Lect 3_urban Env_aug 12, 2008

Urban Environmental Problems

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Faculty of Planning & Public Policy Centre for Environmental Planning & Technology (CEPT) University, Ahmedabad CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Urban Environment  Environment is a vast, diverse and complex subject  Urban Environment has several associated subjects : • • • • • •

Built environment Natural resources Sanitation infrastructure Pollution Governance Environmental laws etc.

 There are several ways to explain the subject

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Presentation Structure

 Section 1: Urban Environment - Introduction Discussion - Urban Environment Need to study urban environment Key urban environmental problems / issues Environmental risks - vulnerable groups Impacts at various scales Short case studies

 Section 2: Quality of Urban Environment

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Urban Environment - Introduction

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Randomly listing urban components : • Roads, Traffic, Street Lights • Trees, Lakes, Gardens, Ponds • Buildings • Solid waste, Slums • Stray Animals • Human beings • Industries

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

“Largely, human activities are responsible for rapidly changing environment ………… and most of such activities are associated to urbanization”

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Population rise & Urban areas

Source: http://www.susps.org/images/worldpopgr.gif

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Population rise & Urban areas

 Rapid urbanization

 Factors: a. Rural to urban migration b. Natural population rise c. Classification of rural area into urban area

 Attracted: a. Employment b. Lifestyle

Source: http://www.smarteconomy.typepad.com/ CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Population rise & Urban areas

Source: http://www.raisethehammer.org CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Population rise & Urban areas  Stress on natural resources due to high consumption • Urban areas take up just 2% of the earth’s surface but consumes about 75% of industrial wood. • 60% of the water withdrawn for human use goes to urban areas and about half of that to irrigate food crops for urban residents, roughly one-third for use by industry, and the remainder for drinking and sanitation.

 Thus, urban areas claim the ecological output and life-support functions of both nearby areas as well as distant regions  The extent of urban environmental impact increases not only as population grows but also as per capita demand for resources rises, both from industries and consumers  Overuse, degradation and depletion of natural resources are common outcomes of urbanization (Heavy Ecological Footprint).

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Population rise & Urban areas  Poor living conditions: •

Fulfillment of basic needs in terms of housing and services

•

Pollution and environmental degradation

•

Jobs and opportunities

•

Inadequate social and public utilities

•

Lacks in provision of infrastructure facilities

•

Overuse of resources

 Urban poor - most vulnerable group (low affordability)

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Development of urban areas Living in urban areas become: 1.

2.

Stress on natural resources

Poor living conditions

Unhealthy

Unsafe

Stressful

 Development of urban areas should be such that it does not impose unsustainable demands on natural resources, ecosystems & global cycles. CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Development of urban areas Environmental goals for cities:

 Healthy living & working environment

 Adequate provision of basic services like water supply, sewerage network, efficient solid waste collection, roads etc. necessary for healthy living conditions

 An ecologically sustainable relationship between the demands of consumers and businesses and the resources, waste sinks and ecosystems on which they draw.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Development of urban areas For achieving these goals:

City’s economy

City’s built-form

Physical environment

Biological environment

(soil, water resources, climate)

(flora and fauna)

 Reducing environmental hazards

 Checking depletion of environmental capital or resources

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Urban expansion & environmental problems  In developing countries / low income countries, urban expansion has taken place without: •

Increase in needed infrastructure and services for healthy living environment

•

With little or no effective pollution control measure

•

With forms of urban governance which is unable to handle multiple responsibilities

•

Little regards about modification of earth’s surface like changes in natural flow of water, demand on surrounding region for building materials, loss of agricultural / forest land etc.

Population faces high risk of natural or human-induced hazards Scale, Severity & Frequency

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Quality of Urban Environment

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

“This intrusion is DEVELOPMENT, and there is a need to govern it”

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Urbanisation converts land at the rural-urban fringe to uses such as residential development, industries, commercial estates etc.

•

It may affect land which is regarded as an environmental asset, such as remnant bush-land or a well-managed private holding, or which is economically valuable with agricultural or mineral potential.

•

Land at the rural-urban fringe is also used for activities that service the adjacent urban area, such as waste disposal or gravel extraction.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Irrespective of being aware about the fact, more and more land area is put to urban use.

•

We forget that for urbanisation, Man is dependent on Environment.

•

Human activities at various times has involved a good deal of irrational behaviour.

•

With increasing intensity of urbanisation, human society has adapted environing nature and has made all kinds of incursions into it

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

The Almeria province of southern Spain has undergone massive and rapid agricultural change.

