Lesson 02 - Introduction To Ethics And Ethical Theories[86].pdf

Ethics in Business and Corporate  Ethics in Business and Corporate Governance Introduction to Ethics and Ethical Theories

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Concept of Ethics, Morality and  Moral Standards

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Ethics Meaning from Dictionary Ethics – Meaning from Dictionary • Pl Plurall noun • 1. ( used with a singular or plural verb ) a system of moral p principles: p the ethics of a culture. • 2. the rules of conduct recognised in respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular group, culture etc culture, etc.:: medical ethics; Christian ethics ethics. • 3. moral principles, as of an individual: His ethics forbade betrayal of a confidence. • 4. ( usually used with a singular verb ) that branch of philosophy dealing with values relating to human conduct,, with respect p to the rightness g and wrongness g of certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of such actions. 3/95

Ethics (1/3) Ethics – • Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is philosophy p y that involves a branch of p systematising, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behaviour. • It is also a common term to refer f to or g code of conduct, honourable define e.g. behaviours, virtues, just actions, etc. /95

Ethics (2/3) Ethics – • Ethi Ethics may be b either ith externally t ll iimposed d (b (by for example, society, professional organisations, i ti schools, h l llaw enforcement, f t etc.) or born from self-belief. This view of ethics has little to do with ethics as a branch of philosophical consideration. • The Th core idea id may b be b based d on or require i some deep analytical reasoning of why something thi iis tto b be considered id d ""right" i ht" or "wrong". /95

Ethics (3/3) Ethics – • Or, it may have nothing to do with any deep thinking. For example, any deep philosophising may be totally irrelevant since it may be simply decided by, for example, some practical wisdom. Over all, it is a futile effort and only a human conjecture and practicality, since there is no such a thing as absolute right or wrong. • Ethics, as we see today, has a root in Greek philosophers (Ethics is a Greek word) and in Confucianism. /95

Spirit of Moral Value Spirit of Moral Value • Socrates said: – I would rather die having g spoken p in my y manner, than speak in your manner and live.

• Socrates refused to escape from the prison, where his assistants made arrangementt to t bribe b ib th the prison i guards. d • This is the spirit p of moral value with which Socrates lived his life. 7/69

Essence of Ethics (1/3) Essence of Ethics – • The life story of Socrates represents the p ((= a p perfect example) p ) of ethics;; it epitome reflects the moral values and moral principles one holds in his or her conduct and behaviour. Ethics and ethical behaviour – reflecting moral principles and values – not only apply to personal lives, but are also equally applicable in society and in business. 8/69

Essence of Ethics (2/3) Essence of Ethics – • Moral principles and values guide us in g what is morally y right g and wrong g choosing under given circumstances, and in taking appropriate decision and action based on our moral judgement – thereby making us feel satisfied and dissatisfied with our decisions.

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Essence of Ethics (3/3) Essence of Ethics – • Th Thus, our acts t and d responses tto a situation it ti practically reflect our feelings, thinking and judgement based on our moral principles and values. • There are two outcomes of this: – Our acts and behaviour are our reflection of ethics, and – Our feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction and happiness or unhappiness are dependent on our moral judgement which, in turn, is based on our moral principles and values. 10/69

Ethical Behaviour and Resultant  Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction – (1/2) • M Morall jjudgements, d t b based d on morall principles i i l and values, may differ from person to person. • Thus, Th there th is i no sett pattern tt like lik a rule l off law l commanding a given required behaviour to a given situation so long as our actions do not cause inconvenience or harm to others or lead to damage to the interests of others others. • What matters is our feeling of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the action we take to a given situation. 11/69

Ethical Behaviour and Resultant  Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction – (2/2) • Ethi Ethics, th thus, iis self-education lf d ti and d selflf regulation – as to how to be guided in actions and decisions by some moral principles and values so that one feels justified in taking a certain course of action and is satisfied about his or her own action and its outcome. Ethics is a pp in life, which is at value-based approach the root of our satisfaction and success in life. 12/69

Ethical Theories Ethical Theories

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Moral Theories Moral Theories • B Business i ethics thi application li ti can b be jjudged d d by the following principles of moral theories in ethical practices: – The utilitarian theory – The common good approach – The theory of rights and duties – The theory of Deontology – The theory of justice – The ethics of care 14/51

