Lecture 11.pdf

SDM 5001 SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE

LECTURE 11.1 SOCIAL TECHNICAL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

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SOCIAL SYSTEMS

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Socio-technical engineering systems refers to the interaction between society complex technology, infrastructures and human behaviour

Support System

Society and engineering structures and human support combined to make complex sociotechnical systems

Social Technical Systems

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Socio Technical System Environment Hardware

Software

Society Liveware

Components in Socio Technical System Hardware

Any physical and non living element, eg buildings, machines, equipment, workspace

Software

Non material elements, eg computer software, work procedures, practices, norms

Live-ware

Human elements (Support), eg workers, operators, service staff, third parties, teams

Society

Community, government, cities, countries, management

Environment

Internal and external environment 4 © LGChan

Evolution of Socio Technical Systems Machine Human Level

Artificial Intelligence

Evolution

Community Level

Personal Level

Information Level

Machine Level

Social Technical Technology

Human Computer Interface

Information Technology

Engineering Technology

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Social Systems Characteristics Socio-technical systems are technical works involving the participation of groups of people in ways that significantly affect the architectures and design of those works (Rechtin Maier 2009)

Main Features of Socio-Technical Systems 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

They are collective operational tasks They contain social and technical sub-systems They are open systems (strongly interacting with their environments) Non deterministic (changing human environment) and emergent properties (evolving) Concept of the system being an unfinished system

Examples intelligent transport system, telecommunications system, public health systems, education systems, electrical power distribution system, Toyota production systems

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Complexity in Socio Technical Systems Local Interests, Global Outcomes o Operational and managerial independence of sub systems have different objectives, especially social systems with changing values This makes it difficult to optimize the overall socio technical systems

Component Systems o Difficulty in identifying all components in the society Some components may be invisible and, others may only be active at a late stage

Interactions o Interactions are complex and result in unexpected emergent behavior

Complexity o o o o

Many agents with different behaviour and states Interactions between agents in a complex environment Lots of interconnections between agents Communicating in parallel and instantaneously 7 © LGChan

Managing in Socio Technical Systems Stakeholders o Who benefits? Who pays? Who provides? Who loses? o In social system quality, there is a case-by-case trade off, and the quality depends on the system to be provided

Client vs User o Client in socio-technical system is frequently not the end user of the system o End users are usually groups of people who have diverse needs and expectations o Client manages this problem by (1) setting standards and licensing to contractors (2) segmenting the market to different groups of users

Systems Architecture for Socio Technical Systems o An open system architecture should allow for easy improvement and update of system capabilities by adding or changing components in the design for socio technical system o Open system architecture is an open specification of the architecture of a system or systems of systems for the expanding specified capabilities 8 © LGChan

Strategies in Managing Socio-Technical Issues Key consideration: How power or decision making is dispersed among the stakeholders? Strategy

Method

Advantages

Disadvantages

Authoritative Strategy

Solution provided by a few selected people (eg board of directors)

Efficiency and Timeliness

Potential missing out important issues Lost opportunity for learning

Competitive Strategy

Use opposing parties points of view to come up with preferred solutions (eg open TV debate)

Creation of new ideas and innovation Provision of choice

Conflict and stalemates Consume resources (time wasting)

Collaborative Strategy

Engage all parties to find the best possible solution agreed by all (eg dialogue, town hall meeting)

Higher stakeholder commitment Comprehensive and effective solutions Fewer resources used by stakeholder

Increased transaction costs dialogue can turn into conflict, hardened positions and stalemate causing poor results 9 © LGChan

Five Key Characteristics of Open Socio-Technical Systems 1. Systems should have inter-dependent sub-systems which allow various users to interact and design solutions to satisfy their different requirements 2. Systems should adapt to and pursue goals in external environments

3. Systems have an internal environment comprising separate but inter-dependent technical and social subsystems 4. Systems have equi-finality Meaning : systems goals can be achieved by more than one means. This implies that there are many possibilities and design choices to be made during system development 5. System performance relies on the joint optimisation of the technical and social subsystems Focusing on one of these systems to the exclusion of the other is likely to lead to degraded system performance and utility Source : Baxter Sommerville 2011 Socio-technical systems-From design methods to systems engineering. Interacting with Computers

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Socio-Technical Systems Design Approaches Soft Systems Methodology An action oriented and organized process of inquiry into problematical situations (using a systemic process) a) to identify the what the business is trying to achieve b) what are the problem areas, and c) how is the solution going to affect the business and people involved in it

Contextual Design Designing products directly from understanding how the user actually performs his work

Cognitive Systems Engineering Observing and analysing work in context, and uses abstraction on the results to identify patterns in the observations that occur across work settings and situations

Human-centred Design Designing upon an explicit understanding of users, their tasks, and the environments in which those tasks are carried out