Aerial Image source: B.B.C and UNEP

In 1974 the landscape is one of traditional farmland but by 2000 a huge area has been covered by greenhouses for the mass production of market produce. CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Iguazú National Park, located in Argentina near its borders with Brazil and Paraguay, contains remnants of highly endangered rain forest. Aerial Image source: B.B.C and UNEP

These images clearly show how protecting an area can halt encroaching deforestation.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Destruction of natural resources

Deforestation CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Industrialisation

Real Estate Development CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Expanding cities Prof. Rutool Sharma

Poor living conditions

Natural resource degradation CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Pollution Prof. Rutool Sharma

Disasters

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Represents health and hygiene level in the city

•

Indicates the Quality of life in the city

•

Is a decisive factor in creating image of the city

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Limited resources

•

Apathetic attitude of citizens towards cleanliness of the city

•

Urban development mechanisms and urban management systems in India encourages problems

“Sanitation infrastructure is inadequate in almost all cities in India” CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Pollution (Air, Water, Noise, Solid waste, land)

 Releasing products like waste, waste water etc.

 Depletion of natural resources (water bodies, natural drainage pattern, vegetation)

 Health and hygiene

 Urban land is increasingly scarce

 Population densities CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Key Environmental problems

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Classification – Home, Workplace, Neighbourhood and City

 Key Environmental problems: •

Disease causing agents or pollutants in the human environment (air, water, soil, food) which can damage human health

•

Shortages of natural resources essential to human health

•

Physical hazards (accidental fires, flooding, mudslides etc)

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Health problems associated with inadequate water supply & sanitation •

Lack of availability of water, sewers, drainage, waste collection and basic measures for disease prevention / health care, may result in health related problems

•

Linkage between water and sanitation is very crucial

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Inadequate provision of water •

Piped water supply – major problem in urban areas, hence the urban dwellers have to use other alternatives (rivers, ponds, nallas, purchase water) which may be contaminated

•

Quantity of water available and its related price to be paid is an important factor

•

Individual connection vs. group connections (well or stand post) – time consuming, shortage of taps, low water pressure, queues, extra burden to fill water, source of tension and fight

•

Individual connection / Piped supply (so called adequately served) – water conservation measures may be floated by the authority so availability of water may be reduced drastically, low per capita supply, low pressure, water contamination due to flow of waste water into water supply lines, purchase water from vendors, development of alternative sources such as borewells thus depleting ground water

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Sanitation •

Majority of the waterborne diseases are excreta-related

•

Priority to provide sanitation infrastructure is much lower than water infrastructure – creates problematic situation

•

Hygienic means of disposal is not available – very low coverage of sewerage system

•

Sanitation facilities for urban poor are generally not available or are often allotted on shared basis. Problems associated with toilets on shared basis w.r.t to accountability and at times are ultimately not used. Also availability of water for cleaning the toilets is also a question.

•

‘Pay and use’ public toilets (shared) may not work as it may not be affordable depending on the family size and amount to be paid.

•

Only option - open defecation. Problem for female. Also open areas are becoming scarce due to rapid urbanization.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Hence it is not only important to provide •

Improved water and sanitation in order to influence the control of various diseases, but also

•

Level of service w.r.t water quality / quantity / convenient supply and provision for disposal of excreta and waste water is equally important for maintaining health and hygiene.

 Overcrowding - Transmission of diseases

 Food borne and food related diseases

 Accidents in the home – injury / death

 Indoor air pollution – use of stoves, lack of ventilation & burning of coal, wood, biomass CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Sites were the houses are located are also critical  Four problems: dangerous sites, no collection of household refuse, disease vectors and inadequate provision for drainage and other forms of infrastructure

 House sites (Hazardous land site) •

Natural hazards – on steep slopes, flood plains, desert land (generally illegal houses)

•

Risks for human activities – around solid waste dumps, open drains / sewers or close to quarries or factories with high levels of air pollution (illegal or legal residential areas, but low income)

•

Combination of the two: close to airports or highways (illegal or legal residential areas, but low income)

•

Lack of provision of public spaces like open areas, playgrounds, social amenties – affects youth and children

•

People living near such sites are generally not aware about the risks / danger

•

Such sites often lack infrastructure facilities

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Waste Solid waste •

Inadequate or no collection – lack of funding, equipments, manpower etc.

•

Household dump waste on roads, open plots, ditches, lakes etc – leading to problems like blocking of roads, smell, disease vectors, pests, clogging of drainage channels and overflowing of these channels etc.

Sewerage •

Deficient provision of sanitation facilities and network – households dispose toilet waste into drains. When drains overflow the waste is spread across the site.

•

Provision of septic tanks is also very common in new developing areas or areas without network support by ULBs. Problems arise when the septic tank is full or any kind of leakage occurs.

•

Health hazard, food contamination, fire hazard, burning of waste leads to air pollution, generation of leachate from decomposting waste can contaminate local water sources.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Disease vectors / insects •

Many vectors live, breed or feed within or around houses and settlements

•

May cause ill health or premature death – disease they carry or cause

•

Diseases may be infectious and contagious, may spread wide like an epidemic

•

Urban expansion may also change local ecology in ways that favour the emergence or multiplication of particular disease vectors / insects.

 Drainage •

Removal of unwanted water

•

Stagnant water may act as a breeding place for several vectors or insects

•

Helps to prevent waste water from contaminating local surface water bodies or shallow aquifers

•

Helps in reducing human exposure to excreta

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Air pollution

 Water pollution

 Noise pollution

 Industrial pollution

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Pollution: Degradation of quality due to the presence of various contaminants. Any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in such concentration that can produce undesirable effects on man and his environment.