Utilitarian Approach (1/3) Utilitarian Approach (1/3) • Th The Utilitarian Utilit i Approach A h assesses an action in terms of its consequences or outcomes; that is is, the net benefits and costs to all stakeholders on an individual level. It strives to achieve the g greatest g good for the greatest number while creating the least amount of harm or preventing the greatest amo nt of ssuffering. amount ffering It holds that e every er entity's interests should be considered equally when making the decision decision, and this includes those of other species since they also are capable p of suffering. g 15/51

Utilitarian Approach (2/3) Utilitarian Approach (2/3) • S So, ffor any sett off options ti it would ld view i th the most ethical option as the one which produces d th the b bestt b balance l off b benefits fit over harm for the most stakeholders. • In a business context, this approach might rely on a statistical analysis of probable outcomes, t a classical l i l costs/benefits t /b fit assessment, and/or a consideration of the marginal i l utility tilit off a consequence ffor various i stakeholders in the group. 16/51

Utilitarian Approach (3/3) Utilitarian Approach –

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Jeremy Bentham (English Philosopher)  1748 – 1832  • J Jeremy B Bentham th was an English E li h philisopher, hili h jurist and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern Utilitarianism ethics ethics. • Bentham defined as the "fundamental axiom" of his philosophy the principle that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right g and wrong. g He became a leading g theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and a political radical whose ideas influenced the d development l t off welfarism. lf i

Common Good Approach Common Good Approach • The common good is a notion that g more than 2,000 , years y ago g in originated the writings of Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero. More recently recently, contemporary ethicist John Rawls defined the common good as "certain general conditions that are...equally to everyone's advantage."

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Common Good Approach (1/5) Common Good Approach – • Th The Common C Good G d Approach A h regards d allll individuals as part of a larger community. As such, h we share h certain t i common conditions diti and institutions upon which our welfare depends For society to thrive, depends. thrive we need to safeguard the sustainability of our community for the good of all all, including our weakest and most vulnerable members. Some of the things that nurture a healthy and functioning community are: 20/51

Common Good Approach (2/5) Common Good Approach – – – – – – – – – – –

stable t bl ffamily il lif life; good schools; affordable ff d bl nourishment i h t and dh health lth care; effective public safety; a just legal system; fair trade and commerce; a safe, well-managed ecosystem; an accessible technological environment; a well-maintained infrastructure; and a peaceful society. # 21/51

Common Good Approach (3/5) Common Good Approach – • The utilitarian principle weighs the net goodness and harm p produced balance of g by a certain action on a group of individuals while this approach tests individuals, whether an action benefits or erodes a specific element of the common good good. It weighs the effect on the fabric of the community. .... (contd) 22/51

Common Good Approach (4/5) Common Good Approach – • ... (from last slide) It encourages us to g how the freedoms and support pp recognise we enjoy as individuals in pursuit of our own happiness are made possible by the sustained welfare of our community life. It invites us to ask what kind of society we are and want to become, and what actions we need to take to achieve that end. 23/51

Common Good Approach (5/5) Common Good Approach –

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Rights and Duties (1/5) Rights and Duties – • Ri Rights ht and d duties d ti are conjoint j i t factors, f t that th t is, every right is associated with the performance f off certain t i correlated l t d duties. d ti • The Rights Approach focuses on respect for human dignity. This approach holds that our dignity is based on our ability to choose freely h how we lilive our lilives, and d th thatt we h have a moral right to respect for our choices as free, equal,l and d rational ti l people, l and d a morall d duty t to respect others in the same way. 25/51

Rights and Duties (2/5) Rights and Duties – • Some of these rights are to: – ((1/8)) life,, – (2/8) liberty and the pursuit of happiness; – (3/8) free speech and assembly; – (4/8) freedom of religion; – (5/8) property ownership; and – ((6/8)) freelyy enter into contractual agreements g and the right to receive whatever was contractuallyy agreed; g ; 26/51

Rights and Duties (3/5) Rights and Duties – – (7/8) right to privacy, – ((8/8)) be informed truthfully y on matters that affect our choices and to be safe from harm and injury, j y etc.