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Example : Car Sharing Service (UBER and GrabCar) Car Ride-Sharing P2P System It is an alternate to hailing public taxis on the road It pairs drivers (private and taxis) and ride-seekers with each other

Relevant Systems Architectures o Social Systems • Both clients (driver and passenger) are end users of the system • Matches people who make their cars available, and passengers who are in need of convenient transportation

o Collaborative Systems • Requires people who willing to be drivers at a specific time, and passengers who will use the service of their choice • No central body to control allocation of assets and services, many drivers can respond to the same request

o Intelligent system • uses GPS make information available to both driver and passenger, recommends drivers who are nearest to the caller 12 © LGChan

EXAMPLE : DIGITAL PLATFORM

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Platform Businesses: Definition and Chicken-and-Egg Problem Definition and Network Effects o A platform business model creates value by facilitating interactions between the different customer segments (eg matchmaking and transaction including search cost reduction)

o Platform business models are “two-sided markets” or ”multi-sided markets” o The value of the platform grows to attract more users • Direct/same side network effects: the more users in one customer segment will attract more users in that customer segment (users of Microsoft office software; users of an instant messaging system) • Indirect/cross-side network effects: the more users in one customer segment will attract more users in the other customer segment (users of videogames with game developers)

Key Success Factors o Attract both customers to platform at the same time through a subsidized price mechanism • Generally, need to subsidize the more price sensitive segment and charge the side that increases its demand more strongly as a result of the other side growth. Eg subsidized Xbox, PSP machines, but charge more for games • In markets with high sensitivity to quality, need to charge more the side that has to supply quality, so as to attract providers of high quality products. Eg charge more for games in order to produce quality games o Acquiring new customers at a low cost

o Retain customers for a long period of time o Attract “lead” users, with lower joining prices or agreements not to join rival platforms in order to build initial momentum

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Platform Development Which Side to Develop First?

Module Developer User

Start with the Side with the weaker demand for the goods/services supplied by other Side

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Traditional Supply Chain

SUPPLIERS

Platform Supply Chain

CUSTOMER SEGMENT 1

Example of Platform Business o o o o o o

RETAILER

CUSTOMERS

CUSTOMER SEGMENT 2

PLATFORM

Apple iPod/iTunes system Windows Operating System Android PlayStore Platform Ebay E-Commerce Uber/Grab 16 © LGChan

Two-Sided Markets provide a Springboard for Innovation Networked market

Side 1

Side 2

Platform Providers

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END OF LECTURE 1.1 SOCIAL TECHNICAL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

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SDM 5001 SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE

LECTURE 11.2 ARCHITECTING COLLABORATIVE SYSTEMS

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Collaborative Systems Characteristics o Systems with no central control either in their conception, development, or operation o Voluntary participation and contribution by large number of individuals o Examples Open Source Software (Linux, R), World Wide Web (Wikipedia), Open Source Ecology, Mumbai Box Wallah (Dabbawala), Intelligent Transportation System, Joint Air Defence System, Urban City Planning

Types of Collaborative Systems o Closed Collaborative Systems o There is a central authority which can act but it has delegated its authority to other groups Example: joint ventures, national defence

o Open Collaborative Systems o There is no central authority and no overall authority to decide on anything Voluntary participation is necessary Overall system depends on some invisible mechanism to maintain the goals and purposes Example: R- Statistics, Wikipedia, Crypto currency 2 © LGChan

Example of Collaborative Systems Management during Systems Development

Centrally Directed Large Public Systems

Product Families

Corporate IT Urban Planning Military Network Ops Collaborative Core Internet Consumer Electronics Web Based IT

Unconstrained

Collaborative

Centrally Directed

Management during Operation

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Architecting Collaborative Systems 1 1 Stable Intermediate Forms o Intermediate forms should be technically, economically, and politically self supporting o Able to fulfil some useful purpose, has sufficient revenue to maintain operations, and a body to oversee policies

2 Policy Decision Making Process (Triage) o Guidelines to assign priority order to projects on the basis of where efforts, funds and other resources can be best used, are most needed, or are most likely to achieve success

3 Leverage at Interfaces o Focus on architecting of interfaces of the sub-systems (independent) which allow many people to participate, and to create emergent capability of system of interest o Well defined interfaces enable participants to easily integrate their contribution to existing work 4 © LGChan

Architecting Collaborative Systems 2 4 Ensuring Co-operation (Win Win) o Overall cost and benefits of collaboration should be more than the sum of independent costs and benefit for each participant o Make each participant’s well being to be partially dependent on the well being of other participants

5 Problems with Collaborative Systems o Standards: o Lack of organization to formalize market standards o Motivation: o Lack of Monetary Incentives o Depends on active participation to maintain the systems o Differing goal and motivation of participants

