/causes - Egypt harboured the Fedayeen and blocked the Gulf of Aqaba. Allied with Britain and France as they are big powers, more influence, bigger chance of success. British and French aims/causes - Angry at Nasser because he nationalised the Suez Canal Nasser had power to hold Europe at ransom by stopping flow of oil and trade. Could be to reassert influence (France got its ass kicked in Word War 2 and Britain wouldnt have done much better without the US), wanted to show that they could still do things on their own without depending on the US Only interpretation, this is not fact Course Unique features of the war: Israel, France and Britain allied. Moche Dayan's tactics, had surprise. Israel - Had element of surprise, used tanks and paratroopers, very mechanised and very rapid (For you geeks out there, you could compare it to the Blitzkrieg tactics of WW2, remember back in year 9?). Remained in Sinai for 6 months. Had good leadership - Dayan, good weapons, good training, well motivated. Britain + France - Sent an ultimatum to Egypt and Israel to withdraw from Suez Canal. Armed forces landed near Port Said, secured the Canal, airforce attacked the Egyptians. Forced to withdraw later due to international pressure, mainly from US.

Arab Nations - Nasser refused the ultimatum, blocked the canal after British and French forces landed. Could not back down because if he did, he would look like a weakling and probably be replaced in another coup. Also had to defend Egyptian sovereignty and appease the Arab Nationalists. He was getting his ass kicked though until Britain and France were forced to withdraw. USA - Furious at being kept in the dark, forced UK and France to withdraw, crippled UK currency (So much for Britain and France attempting to show independance from the US). USSR - Threatened to support Egypt and attack UK and France and therefore lead to Cold War escalating to World War 3. UN - Condemned aggression of UK and France. This war shows escalation at it's height, Superpowers and Colonial Powers all become involved in this regional conflict, threat of escalating to World War 3. Results Britain + France - They were humiliated and chastened, set off the end of their empires. US - Increased and consolidated it's influence. Eisenhower (President of US) doctrine - offered aid against Communism, reserved the right to intervene. Sent $Billions of aid to Israel. USSR - Increased and consolidated influence. Sent $Billions of aid to Egypt and Syria. Israel (Winners) - UN sent to Sinai, created buffer zone against fedayeen, got Gulf of Aqaba opened. Israel achieved its aims, greater security. UN - Sent in UNEF (UN expeditionary force) Arab Nations - Egypt 'lost Sinai' (UN basically took over it). But increase in prestige for Nasser in Arab World - seen as having fought off France and UK even though he got his ass handed to him and only won due to international pressure. Led to increase in Arab Nationalism -> Egyptian + Syrian union, long term threat to Israel, led to 6 Day war. The 6 Day War, 1967 Context The PLO was set up in 1964 and it started raiding Israel through bases in Syria, Lebanon and Jordan, all of which bordered Israel. They did not have bases in Egypt because the UNEF had created a buffer zone in the Sinai. Aims/Causes Israel - Needed to retaliate against PLO. Also saw threat of Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian alliance. Launched a preemptive strike for security. Arab Nations - Nasser started making threats, deployed troops near Israel. Ordered UNEF to leave Egypt - allowed Egyptians to fight Israel. Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait mobilised. Egypt better armed due to Soviet aid. Course In short, the Arabs got their asses kicked. Israel - Moche Dayan's tactics, had surprise. Air force annihilated Arab air force. Complete control of the skies -> basically bombed the Arab armies back to the stone age. Tanks, etc captured Sinai, Jerusalem and West Bank, Golan Heights. Table on P20 of textbook, map on P22. Could reflect priorities, Egypt 1st. 300,000 Israeli troops vs 180,000 Arab troops, proved conscription worked. Arab Nations - Greater number of casualties, loss of equipment. Overwhelming/catastrophic defeat. Effects Israel:

•

Gained Land for settlement - Jerusalem + W. Bank (religious and historical significance), led to more Arab and Palestinian refugees

•

Land for Security and Peace - Golan Heights and Sinai. Sinai provided buffer zone against Egyptian invasion, Golan Heights provided defenses.