• A deeper understanding of human rights can be gained from the United Nation's Nation s Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

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Rights and Duties (4/5) Rights and Duties –

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Rights and Duties (5/5) Rights and Duties – • D Duty t is i either ith contractual t t l obligation bli ti or mutually understood obligation. In business context, t t if the th duty d t is i contractual, t t l and da violation has serious consequences, it may be tenable under the law for punitive actions; otherwise it is considered a moral violation and actions can be taken as per company’s company s code of conduct. • However, H obligation bli ti ffor d duty t cannott fforce an employee to do any immoral or unethical job. 29/51

Deontological Ethics (1/2) Deontological Ethics – • D Deontology t l ( = study t d off the th nature t off duty d t and obligation) (or Deontological Ethics) is an approach to Ethics that focuses on the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of those actions (Consequentialism) or to the character and habits of the actor (Virtue Ethics). Thus, Deontologists are q non-consequentialists. 30

Deontological Ethics (2/2) Deontological Ethics – • U Unlike lik utilitarianism, tilit i i where h “the “th ends d jjustify tif the means,” deontologism argues that it is th “means the “ that th t are important.” i t t” • Thus, to a Deontologist, whether a situation is good or bad depends on whether the action that brought it about b t was right i ht or wrong. Wh Whatt makes k a choice "right" is its conformity with a moral norm: Right Ri ht ttakes k priority i it over Good. G d • Immanuel Kant is the famous Deontologist 31

Justice, Fairness and Care Justice as Fairness Justice as Fairness

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Justice (1/2) Justice – • Pip in Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations says “there is nothing so

finely perceived and felt, as injustice”.

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Justice (2/2) Justice – • Social justice and contractual justice (and y extension,, Injustice) j ) remain as by important determinant of ethics in our society and in business and and, differentiates between civilised society and not so civilised society in delivering liberty liberty, equity equity, fairness and impartiality by its presence or absence. 34

Justice (1/3) Justice – • According to most contemporary theories of justice, justice justice is overwhelmingly important: John Rawls claims that "J ti iis th "Justice the fifirstt virtue i t off social i l institutions, as truth is of systems of thought." Justice can be thought of as distinct from and more fundamental than benevolence, charity, mercy, generosi ty or compassion. ty, compassion .... (contd (contd.)) 35

Justice (2/3) Justice – • Justice has traditionally been associated p with concepts of fate, reincarnation or Divine Providence, that is, is with a life in accordance with the cosmic plan. The association of justice with fairness has thus been historically and culturally rare and is, perhaps, chiefly a modern innovation [primarily in western ] societies.]. 36

Justice (3/3) Justice – • U Understandings d t di off jjustice ti diff differ iin every culture, as cultures are usually dependent upon a shared history, mythology and/or religion. Each culture's ethics create values which influence the notion of justice. Although there can be found some justice principles that are one and the same in all or most of the cultures, these are insufficient to create a unitary jjustice apprehension. pp 37/51

Three Types of Justice (1/4) Three Types of Justice – • Distributive Justice • Retributive Justice • Compensatory (Restorative) Justice

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Three Types of Justice (2/4) Three Types of Justice – • Distributive Justice is concerned with the fair distribution of benefits and burdens arising from an act or situation, or owing to the participation of an individual or a group in some activities, or due to some social, natural or accidental reasons reasons. Thus Thus, distributive justice is directed at the proper allocation of things—wealth, power, reward, respect—among p g different p people. p 39/51

Three Types of Justice (3/4) Three Types of Justice – • R Retributive t ib ti justice j ti regulates l t proportionate response to crime proven by lawful evidence, so that punishment is justly imposed and considered as morally correct and fully deserved. The law of retaliation (lex talionis) is a military theory of retributive justice, which says that p y should be equal q to the wrong g reciprocity suffered; "life for life, wound for wound, p for stripe." p stripe 40/51

Three Types of Justice (4/4) Three Types of Justice – • C Compensatory t (R (Restorative) t ti ) jjustice ti is i concerned not so much with retribution and punishment as with (a) making the victim whole and (b) reintegrating the offender into society. This approach frequently brings an offender and a victim together, so that the offender can better understand the effect his/her offense had on the victim. A good example is the ‘third party’ p y insurance of vehicle owners. 41/51

Justice as Fairness (1/8) Justice as Fairness – • Justice as Fairness: Political not p y ((metaphysics: p y the branch of Metaphysical philosophy that deals with the first principles of things, g , including g abstract concepts p such as being, knowing, identity, time, and space. And about such ontological concepts) is an essay

by John Rawls, published in 1985.