Environmental Pollution: An undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of the air, water or land that can harmfully affect health, survival or activities of human or other living organisms.



Pollution occurs when the environment becomes overloaded beyond the capacity of the normal processing systems.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

As we step outside our house, we notice several common air polluting sources: • • • • •

smoke from the exhaust vehicles; smoke billowing from a factory chimney; speeding cars causing dust to rise from the roads; burning of solid waste and even someone smoking a cigarette

Other natural phenomena are also responsible for air pollution: • •

eruption of a volcano forest fires

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Air Pollutants: Substances responsible for causing air pollution Present in air as solid particles or gaseous form

• Primary pollutants: Pollutants emitted directly from (identifiable) sources and mix with air

• Secondary pollutants: Some pollutants may react with one another or with the basic components of air to form new pollutants called Secondary pollutants

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Natural • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Volcanoes Forest fires Sulphur springs Spray from the ocean Natural geysers Deflation of sands & dust Natural organic & inorganic decays Vegetative decays Marsh gases Extra terrestrial bodies Cosmic dust Pollen grains of flowers Soil debris Fungal spores Photochemical reactions

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Man-made • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Domestic burning of wood Burning of fossil fuel Industrialisation Agricultural activities Vehicular emissions Air craft Wars Nuclear tests Deforestation Incineration Power generation Mining Metallurgy Waste treatment plants Refrigeration industries

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Specific pollutants causing health effects: Sulphur dioxide, Carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, Hydrogen Sulphide, Ozone, Lead, Fluorides, Hydrocarbon vapours, Carcinogenic agents, Insecticides, Radioactive isotopes

 Effect of air pollution on animals & plants

 Effects on art treasure / archeological structures

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Prime factors affecting human health in terms of Air pollution are: 1.

Nature of pollutants

2.

Concentration of pollutants

3.

Duration of exposure

4.

State of health of receptor

5.

Age group of receptor

•

Generates objectionable odor and reduces visibility

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Eye, nose, throat and respiratory tract irritation

•

Odor nuisance mercaptans)

•

Increase in mortality rate

•

Asthmatic attacks

•

Chronic-pulmonary diseases

•

Increases stress on people suffering from cardio-vascular/pulmonary diseases

•

Hydrogen fluoride causes disease of bone and mottling of teeth

•

Carcinogenic agents cause cancer

•

Dust particles cause respiratory disease

•

Heavy metals if enter lungs may cause poisoning

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

(gases

like

hydrogen

sulphide,

ammonia

and

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Pollutants

Effects

Particulate Matter • Respiratory problems, toxic effects on man, materials, plants and animals. (PM) • Dust coating on leaves reduces photosynthesis and reduce plant growth

Oxides of Nitrogen • NO (Nitric Oxide) and NO2 (Nitrogen Dioxide) cause adverse affect on health • Nitrogen dioxide is known to cause occupation disease • It is estimated that eye and nasal irritation will be observed after exposure to about 15 ppm of nitrogen dioxide and pulmonary discomfort after brief exposures to 25 ppm of nitrogen dioxide • Children – more susceptible to respiratory diseases (specially during winters) • Causes smog and acid rain Sulfur Dioxide (SO2 )

• Sulphur trioxide is very irritant • Much stronger than Sulphur dioxide causing severe bronchospasms at elatively low levels of concentrations • SO2, Colourless gas , sharp and pungent order • It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Pollutants

Effects

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood • CO has a strong affinity for combining with hemoglobin of blood to form carboxyhaemoglobin (CoHb) • This reduces the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen to body tissues • It affects the central nervous system, also responsible for heart attacks and high mortality rate • It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and sleepy

Ozone (O3) (Photochemical oxidents)

• • • •

CFCs, Lead & Aldehydes

• When released into the air, CFCs rise to stratosphere. In stratosphere, it comes in contact with few other gases, which leads to reduction of ozone layer (that protects Earth from harmful UV rays of the sun). • Hydrocarbons are believed to cause lung cancer • Lead emitted from automobile exhausts is a cumulative poison and is dangerous particularly to children as it can cause damage to brain. It can cause nervous system damage and digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer. • Aldehydes & acids formed can cause eye, nose and throat irritation

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

High toxic effects -when present within Earth’s atmosphere Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn, and water It lowers our resistance to colds and pneumonia Damage chromosomes of the plant cell

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Integral component of air pollution control

•

Air quality can be evaluated by comparing the data with regulated standards.

•

The analysis is helpful in implementing control measures for reducing air pollution.

•

It provides information on nature and quantities of various pollutants emitted into atmosphere.

•

Air Quality Monitoring: Measurement and Sampling



Measurement: Ambient Air Quality – pollutant levels in ambient atmosphere are measured



Sampling: Stack sampling – Pollutants emitted from source such as smoke stack are measured

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Methods of collection for gaseous pollutants: 1.

Grab Sampling

2.

Adsorption in Liquids

3.

Adsorption on a solid material

4.