Also gained the Gaza Strip. Palestinians - 700,000 refugees - embittered -> another setback -> extremism. See notes on PLO. Arab Nations - Humiliated, angry. 3 Nos - No Peace, No Recognition, No Negotiation. Superpowers - $Billions of aid to Israel from US, $Billions of aid to Arab Nations from USSR. UN - Resolution 242 (P21 of text book) - Israel must give back land taken in 6 Day war. Arab Nations must recognise Israel. The War of Yom Kippur, 1973 Context The Arabs were humiliated in the 6 Day War, wanted vengence. Fights kept breaking out between Israel and Egypt. Nasser died in 1970, Anwar Sadat took over as President and wanted to show that Israel was vulnerable. He could also have wanted to have peace but first needed to gain the upper hand. Causes/Aims Arab Nations - Pre-emptive strike, revenge for 6 Day War. Sadat became new President, wanted to regain Israel and negotiate peace (?), show Israel it was vulnerable. Course Israel - Complacent (?) but counter attacked, crossed Suez Canal and encircled Egyptian Army. Pushed back Syrians from Golan Heights. Arab Nations - Surprise attack on Yom Kippur (Jewish Religious Festival). Egypt advanced over the Suez Canal but went too quickly, outran supplies. Syria attacked Golan Heights with massive forces. OPEC oil embargo on the West to stop their support of Israel. Eventually got pushed back by Israel. Superpowers - USA and USSR supplied weapons at first, then forced a ceasefire due to the period of 'Détente', real prospects for peace, believed Cold War possibly going to end. Consequences Israel - Maintained control of Sinai but it was shocked, took heavy and disproportiante losses, could not sustain at the rate. Arab Nations - Proved Israel was vulnerable, led to boost in popularity of Sadat and led to Camp David agreements and peace. The PLO Yasser Arafat was Chairman. Founded in 1964. Nasser (Egypt) was sponsor Aim - To eliminate/destroy the state of Israel, reclaim land and for refugees to return to Palestine and for a Palestinian State to be recognised. Unite all Palestinians and all their representative groups under one umbrella (Palestininans had been scattered). Methods:

•

Mobilise and recruit, especially in refugee camps - refugees bitter, angry, disillusioned, desperate, hopeless (lost homes, jobs, land, refugee camps = poor conditions, dependant on hosts).

•

Armed struggle, - PLO = Paramilitary Guerillas. Policy at first was to provoke Israel into reprisals. Reprisals would then lead to Crushing Arab Victory (yeah right)

BUT 6-Day War of 1967 - turning point for PLO. -> Arab Countries damaged by Israel -> Arab Nations wary of PLO and refugee presence -> 1968 Egypt expelled PLO -> 1970 Jordan expelled PLO -> Lebanon.

Palestinian presence provoked Israeli reprisals and destabilised Jordanian Society and politics (too many Palestinians), was too threatening to Jordan's Security. King Hussein ordered army to remove PLO -> War -> USA and USSR intervention -> PLO to Lebanon. Happened in September 1970 AKA Black September. PLO seen as going backwards, failing -> Increase in extremist and militant groups set up which led to increase in frustration and impatience. They needed to grab attention and publicise their cause -> international targets rather than just Israeli targets. This led to events such as Dawson's Field, Jordan, 1970 . The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked 4 planes and blew them up in front of the world's media after evacuating the passengers. Had shock factor and contributed to the expulsion of the PLO (event embarrassed Jordan, the world saw Jordan as a terrorist nation). Another example is the 1972 Munich Olympic massacre. Black September (a group named after the month the PLO was expelled from Jordan) attacked and took hostage Israeli athletes participating in the Munich Olympics. At the end, they killed a total of 11 athletes and 1 German police officer. After being expelled from Jordan, the PLO set up their bases in Lebanon, particularly Southern Lebanon. Sheer number of refugees and Palestinians changed the demographics of Lebanon (they basically flooded the country) and provoked Israeli reprisals. At first, in Lebanon, there was an equilibrium between Muslims and Christians. After the PLO arrived, it upset the equilibrium and sparked off a civil war between Muslims and Christians. Camp David Agreement, 1978 Sadat, President of Egypt He wanted to have peace because there had been 25 years of continuous war which had cost many lives, resources and land (Sinai). He expelled the PLO and visited Jerusalem where he addressed the Knesset (Israeli Parliment). He recognised Israel in return for the return of Sinai. He was able to do so because of his boost in popularity following the Yom Kippur War. Begin, Prime Minister of Israel He was the leader of the Likud (Right-wing party), pursued Israeli settlements on the West Bank. He was a former guerilla (Zionist, Patriotic, former leader of Irgun) but also saw the need to end the 'cost' of war. Wants Arab recognition of Israel's right to exist, traded land for security. As he was the leader of the Likud and a Zionist, he was trusted by many Israelis which allowed him to go forward with the peace negotiations. Carter, President of the USA He was the facilitator or the middleman of the negotiations. Believed in World Peace, believed that US Foreign Policy to be moral and wanted to reduce the tension in the Cold War and to remove the 'Hot Spot' of the Middle East - time of 'detente' (US and USSR trying to find a way to co-exist without nuking each other). When negotiations stalled, he invited Begin and Sadat to Camp David (Presidential Retreat) to negotiate a deal. Significance 1st Arab-Israeli peace treaty, ended the Israeli-Egyptian conflict. From hindsight, we can see that it withstood the test of time. BUT it did not include Lebanon, Syria or Jordan AND it left the question of the Palestinians unaswered. Egypt seen to have abandoned the Palestinians (Led to Sadat being assassinated). Despite claims that Israel would grant Gaza Strip and West Bank self-government, nothing happened. Israeli settlements on the West Bank continued. In the end, it partially solved the issue of security for Israel but the other 2 issues, land and refugees remained unsolved. However, it did not end the wars, it only ended Egypt's involvement and the other Arab nations were still hostile. The War in Lebanon Sorry about my notes on the War of Lebanon, theyre very brief since I did them myself for once and the teacher did not elaborate very much on the War. First War - 1978 Causes/Aims PLO - Moved to Lebanon, upset balance between Muslims and Christians. Occupied and set up bases in Southern Lebanon (Fatahland) Bombed and attacked Israeli villages, provoked Israeli reprisals. Suicide squad attacked Tel Aviv, 37 killed (1978). Israel- Wanted to destroy PLO bases in Lebanon. Saw oppurtunity to turn Lebanese Christians into allies (The old saying "The enemy of my enemy is my friend"). Also, civil war in Lebanon meant that the border was porous (not secure) which meant it would be easier for PLO to launch attacks. Issue of security. Course Israel - Invaded South Lebanon, defeated PLO and withdrew afterwords due to pressure from the US.