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Justice as Fairness (2/8) Justice as Fairness – • Justice as Fairness: Political not p y . It comprises p two main Metaphysical principles of Liberty and Equality; the second is subdivided into Fair Equality of Opportunity and the Difference Principle. Principle

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Justice as Fairness (3/8) Justice as Fairness – • The First Principle: The Liberty p Principle – The first and most important principle states that every individual has an equal right to basic liberties, Rawls claiming "that certain rights and freedoms are more important or 'basic' than others". ..... (Contd.)

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Justice as Fairness (4/8) Justice as Fairness – • The First Principle: The Liberty p Principle – For example, Rawls believes that "personal property" – personal belongings property belongings, a home – constitutes a basic liberty, but an absolute right to unlimited private property is not not. As basic liberties, they are inalienable: no government can amend amend, infringe or remove them from individuals. # 45/51

Justice as Fairness (5/8) Justice as Fairness – • Th The Second S d Principle: P i i l The Th Equality E lit Principle – The Equality Principle is the component of Justice as Fairness establishing distributive justice. Rawls presents it as follows in A Theory off Justice: J ti – "Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both:(a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, consistent with the just savings principle, and(b) attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. .... (contd.) 46/51

Justice as Fairness (6/8) Justice as Fairness – • The Second Principle: The Equality p Principle – As mentioned previously, Rawls awards the Fair Equality of Opportunity Principle lexical priority over the Difference Principle (within Equality Principle) : a society cannot arrange inequalities to maximise the share of the least advantaged whilst not allowing access to certain offices or positions. # 47/51

Justice as Fairness (7/8) Justice as Fairness – • Th The S Second d Principle: P i i l The Th Equality E lit Principle – Fair Equality of Opportunity: This principle maintains that "offices and positions" should b open to any iindividual, be di id l regardless dl off hi his or her social background, ethnicity or sex. It is stronger than 'Formal Formal Equality of Opportunity' Opportunity in that Rawls argues that an individual should not only have the right to opportunities, opportunities but should have an effective equal chance as another of similar natural ability. y 48/51

Justice as Fairness (8/8) Justice as Fairness – • Th The Second S d Principle: P i i l The Th Equality E lit Principle – The Difference Principle: The Difference Principle regulates inequalities: it only permits inequalities that work to the advantage of the worst-off. t ff This Thi is i often ft misinterpreted i i t t d as tricklet i kl down economics; Rawls' argument is more accurately accu aeye expressed p essed as a sys system e where e e wealth ea "diffuses up". By guaranteeing the worst-off in society a fair deal, Rawls compensates for naturally-occurring inequalities (talents that one is born with, such as a capacity for sport). 49/51

Carol Gilligan and Ethics of Care (1/4) Carol Gilligan and Ethics of Care – • C Caroll Gilli Gilligan and d In I a Different Diff t Voice V i • One of the founders of the ethics of care was American ethicist and psychologist p y g Carol Gilligan. g Gilligan g was a student of developmental psychologist psyc o og st Lawrence a e ce Kohlberg. o be g G Gilligan ga developed her moral theory in contrast to her mentor's mentor s theory of stages of moral development. 50

Carol Gilligan and Ethics of Care (2/4) Carol Gilligan and Ethics of Care – • She held that measuring progress by g model resulted in boys y being g Kohlberg's found to be more morally mature than girls and this held for adult men and girls, women as well (although when education is controlled for there are no gender differences).

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Carol Gilligan and Ethics of Care (3/4) Carol Gilligan and Ethics of Care – • Gilli Gilligan ffurther th argued d th thatt K Kohlberg's hlb ' model d l was not an objective scale of moral development It displayed a particularly development. masculine perspective on morality, founded on jjustice and abstract duties or obligations. g Other researchers, however, have found the scale to be psychometrically sound. (psychometrics = the branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and quantitative tests of the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence , aptitude and personality traits.) 52

Carol Gilligan and Ethics of Care (4/4) Carol Gilligan and Ethics of Care – • Gilli Gilligan's ' In I a Different Diff t Voice V i offered ff d the th perspective that men and women have tendencies to view morality in different terms. terms Her theory claimed women tended to emphasise p empathy p y and compassion p over the notions of morality that are privileged in Kohlberg's scale. Subsequent research s ggests that the discrepanc suggests discrepancy in being oriented towards care-based or justice-based ethical approaches may be based on gender differences, or on differences in actual current life situations of the genders. g 53