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Collaborative Online Social Media Platforms Collaborative Network

Application

Examples

Social networks

Connect with people

Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn

Media Sharing networks

Share photos, videos

YouTube, Instagram, Snapchat

Discussion forums

Share news and ideas

reddit, Quora, Digg

Bookmarking, Content Curation

Discover, save, and share new content

Pinterest, Flipboard

Consumer Review

Find and review businesses

TripAdvisor, Yelp, Zomato

Blogging and Publishing

Publish content online

WordPress, Tumblr, Medium

Social Shopping

Shop online

Polyvore, Etsy, Fancy

Sharing Economy

Trade goods and services

Airbnb, Grab, Uber, Taskrabbit

Facebook YouTube Instagram LinkedIn Twitter

Source : https://blog.hootsuite.com/types-of-social-media/

2,072 million users 1,500 million users 800 million users 500 million users 330 million users 6 © LGChan

END OF LECTURE 11.2 ARCHITECTING COLLABORATIVE SYSTEMS

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SDM 5001 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

LECTURE 11.3 BUILDER ARCHITECT SYSTEMS

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Builder Architected Systems Characteristics o Architect produces a pre-conceived “form first” architecture in mind based on his own ideas and assumptions without full knowledge of the requirements of the users and market o Architect is mainly technical staff (company’s research and development) Client is company who sells the product or system in the market

o Examples of Builder Architect Systems Aerospace (Satellites, Space Mission) Aircrafts Military Defence Systems Infrastructure Projects (New Towns, Airports, Highways, Transportation, Power Plants) 2 © LGChan

Leveraging Architectures in Innovative Builder Systems 1 Incremental Development for Existing Customer o Using existing architectures to produce variations and extensions of existing customers o Low risk because of proven architecture o Adopt Platform Design (Example: coffee makers, electric shavers, vacuum cleaners) (Iridium Example: use technology for high-speed data satellites, M-Star)

2 New Markets for Existing Products o Using existing architectures to enter new or uncertain markets o New applications of existing products in new markets (Example: GoPro camera – camera for action photography) (Iridium Example: unserved markets in Africa, disaster relief operators)

3 New Products and New Markets o Novel architectures looking for new markets o Creating Disruptive Technology (Example: new computer hardware creates newer and better software applications) block chain technology creates crypto currency to replace bank transactions) 3 © LGChan

Leveraging Architectures in Innovative Builder Systems 4 Technology Substitution within Existing Systems

New

Penetration/ Substitution

Disruptive

Existing

Markets

o Upgrading old technology in existing system o Easy for software systems (using update patches released online) o Difficult for hardware systems required making changes in production or assembly

NA

Platform/ Substitution

Existing

New

Products

5 Uncertainty of End Purpose o Architecture solutions looking for a problem Example: Google “moon shot projects” Mars mission 4 © LGChan

Managing Uncertainty and Risks 1 Build In Flexibility and Maintain Options o Design for Flexibility: Architectural options that allow changes or additions later o Real Options “IN” projects concern design elements by incorporating in the architecture a range of possible future performance or behaviour Examples: API in software, airport runways designed for airport terminal expansions

2 Use Open Architecture o Maintain control over the key standards that characterize the system o Make them available to others (licensing) who have complementary skills (markets, technology, etc) so that everyone benefits Example: console video game machines, IBM PC and Microsoft

3 Modular Architecture o strategic design of components and assembly to enable efficient changes/modifications o changes in one component do not affect other components (loose coupling) Example: add-on accessories, software extension packages (R)

4 Late Point of Differentiation o postponement of final assembly of critical functions Example: external paint coloring, CPU and RAM chips on motherboards 5 © LGChan

Market Strategies in Builder Architect Systems 1 Disrupt and Dominate o Create systems that disrupt existing operational patterns or markets, and building barriers to prevent others from taking advantage of those disruptions – Quality of architecture must be excellent as it must create beyond boundaries of current systems – Protect system architecture to create high barrier of entry for competitors (Example: intellectual property rights, supply chain advantage)

2 Agile Response o Capability to react more quickly and effectively than competition without disrupting existing market – Implement strategy effectively: able to rapidly conceive, develop and deliver new systems – Architecture designed such that changes could be made quickly (Example: embedded architecture designs, changes made in final stages of production) – Rapid prototyping to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using 3D computer aided design or 3D printing

3 Attrition o Based on ability to sustain and out last competitors in the same market Low tech strategy – Assess to low cost capital, low pricing, labour and large distribution network. – Acquired and buyout markets and competitors (Example: ebay auctions, format wars (VHS vs Betamax, Blue ray vs HD DVD, EXCEL vs Lotus 123)

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END OF LECTURE 11.3 ARCHITECTING BUILDER ARCHITECT SYSTEM

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