Freeze out sampling

Methods of collection of Particulate matter: 1.

Sedimentation (Dust Fall Jar)

2.

High Volume Filtration (HVAS) •

Respirable dust samplers instruments have been used for monitoring total suspended particulate matter (TSPM), Respirable fraction (<10 microns) & gaseous pollutants like SO2 and NOx.

•

Charcoal filled glass tubes is deployed for collection of Carbon monoxide.Gas chromatography techniques have been used for the estimation of CO.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Sr. No.

Parameters

Technique

Technical protocol

Minimum detectable limit (µ g/m3)

1.

Total suspended Respirable dust particulate matter sampler (Gravimetric method)

IS-5182

5.0

2.

Respirable Respirable dust Particulate matter sampler (Gravimetric method)

IS-5182

5.0

3.

Sulfur dioxide

IS-5182

4.0

4.

Oxide of Nitrogen Jacob & Hochheisher

IS-5182

4.0

5.

Carbon Monoxide Gas Chromatography

IS-5182

12.5

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Modified west & gaeke

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Pollutants

Time weighted Industrial area Residential Sensitive area average rural & others (µg/Nm3 ) (µg/Nm3 ) (µg/Nm3 )

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

Annual Average / 24 hours

80/ 120

60/80

15/ 30

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

Annual Average / 24 hours

80/ 120

60/80

15/ 30

Suspended particulate matter (SPM)

Annual Average / 24 hours

360/500

140/200

70/100

Respirable particulate matter (RPM)

Annual Average / 24 hours

120/150

60/100

50/75

8 hours 1 hour

5.0 mg/m3 10.0 mg/m3

2.0 mg/m3 4.0 mg/m3

1.0 mg/m3 2.0 mg/m3

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Source: Central Pollution Control Board CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Emission of air pollutants can be reduced by: 1.

Installing control equipments • Cyclone separator • Venturi scrubber • Electro Static Precipitator (ESP) • Fabric Filters

2.

Making proper changes or modifications in raw materials, operations and system control at the industries or Air Pollution prevention at source.

3.

To abate vehicular air pollution utilization of catalytic converters and clean fuel.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Water pollution is a phenomenon that is characterized by the deterioration of the quality of land water or sea water as a result of human activities. •

It is a global problem

•

Affects both industrialized as well as the developing nations, in rich and poor countries both

•

However the nature of water problems varies from place to place and from country to country

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Oxygen demanding waste (domestic sewage, animal manure, and some industrial waste)

•

Disease causing agents (bacteria, parasites, viruses)

•

Inorganic chemicals and minerals (acids, salts, toxic metals)

•

Organic chemicals (pesticides, plastics, detergents, oil)

•

Plant nutrients (nitrates and phosphates)

•

Sediments (soils, silt, other solids from land erosion)

•

Radioactive substances

•

Heat (from industralised and power plant cooling water)

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Rapidly degradable (non persistent) • •

Pollutants that can be broken down fairly quickly by natural chemical cycling processess. e.g. domestic sewage, plant nutrients, some synthetic organic chemicals

Slowly degradable (persistent) • •

Pollutants remain for long periods of time but are eventually broken down or reduced to harmless levels by natural process. e.g. radioisotopes, DDT

Non-degradable • •

Pollutants not broken down by natural purifying processes. e.g. metals like mercury, lead and arsenic

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Point sources • •

Non-point sources

Sewage treatment plants;

• Runoff of sediments from natural and human caused forest fires, Storm water runofff from combined construction, logging, farming; line;

•

Industrial plants;

•

Animal feedlots

• Runoff of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, saline irrigation water from croplands; • Urban storm water runoff; • Drainage of acids, minerals, sediments from active or abandoned mines; • Spills of oils and other hazardous materials

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Specific pollutants causing health effects •

Water borne infectious diseases

 Effect of air pollution on animals & plants • • • •

Nutrient pollution Chemical contamination Marine debris Thermal pollution

 Cost to ULBs / Consumers •

Treating polluted water

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Parameter

Effects

Temperature

• Some aquatic organism die due to increased temperature • Biological activities increases with increase in temperature

pH

• If pH < 7 , tuberculation and corrosion will be caused • If pH > 7 , difficulty in chlorination, sediments deposits and physiological effects on human will be taken place

Turbidity

• Cause reduction in transparency of water

Dissolved Oxygen

• Warm water fish requires a minimum DO level of at least 5 mg/l • If DO level drops below the level then aquatic system is classified as polluted

Biological Oxygen Demand

• When the BOD value reached 5 mg/l the water is of doubtful purity

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Parameter

Effects

Flouride

• Higher concentration of fluoride cause, respiratory diseases, dental and skeletal fluorosis, gastro intestinal and dental problems.