Ethics of Care (1/2) Ethics of Care – • E Each h off us lilives and d exists i t iin an environment i t of care and concern in the society, and we should preserve and nurture these environments and relationships. • Each of us should exercise care for those with whom we are socially and otherwise related byy attending g to their needs, wellbeing g and desires as seen from their own personal perspective, and by responding positively to the same so as to preserve the values of those relationships; 54/51

Ethics of Care (2/2) Ethics of Care – • Ethics of care is more than just following principles p discussed earlier;; it the moral p involves attending and positively responding to the wellbeing and welfare of those persons with whom we share close and valuable relationships. relationships #

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Other Theories of Ethics Other Theories of Ethics

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Adam Smith (Scottish) 1723 to 1790  Adam Smith (Scottish) – 1723 to 1790 • Adam Smith and other Scottish g thinkers brought g in a type yp Enlightenment of virtue ethics involving moral sympathy and approval approval. His system requires people to weigh moral virtues against social norms in the context of time and place place. Taste, aesthetics, and moral sensibility are necessary for making good judgements on q ethical questions.

Ethics of Virtue (1/2) Ethics of Virtue – • Ethi Ethics off virtue it complement l t and d add dd to t utilitarianism, rights, justice and care by looking not at the actions people are required to perform, but at the character they are required to have. • A moral o a virtue tue is sa an acqu acquired ed qua quality ty tthat at is s praised and valued as a part of a person’s character. It is indicative of good moral character. 58/51

Ethics of Virtue (2/2) Ethics of Virtue – • Some important ethics-related-virtues that good individual or a successful make for a g manager are courage, prudence, wisdom, justice truthfulness, justice, truthfulness fairness, fairness temperance and intelligence. #

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Adam Smith – The Theory of Moral  Sentiments – (1/3) • Smith critically examines the moral g of his time,, and suggests gg that thinking conscience arises from social relationships His goal in writing the work relationships. was to explain the source of mankind's ability to form moral judgements judgements, in spite of man's natural inclinations towards selfinterest. 60/51

Adam Smith – The Theory of Moral  Sentiments – (2/3)  • S Smith ith proposes a theory th off sympathy, th in i which the act of observing others makes people l aware off th themselves l and d th the morality lit of their own behaviour. • Scholars have traditionally perceived a conflict between The Theory of Moral S ti Sentiments t and d The Th Wealth W lth off Nations; N ti th the former emphasises sympathy for others, while hil th the llatter tt ffocuses on the th role l off selflf interest. 61/51

Adam Smith – The Theory of Moral  Sentiments – (3/3) • In recent years, however, some scholars of g that no Smith's work have argued contradiction exists. They claim that in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Sentiments Smith develops a theory of psychology in which individuals seek the approval of the "impartial spectator" as a result of a natural desire to have outside observers sympathise y p with them. 62/51

(Immanuel) Kant’ss Principle (Immanuel) Kant Principle • If something is moral to me, it must be morally right for others too. • Everyone is of equal value and has equal freedom. freedom • Kant’s principle plays a dominant role in safeg arding ethics in the contract safeguarding contractual al dealings of business operations, and has particularly ti l l b benefitted fitt d workers k or employees l in industries and business houses. 63/51

Kantian Deonticism Kantian Deonticism • D Deontology t l ( Deontological (or D t l i l Ethics) Ethi ) iis an approach to Ethics that focuses on the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of those actions (Consequentialism) or to the character and habits of the actor (Virtue ) deontologists g are nonEthics).Thus, consequentialists and are governed by certain do’s and don'ts. 64/51

Kantian Theory of Duty (Categorical  Imperatives) – (1/2) • Four principles of Kantian theory of duty: – Morality y of yyour action depends p on what y you intend to do and not on the consequences. – Moral rules are impartial, impartial and these apply equally to everyone. – An action is moral only if you can justify the rule that everyone can follow. – People P l should h ld b be treated t t d as human h beings b i of infinite value. 65/51

Kantian Theory of Duty (Categorical  Imperatives) – (2/2) • Th There are two t precise i rules l ffor determining a morally right duty in the Kantian Categorical Imperatives: – Reversibility: It implies that you should perform your duty involving others in such a way that you will like others to perform their d ti tto you exactly duties tl iin th the same way. – Universality: A person’s justification to act in a particular ti l way should h ld b be so exemplary l th thatt they will induce others to act in the same way. 66/51