PLO - Defeated by Israel, retreated northwards. UN - Sent a peacekeeping force to restore order, form a buffer zone. Second War, 1982 Causes PLO - Attempted to assassinate Israeli ambassador in London, provoked Israeli reprisal. Israel - Wanted to drive PLO out of Lebanon, attempted assassination of Israeli ambassador in London. Course Israel - Massive invasion, destroyed PLO forces and headed north. Surrounded and besieged Beirut (captial of Lebanon), started shelling PLO held areas. Withdrew in 1985 due to US intervention. PLO - Crushed by Israel, retreated to Beirut. After US intervention, they were expelled/exiled to Tunisia. The Intifada, 1987-93 Intifada means uprising, ie. Palestinians in Gaza took action vs Israel. Why? - Frustration and anger with Arafat and PLO and Arab neighbours who seem to have failed Palestinian cause, they were going backwards while Israel was going forwards. Palestinians began passive resistance, however it escalated and grew more extreme because they werent going anywhere. Started using guns. Israeli army was at Gaza Strip policing the area, became target of Palestinians. Israelis retaliated by firing rubber bullets, hit and killed some children because they were out in the front line of Palestinians. Led to search for peace. PLO and Arafat: 1988, would recognise state of Israel in return for a state of Palestine. Could be because of after 40/25 years of failure, better to get something than nothing. Intifada showed that they were losing influence, needed to regain influence and initiative. -> Conflict with radical Palestinian groups eg. Hezbollah (founded after 1985 Lebanon), Hamas, Islamic Jihad. Complication in peace process: 1990 Gulf War, Saddam Hussein. USA led army in Iraq, freed Kuwait and withdrew. Hussein possibly wanted to be Pan-Arab leader, Arafat may have believed that Hussein would unite Arabs and destroy Israel. PLO supported Iraq but it backfired. Israel 1992 election, labour party won, brought Yitzhak Rabin. Positive response to Arafat's new policy, wanted to stop Intifada as young men died from years of conflict, also costed a lot of money to garrison units in the Gaza Strip. Peace movement and international opinion affected Israel's outlook as it was a democracy. Internation context also affected it, eg. South Africa and end of Apartheid, collapse of USSR - end of communism, took away backing of Arabs, Arabs no longer a big threat. The context and the internation opinion influenced Clinton. Rabin was former chief of staff in 6 Day war and defense minister, gives him credibility and allowed him to go forward with the peace process. This all led to the Oslo Peace Accords. Oslo Peace Accords, 1993-96 They were between the PLO and Israel. Arafat Wanted to re-establish authority and influence with Palestinians, also wanted to get something rather than nothing. Frustration after 25-50 years of conflict, there was the unresolved issue of land and refugees. Rabin Wanted Peace with security. Cost (lives and money) of Intifada, Lebanon and continuous threat of war was growing, wanted it to end. Clinton Facilitator/middleman, rather like Carter. Wanted to bring stability to strategic area (main source of oil). Wanted to reduce the regional conflict and therefore the risk of escalation. Also saw an oppurtunity - end of Cold War, USSR collapsed in 1990 and USSR too busy internally. Gave US free hand in the Middle East. He also believed in conflict resolution. Features Process

1991 - Held in Madrid. USA, Israel, Jordan, Palestinians participated but no PLO. Exploratory talks (no serious demands, just finding out about the other side) led to Israel stopping new settlements in West Bank and release of 800 Palestinians. 1993- Oslo. Arafat, Rabin with their public handshake. Agreements (Accords) PLO: Recognised Israel and renounced terrorism. Would 'police' all Palestinian groups. Israel recognised PLO as representatives of Palestinians, withdrew from Gaza Strip and Jericho (West Bank) and led to Palestinian authority (but not state) Israel possibly might not have believed Arafat's ability to police Palestinian groups, therefore willing to give PLO something but not everything, put PLO on something like a probation, wanted to see if PLO could deliver. However, Hamas, Hezbollah and other groups rejected the accords. The accords were implemented in 1994. 1994: Israel - Jordan treaty. Casablanca Conference: Economic development. 1995: 2nd Oslo accords. Israeli troop withdrawls from 6 cities in West Bank. However, Rabin was assassinated by Jewish extremist. END OF SYLLABUS