Total Dissolved Solids

• Settling down the suspended particles suffocate the organisms inhabiting the bottom of the aquatic habitats • Erosion of pumping equipments and power turbines • Causes problems related to gasto intestinal and kidney in human

Metals

• • • •

Hardness

• Results in scaling and even busting of boilers and hot water pipes through which it passes

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Mercury – Foetal disorders Arsenic – Lung cancer , kidney damage, mental disorder Cadmiun - Kidney damage, injury to CNS Copper – Hypertension

Prof. Rutool Sharma



Used for water pollution control



Water Quality Monitoring: - Measurement - Sampling



Methods for sampling: •

Grab sampling: Shows only the prevailing condition at the time of sampling and cannot represent average condition

•

Composite sampling: Provide more meaningful data when the compostion of the waste varies with either time or flow

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Parameters

Sample collection

Size of sample

Storage / Preservation

PH

Grab sampling - plastic/ glass container

50 ml

On-site analysis

Conductivity

Grab sampling - plastic/ glass container

50 ml

On-site analysis

Total suspended solids

Grab sampling - plastic/ glass container

50 ml

Refrigeration - can be stored for 7 days

Total dissolved solids

Grab sampling - plastic/ glass container

100 ml

Refrigeration - can be stored for 7 days

Wide mouth glass container

500 ml

Add HCL to pH>2, refrigeration - can be stored for 28 days

BOD

Grab sampling - plastic/ glass container

500 ml

Refrigeration -can be stored for 48 hrs

COD

Grab sampling - plastic/ glass container

100 ml

Residual chlorine

Grab sampling - plastic/ glass container

50 ml

Add Sulphuric acid to pH<2, refrigeration - can be stored for 28 days. On site analysis

Hardness

Grab sampling - plastic/ glass container

100 ml

Add Nitric acid to pH<2, refrigeration -can be stored for 6 months

Chlorides

Grab sampling - plastic/ glass container

50 ml

Not required , 28 days

Sulphates

Grab sampling - plastic/ glass container

100 ml

Refrigeration, 28 days

Oil & Grease

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Parameters

Sample collection

Size of sample

Storage / Preservation

Sodium , Potassium

Plastic container

100 ml

Not required , 6 months

Nitrates

Plastic container

100 ml

Refrigeration , 48 hrs

Fluorides

Plastic container only

100 ml

Not required , 28 days

Alkalinity

Plastic/ glass container

100 ml

Refrigeration, 14 days

Ammonia

plastic/ glass container

100 ml

Add sulphuric acid to pH >2, refrigeration can be stored for 28 days

Hexavalent chromium

Plastic / glass rinse with 1+1 nitric acid

100 ml

Grab sample, refrigeration, 24 hrs

Heavy metals (Mercury-Hg, cadmium-Cd, chromium-Cr, Copper-Cu, Fe, zinc, Pb etc.)

Plastic/ glass rinse with 1+1 nitric acid

100 ml

Filter, Add nitric acid to pH>2;grab sample, 6 months.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Parameters

Method

pH Colour Temperature Dissolved Oxygen , BOD

pH meter Comparison with standard colour solution Thermometer DO analyzer, winkler-sodium azide modification

COD Conductivity Turbidity Chlorides Fluorides Phosphates Total kjeldahl nitrogen Total Dissolved solids , Total Suspended Solids

Open reflux Conductivity meter Turbidity meter Argentometric method Spands photometric method Molybdenum blue, Colourimetric method Kjeldahl distillation Gravimetric method

Total hardness Sulphates Arsenic Calcium, Magnesium , Sodium, Potassium Manganese, Boron Coliform organisms Total Organic carbon Pesticides Acidity, Alkalinity Residual chlorine

EDTA Titrimetric method Gravimetric / turbidimetric Silver diethyl dithiocarbonate EDTA Titrimetric method Flame photometric method Colourimetric method MPN test Ultraviolet oxidation GLC Titrimetric method Iodometric

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma



Inland Surface Water IS : 3307



Indian Standards / specifications for drinking water IS:10500-1991



Indian Standards For Industrial and Sewage Effluents Discharge IS : 2490-1982



World Health Organisation (WHO)



United States Public Health Services (USPHS)

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Characteristics

Highest desirable level

Maximum permissible level

Colour (hazen units)

5.0

25.0

Odour

Non disagreeable

Non disagreeable

Taste

Non disagreeable

Non disagreeable

Turbidity , Jtu

5.0

25.0

Dissolved solids , mg/l

500.0

1500.0

PH

7.0-8.5

6.5-9.2

Total hardness as CaCO3 , mg/l

300.0

600.0

Calcium (Ca), mg/l

75.0

200.0

Magnesium (as Mg), mg/l

Copper (as Cu) , mg/l

Not more than 50 mg/l if, there are 200 mg/l of Sulphate, if there is Sulphate, magnesium up to 100 mg/l may be allowed at the rate of 1 mg/l of Mg for every 4 mg/l of decrease in Sulphate. 0.05 1.5