Ethical Rules for Contracts and  Contractual Obligations – (1/2) • B Both th parties ti i a contract in t t mustt have h clear l understanding and full knowledge of the nature of the agreement they are entering into; • Neither party to the contract shall intentionally misrepresent the facts of the contractual situation to the other party; • Neither party to the contract must be forced to enter the contract under duress or coercion or deceit; and • The contract must not bind the parties to any immoral or illegal act. 67/51

Ethical Rules for Contracts and  Contractual Obligations – (2/2) • A view i contrary t t the to th utilitarian tilit i view i off maximising benefits is that, if a person has moral right to do something, then that should be irrespective of utilitarian benefits. • Immanuel a ue Kant a t viewed e ed tthe e moral o a rights g ts and duties as imperative in a society where everyone should be treated equal to everyone else. 68/51

Aristotle The Theory of Golden Mean Aristotle – The Theory of Golden Mean • In philosophy, especially that of Aristotle, golden mean is the desirable middle the g between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency. deficiency For example example, in the Aristotelian view, courage is a virtue, but if taken to excess would manifest as recklessness, and, in deficiency, cowardice. 69/51

Nicomachean Ethics (1/3) Nicomachean Ethics – • Ni Nicomachean h Ethi explains Ethics l i th the hi highest h t good in life is eudemonia (well-being or happiness) which can be achieved in accordance with virtues (excellence) in a sustainable way so that it permeates the human psyche throughout life. Virtuous actions are possible through right actions, g habits and right g character. According g right to this theory social welfare is the sum of g of all individuals. well-being 70/51

Nicomachean Ethics (2/3) Nicomachean Ethics – • The Nicomachean Ethics is the name yg given to Aristotle's best-known normally work on ethics. The work, which plays a pre-eminent pre eminent role in defining Aristotelian ethics, consists of ten books, originally separate scrolls scrolls, and is understood to be based on notes from his lectures at the Lyceum, which were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, Nicomachus. 71/51

Nicomachean Ethics (3/3) Nicomachean Ethics – • The Nicomachean Ethics is widely p considered one of the most important historical philosophical works, and had an important impact upon the European Middle Ages, becoming one of the core works of medieval philosophy philosophy. It therefore indirectly became critical in the development of all modern philosophy as p law and theology. gy well as European 72/51

Consequencialism Ethics (1/4) Consequencialism Ethics – • Of all the things a person might do at any given moment, the morally right action is the one with the best overall consequences. • Consequentialism is based on two principles: – Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act – The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act

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Consequencialism Ethics (2/4) Consequencialism Ethics – • It gives i us this thi guidance id when h ffaced d with ith a moral dilemma: – A person should choose the action that maximises good consequences – And A d it gives i thi this generall guidance id on h how tto lilive:

• People should live so as to maximise good consequences • Different forms of consequentialism differ over what the good thing is that should be maximised. 74/51

Consequencialism Ethics (3/4) Consequencialism Ethics – • Different forms of consequentialism differ good thing g is that should be over what the g maximised: – (1/3) Utilitarianism states that people should maximise human welfare or well-being (which they used to call 'utility' utility - hence the name) name). – (2/3) Hedonism states that people should maximise i i h human pleasure. l

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Consequencialism Ethics (4/4) Consequencialism Ethics – – (3/3) Other forms of consequentialism take a more subtle approach; for example stating that people should maximise the satisfaction of their fully informed and rational preferences.

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Ethical Hedonism (1/2) Ethical Hedonism – • Ethical hedonism is the view that our g is to fundamental moral obligation maximise pleasure or happiness. Ethical hedonism is most associated with the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (342270 BCE BCE.)) who taught that our life's goal should be to minimise pain and maximise pleasure. In fact, all of our actions should have that aim. 77

Ethical Hedonism (2/2) Ethical Hedonism – • H Hedonism d i iis a sub-philosophy b hil h of utilitarianism, which says to act in a way that maximises utility. utility Hedonists equate pleasure with utility and believe that pleasure is the master of all humankind,, and acts as the ultimate life goal. Hedonists believe that there are only two motivators of human action pleas action, pleasure re and pain pain, and that decisions should only be made to further our pleasurable experiences and minimise or completely eliminate our painful ones. ## 78/78