Iron (as Fe) ,mg/l

0.3

1.0

Manganese (as Mn) , mg/l

0.1

1.5

Chlorides , mg/l

200.0

1000.0

Sulphate , mg/l

200.0

400.0

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Characteristics

Highest desirable level

Maximum permissible level

Nitrates (as NO3) , mg/l

20.0

50.0

Fluoride, mg/l

1.0

1.5

0.001

0.002

Mercury (as Hg) , mg/l

-

0.0001

Cadmium (as Cd) , mg/l

-

0.01

Selenium (as Se) , mg/l

-

0.01

Arsenic (as As), mg/l

-

0.05

Cyanides (as Cn), mg/l

-

-

Lead (as Pb) , ,g/l

-

0.10

Radioactive Materials 1. Alpha emitters , pci/l 2. Beta emitters , pci/l

-

3.0 30.0

Phenolic compounds , mg/l

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

• • • •

Primary treatment Pretreatment Sedimentation Flotation

• • • •

Secondary treatment Activated Sludge process Trickling filters Sludge treatment and disposal

•

Advanced treatment

•

Removal of suspended solids

•

Removal of Dissolved solids

•

Ion exchange , RO , Electrolysis, Solvent Extraction

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Soil is a natural layer on the surface of the earth  It is the environment for plant root system and soil organisms  Provides water and mineral salts to plants  Role of soil •

forms part of natural and artificial environment and by joining the spheres of air and water it is one of the ecosystem constituents along with the community of living organisms.

•

It is merely a physical receptor of matter and energy flows reaching Earth’s surface, transforming and partly storing them

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Fertility of soil is considered to be an important indicator to measure soil pollution

•

Unlike (polluted) water and air, dilution and purification of (polluted) land is difficult and cannot reduce the danger of damage.

•

Soil by its fertility – contributes not only to the existence of vegetation and fauna living on it but also to the welfare of humanity

•

Intensive cultivation of crops, mechanization and the application of various chemicals, irrigation and drainage works reduce soil fertility.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Agriculture: Accumulation of manures; Excessive input of chemical fertilizers and pesticides; Plant remains, processing waste, animal waste

•

Mining & Quarrying: Using explosives to blow mines; Using of machineries which emit toxic bye-products and leaks to the ground

•

Sewage sludge: improper sanitation system

•

Dredged spoils: improper method of dredging at fertile land causes soil infertility

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Household waste: Improper waste disposal system

•

Demolition and construction: Non-biodegradable rubbles or debris

•

Industrial: Disposal of flyash and other industrial solid waste produced from industries

•

Medical waste: Bio-medical waste; Waste like needles, bandages, syringes, etc.

•

E-waste: Waste due to disposal of used electronic items like computers, mobile phones etc.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Land degradation - decreased soil fertility and hence crop yield

•

Increases soil erosion

•

Loss in soil fertility

•

If heavy metals are deposited in soil due to pollution from some industries, the metals might get transferred to water and air and damage them

•

Also disturbs the bio-geo-chemical cycle and energy flow in the ecosystem

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

In scientific terms, noise (or sound) is a pressure oscillation in the air or water or any medium which conducts and travels (radiates) away from the source.

•

Noise pollution has not been an entirely new phenomenon, but has been a problem that has been growing steadily worse with time due to increasing population, urbanization, industrialization and technological changes.

•

Noise pollution may occur – Indoor / Outdoor

•

Unlike air and water pollution, Noise does not remain in environment for a long time, as it has - short residence, and decay time

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Industrial sources

•

Non-industrial sources a.

Loudspeakers

b.

Automobiles

c.

Trains

d.

Aircrafts

e.

Construction work

f.

Projection of satellite in space

g.

Radio, Microphones, tape recorders, music systems, etc.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Source of noise pollution can be immediately removed or controlled

•

Effects of noise pollution are not extremely fatal in comparison to air pollution or water pollution

•

It is not so serious kind to pollution as its effect is for short duration and impact on human health is not fatal.

•

It is local in nature of occurrence and its spread

•

Does not contain harmful substances or toxic matter

•

Noise pollution cannot be fatal, if not treated properly

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Physiological effects: Speeding up of pulse and respiratory rates, impair hearing either permanently or temporary, can cause heart attacks in individuals with existing cardiac injury, Continuous exposure to loud noise could cause chronic effects as hypertension or ulcers and deafness

•

Psychological effects: Annoyance, impair performance, causes tension in muscles, nervous irritability and strain

•

Behavioral effects: Irritation, headache

•

Personological effects: Cause stable maladaptive reactions which disturbs his personality makeup

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Research says – that access to noise levels in excess of 90 decibels for continuous period may cause loss of hearing

•

Single exposure to 150 decibels of noise – can cause permanent injury to ear’s internal mechanism

•

Constant exposure to 110 to 120 decibels can produce narrowing of vision, vertigo and distruption of equilibrium in the unborn baby

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

On Non-living things •

Buildings – cracks develop due to sudden loud like

•

Indirect impacts – affects value of property (e.g. airports)

On Environment •

Major impacts on animals and birds

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

• •

Measurement: Properties of sound: – Intensity – Frequency

•

Unit of measurement of intensity is decibel (db)

•

The human ear is known to be sensitive to sound waves in the frequency range of 20 HZ to 20000 HZ

•

Sound Level Meters used to measure the frequency of noise

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Up to 23 db : No disturbance

•

30-60 db : Stress, tension,illness,heart attack

•

60-90 db : Damage to health,high blood pressure,sleep interference

•

60-120 db : Damage to health and ear diseases

•

> 120 db : Painful effects in long run

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Area code

Category of areas

Limits Day time (db)

Night time (db)

A

Industrial area

75

70

B

Commercial area

65

55

C

Residential area

55

45

D

Silence zone

50

40

Daytime is reckoned in between 6 a.m & 9 p.m • Nighttime is reckoned in between 9 p.m and 6 a.m • Silence zone is defined as area upto 100 m around such premises as hospital, educational institutes & courts • Mixed categories of areas should be declared as one of the four above mentioned categories

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma



Control at receiver’s end • People working in noisy environment, ear protection aids like ear plugs, ear muffs, noise helmets, headphones etc must be provided



Suppression of noise at source • Proper lubrication and better maintenance of machines • Designing, fabricating and using quieter machines to replace the noisy ones • Installing noise machines in sound proof chambers • Using glass wool or mineral wool covered with a sheet of perforated metal for the purpose of mechanical protection • Covering noise producing machine parts with sound absorbing materials to check noise production • Using silencers to control noise from automobiles, ducts, exhausts etc

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma



Acoustic zoning • Increased distance between source and receiver by zoning of noisy industrial area, bus terminals , railway station, air ports etc away from the residential area • There should be silence zones near the residential area, hospitals, education institutions



Planting of trees • Planting green trees and shrubs along roads, hospitals, educational buildings



Sound insulation and construction stages • Acoustical tiles, perforated plywood etc can be fixed on walls, ceiling, floors etc to reduce noise



Legislative Measures • Minimum use of loud speakers and amplifers • Banning pressure horns in automobiles • Framing a separate noise pollution act • Noise Pollution (Control and Regulation) Rules, 1998 (Amended in 2000)

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Excess or obtrusive light created by humans.

•

Light pollution (also known as photo-pollution, luminous pollution) refers to light that people find annoying, wasteful or harmful.

•

Light pollution is caused by excessive, misdirected outdoor lighting. Light pollution threatens to destroy most casual star-gazing.

• -

It can be construed to have two main branches: Annoying light that intrudes on an otherwise natural or low light setting Excessive light, generally indoors, that leads to worker discomfort and adverse health effects.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Light Trespass •

Occurs when unwanted light enters one's property

•

A common light trespass problem occurs when a strong light enters the window of one's home from outside, causing problems such as Sleep deprivation

Over illumination •

Excessive use of light

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Glare •

Glare is the result of excessive contrast between bright and dark areas in the field of view

•

Caused by high contrast between light and dark areas, glare can also make it difficult for the human eye to adjust to the differences in brightness

Sky glow •

Sky glow refers to the "glow" effect that can be seen over populated areas

•

It is the term used to describe the glow that emanates outwards and upwards from cities, towns and villages from all types of lights combined, e.g., street lights, security lights, advertising, sports facilities, etc.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/images/content/94112main_flat_earth_nightm.jpg

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Light Pollution due to lighting of a Stadium

Light Pollution in London

Light Pollution in Edinburgh

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Building exterior and interior lighting

•

Advertising

•

Commercial properties

•

Offices

•

Factories

•

Street lights

•

Sporting venues

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

•

Effects on human health: increased headache, incidence, worker fatigue, stress, increase in anxiety

•

Wastage of energy

•

Disruption of ecosystems: Migrating birds can be disoriented by lights on tall structures (FLAP – Fatal Light Awareness Programme),

•

Safety related issues

•

Obstructs the view of stars at nights (Dark Sky Movement, http://www.britastro.org – The Campaign for Dark Skies)

•

Interferes with astronomical observations

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Case study: Jetpur, Gujarat Example highlights that how serious industrial pollution can be even in small towns Jetpur - small town (30000 population, 1991 census) Many vectors live, breed or feed within or around houses and settlements Very successful for dyeing and printing saris, with approximately 1200 units and another 400-500 ancillary industries These industries are highly polluting industries, but there was negligible pollution control by the people or by the authority Resulted in – local river (Bhadar) and ground water are heavily polluted The residents of the town of Dhoraji (16km downstream) of Jetpur have been complaining about the pollution of their river by the industries for nearly 30 years. CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Case study: Bamenda by Acho-Chi, Cameroon Range of environmental problems are evident in this rapidly growing city Population expanded more than 10-fold between 1965 and 1993 to reach 270,000 Human settlement have expanded up on hill slopes and wetlands as the land is very cheap (urban district land can be 300 to 400 times more costly) However it is difficult and expensive to build stable safe home at these locations Around 20% of Bamenda’s population live in flood plains and 7% in informal settlements on steep slopes Inadequate water supply, sanitation, schools, health facilities, roads and drainage CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Case study: Bamenda by Acho-Chi, Cameroon Land clearance for settlement and for quarrying and sand mining alongwith other landuse changes caused by urban expansion have created serious problems of soil erosion (soil that is washed down the hills blocking drainage channels and changing peak water flow). This has increased problems related to floods Unregulated urbanization is the cause of these situation Also due to low capacity and skills of local authority and economic crisis, the solution to these problems seems difficult

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Impacts of cities at various scales

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Cities transform environments and landscapes not only within the city limits / built-up areas but also for considerable distance around them

 Leads to environmental impacts in the region around the city i.e. rural area around the city

 The inhabitants, environment and natural resource base of this wider region are usually affected by:  Expansion - bring transformations like resurfacing of land surfaces; filling up of valleys and swamps; extraction of clay, sand, gravel etc.; tapping of water sources like ground water, rivers, lakes etc.  Demand - products of forests, rangelands, farmlands, watersheds or aquatic ecosystems that are outside its boundaries  Diseases generated within city – transferred to the region around it which have environmental impacts

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Cities regional impacts and urban-rural interactions

 Cities and the global commons

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Physical expansion of city  Absence of effective landuse plan or other development control mechanisms, cities expand haphazardly (based on where households, residential area, industries, enterprises, public sector – legally or illegally locate)

 Hence this immediate hinterland around the city doesnot have any particular characteristics, i.e. not urban, not rural or sub-urban

 In a ‘metropolitan city’, much of these surrounding hinterland may fall within metropolitan boundary.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Physical expansion of city  Change in landuse – Agriculture area surrounding the city may disappear or decline as the land is generally bought by people or companies – ‘speculative investment’. There is a lack of effective control over such changes in landuse or on the profits that can be made.

 Patchwork of different development – due to unplanned and uncontrolled city expansion i.e. business or high density residential development, interspersed with land that remains undeveloped. Such development occur in adhoc manner (legally or illegally) due to personal interest of some specific group of people.

 Absence of city-wide plan – responsibility of an individual ULB in terms of landuse planning and development control regulations. This is an individual effort and there is no co-ordination between them. This results in unbalanced development. For e.g. some city may relax certain controls to attract more investments / industries. The question about what happens to the joint resources between the ULBs still remain. CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Physical expansion of city  Social and environmental consequences – soil erosion, alteration in contours causing flooding, segregation of low income groups, shortage of infrastructure services, etc.

 Loss of natural resources – sites of ecological value or importance like forest, waterbodies, fertile land etc.

 Disruption in agricultural production and livelihood of those dependent on this area – due to urban land market. Conflicts in landuse priorities between urban-based demand and ecological services. These conflicts generally involve social conflicts too.

 Destruction of natural landscapes

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Inputs into urban areas – the demand of resources  Urban-based demand for natural resources – difficult to make a ‘balance sheet’ regarding the environmental (& other) costs and benefits.

 Environmental costs are of major concern in discussion of these topic

 Demand for rural resources (city based enterprises and domestic needs) – limit the availability for rural households

 Individual and community based rural needs are affected e.g. wood, charcoal, common land used for grazing of animals, etc.

 Loss of natural resources in rural areas – deforestation, depletion of freshwater resources (quality and quantity), etc.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Rural-urban interactions  Rural-urban linkage can be positive – environmental and developmental terms  Demand for rural produce from city based enterprises and households can support properous farms and rural settlements. Hence environmental capital is not depleted.  Urban income may be a major source of income in ‘Rural’ households.  Govt. policies to support rural livelihoods and good environmental management can influence the nature and scale of migration into urban areas.  This doesnot mean that the process of urban expansion should be ‘halted’. More people moving to urban areas, means requirement of more land (always a constraint in urban areas). Lower income groups suffer due to overcrowding situations, un-serviced land, illegal developments etc. CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

City outputs – solid, liquid and gaseous wastes  Waste discharge (solid, liquid or gaseous) generated in cities tend to have significant impacts in the surrounding region.

Cities’ ecological impacts  Extent of environmental changes / damage caused due to a urban area may depend upon: urban centres’ size and wealth (resource demand and waste generation) its production base resource endowments of the region around it  Also influenced by quality of environmental management both within urban centre and in region around it.

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Most immediate effects of climate change would be:  Higher global mean temperature  Sea level rise  Changes in weather patterns  Changes in river flow  Changes in evaporation rates  Changes in structure of ecosystem  Changes in frequency and severity of extreme weather conditions such as storms

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Environmental cost bearers or Vulnerable groups

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Generally, in all cities the neighbouhoods with highest risks would be the neighbouhoods with a predominance of low-income groups. Poor quality of houses, overcrowding and access to basic facilities are the common problems  Indoor air quality and income – use of polluting fuels  Transmission of disease – due to overcrowding and bad living conditions  Least provision of open spaces, gardens, playgrounds.  Tendency for polluting industries, waste dumps and waste management facilities to concentrate in low-income neighbourhoods

 Low-income households - exposure to risk is much higher

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Vulnerability to disaster:  Living or working in places at high risk from disasters  Being more affected by the lack of rapid response to the disaster  Being less able to cope with the consequences

Infants and children

Women:  Because of gender relations

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Thank You !!

CEPT University, Ahmedabad

Prof. Rutool Sharma